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JJ
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.1
THE
ANNALS
OF
PHILOSOPHY.
NEW SERIES.
JANUARY TO JUNE, 1825.
VOL. IX.
AND TVENTT-FIFTR TKOM THE VOMKCirCeMEHT.
Hmtfion:
Printed by C. Baldwifh New Bridge^trtc* ;
FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, ANiy JOT,.
'•»•
I •
PATERNOSTER-ROW.
1825.
• • • • • •
.. . • '
• «
4 •
• » - " •
^
TABLE OF CONTENTS,
NUMBER I— JANUARY.
Mr. Colquhoun on the life and Writings of Claude-Louis BerthoIIet. ... i
Mr. Greorgeon the Chloride of Titanium • 18
Mr. South's Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Principal Stars 91
Mr. Gray on the Structure of Pearls^ and on the Chinese Mode of pro-
ducing them of a large Size and regular Form. : •, 27
On the Use of Animal Charcoal as a Flux 30
Col. Beaufoy's Astronomical Observations • 31
On Paratonnerres $9
Mr. Webster's Reply to Dr. Fitton. (With a Plate.) 83
Mr. Thomson on the Discovery of Selenium in the Sulphuric Acid made
from the Pyrites of Anglesey. $%
Mr. Phillips's Reply to Mr. Whipple., 59
Analytical Account of an Explanatory Dictionary of the Apparatus and
Instruments employed in the various Operations of Philosophical and
Experimental Chemistry sQ
Proceedings of the Royal Society 59
Saline Efflorescence upon the Surface of Bricks ^ • 68
Solubility of Oxide of Cobalt in Ammonia. — Cobaltic Acid , , . . . 6q
Composition of Gramet 70
Collection of Minerals- , • , . . . J2
Supports for Minerals before the Blowpipe 73
On the Greology of Snowdon , 74
Is the Level of the Baltic stationary? , 74
New Scientific Books 77
New Patents 78
Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal 79
NUMBER II.— FEBRUARY.
Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings of Claude-Louis BerthoIIet.
(continued) .\: ,\ 81
Sir A; Crichton on the Climate of the Antediluvian Worid^ and its Inde-
pendence of Solar Influence ; and on the Formation of Granite gj
Col. Beaufoy's Meteorological Table kept at Bushey Heath for 18S4 109
Rev.Mr.Emmetton the Mathematical Principles of Chemical Hiilosophy 109
Major Macintosh on some Tumuli near the Falls of Niagara. 132
M. Berzelius on- Fluoric Acid {continued) , \^\
Col. Beaufoy's Astronomical Obsorvaiions ,....• \^\
iv CONTKNTS.
Pi
Dr. Wohler on a peculiar Class of Combinations ]
Mr. Gray on some Species of Shells not taken Notice of by Lamarck .... ]
Mr. Uyj on a new Mineral I
Proceedings of the Royal Society 1
Astronomical Society j,
■ ■ Greolo^ical Society t.
Analysis of the Boletus Sulphureus 1^
Compound of Muriate and Hydrosulphuret of 0»dule of Antiioopy. , . . ^ 1 ^
Composiiion of White Precipitate , • 14
Boron, its Preparation • ••• 11
Action of Alum on Vegetable Blue Colours , .*.... 15
Preparation of Lithia • 15
On Sulpho-iodide of Antimony , 15
Yenite found in the United States. ...» , . 15
IfQcalities of rare Minerals , • . , l a;
English Locality of Metallic Lead , « » 15*
On the mutual Action of two Magnetic Particles in difierent Bodies 154
Hydrophobia ^..., 155
Temperature of the Maximum Density of Water , , . , , 156
Method of accelerating the Distillation of Liquids 15J
New Patents ,,, 1^8
Mr. Howard*s Meteorological Journal , ,,,,, 13Q
NUMBER IIL— MARCH.
|dr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings of Claude-Louis B^rtboUet
(emciudedj.., , ,,.. 161
Mr. Children*s Summary View of the Atomic Theory according to t|ie
Hypothesis adopted by M. Berzelius , . 195
Mr. Stockton's Meteorological Register for 1 824 I94
Dr. Bostock on the Boiling Point of £tlier }g^
Col. Beaufoy*s Astronomical Observations $0Q
Mr. Powell's Remarks on Solar Light and Heat (pantinued) 2Q\
Sir A. Crichton on the Climate of the Antediluvian World, and its Inde-
pendence of Solar Influence ; and on the Formation of Granite (con*
eluded) 207
Prof. Renwick on Torrelite , ilf
Proceedings of the Royal Society ^
m ■ I J |!jinnean Society ..., 2$^
^^ ■■ Astronomical Sqcipty , f$s
Qn the Ingots of Copper obtained vi^ humidd , i^^
^ote on the Presence ofTitanium in Mica ^^
Har motome , . . . .^ ,930
Cadmiferous Sulphuret of Zinc ,. 231
Hpiphuret of Lead and Antimony , 131
CONTENTS. y
The British Ma»eiuo.-»>Mr. Good wyn's Manuscripts Sd9
Important Work on Conchology. # . • •«..»• 933
Electrical Conducting Power of Meltfid JEUsioous Bodies, f , S34
Lectuies on the Phenomena and History x>f Igneous Meteors and
Meteorites. . . • . , »..,,.....,.»,..•, , .,,^ .••.*,,..•«,••,,..,«.. $34
New Scientific Books ,,.••,.., ...•••••• , « , 235
NewPktents ,.r ..,.,•,.«, 235
Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal , *,.,,«,,«» 230
NUMBER IV.— APRIL.
Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations.. .; .. 241
Mr. South*8 Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Principal Stars 258
Mr. Moyle's Meteorological Register for 1 824 264
Prof. Berzelius on the Oxide of Uranium and its Combinations 269
Mr. Whatton on a Safety Hood and Mouth-piece, invented by John
Roberts^ for enabling Persons to enter Apartments in Cases of Fire, to
effect Measures for its early Extinction, and for the Removal of Goods,
Papers, &c 281
M. Chevreul's Chemical Examination of two Specimens of the Soil of the
Cavern of Kuhloch. To which is prefixed an Account of the Cave
from the Reliquiae Diluviapa), ..,.•,....,« 284
Sir H. Davy's Additional Experiments and Observations on Copper
Sheathing , , 297
Mr. Horsfall on Copper Sheathing SOQ
Col. Beaufoy*s Astronomical Observations • 302
Mf. Badams on a Scarlet Sub-chromate of Lead, and its Application to
painting, and Calico Printing ; . . . 308
Proceedings of the Royal Society 8O6
—*—————* Astronomical Society .....>.. SOJ
m Geological Society..., ,,,., 310
■ Medical Society of I^ondon. .,,..... , 812
Condensation of a Mixture of Hydrogen and Oxygen by pulverulent Pia-
tiniim.. 313
Sodal i te , , 314
Notice respecting the Discovery of a Black-lead Mine in Inverness-shire. .315
New Work on Fossils .• . , 315
Qo the Structure of Rice Paper. , , 3|(J
New Scientific Books. , , , , ^I»
New Patents • , . .\ . , . 3^8
^r. Howard's Meteorological Journal » , . , ^. 3m
NUMBER V,r-MAY,
Biography of Baron Abraham Nicolaus Edelcrantz 32 1
Dr. Prout's Description of an Instrument for ascertaining the Specific
Gravity of the Urine in Diabetes and other Diseases 334
}
i
vi CONTENTS.
Mr. Children's Summary View of the Atomic Theory according to the
Hypothesis adopted by M. Berzelius {continued) S3
Col. Beamfoy's Astronomical Observations 35
Mr. Powell's Remarks on Light and Heat from Terrestrial Sources^ and
on the Theory of the Connexion between Light and Heat 35i
Mr. Phillips's Analysis of Tartarized Antimony 37^
Mr. Mill on changing the Residence of Fishes 37£
Rev. Mr. Emmett on the Solar Spots 381
Proceedings of the Royal Society 385
_ Linnean Society 385
._ Astronomical Society 385
.,«—.—_—- Geological Society 387
Cold produced by the Combination of Metals 389
Conversion of Gallic Acid into Ulmin by Oxygen Gas 390
Formic Acid.— Formic Ether S90
Table of the Specific Gravities of several Minerals 39 1
New Scientific Books 397
New Patents ^98
Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal 399
NUMBER VI.— JUNE.
Mr. Powell's Additional Experiments and Remarks on Light and Heat. . 401
Mr.* Gray on some Species o^ Shells not token Notice of by Lamarck.
(concWed), ^
Dr. Henry on the Action of finely divided Platinum on Gaseous Mixtures,
and its Application to their Analysis '♦16
Col. Beaufoy's Astronomical Observations 430
Mr. Gray on the Chemical Composition of Sponges 43 1
On the Red Colour of Crystallized Felspar 435f
Explanation of the Theory of the Barometrical Measurement of Heights. 434
Alphabetical Table of the Weights of Atoms, according to Berzelius 439
Analysis ofthe Safety Lamp; by Sir H. Davy 454
Proceedings of the RoyalSociety 46j
..«...._,— . Geological Society 465
New Scientific Journal 46&
New Magnetic Phenomenon. * 470
Hyiena Caves in Devonshire 470
Quantity of Blood in Animals 471
New Scientific Books 471
New Patents ^'^^
Mr. Howard's Meteorological Journal 473
Index *75
PLATE IN VOL. IX. (New Series.)
Plate. Puge
XXXV.— Geological Sketch of the SE. of England 39
ERRATA.
Page 16, line 6, Jbr again, read he again.
55, 5, firom bottom, Jbr sue ctissolyed, read is dissolved.
70, 23, for silica, read silicate.
75, 50, for 50° 22', read 55° 52'.
76, 18, y&r older, read other.
126, 20, Jbr evaporates, read separates.
155, 28, fbr Hallostrom, read HiOlstrSm.
174, 20, for concluded, read conducted.
2T0, 4, for any, read my.
27T, 46, for liquid. The, read liquid the.
279, . 3, ytwO«160..1, reoifOieO.
321, 31, for Bihsop, read Bishop.
322, 29, for de Alemberti, read d*Alemberti.
324, 33, for Academie, read Academic
329, 29, for President, read present
333, 49, for proportional, read proportioned.
391, 5, /or of chloride, read off chloride.
ANNALS
OF
PHILOSOPHY.
JANUARY, 1825.
Article I.
On the Life and Writings of Claude'Louis Berthollet.
By Mr. Hugh Colquhoun.
Theke are some men whose characters combine those estima^
ble qualities which render them the dehghtof their friends^ with
those splendid talents which destine them to form an era in that
branch of study to which they devote themselves, — men, whose
memories should live from age to age endeared to the cultivators
t>f science, a generous incitement to their ardour as students, and
a bright example to their conduct as philosophers* Such a
friend, and sudi a man of genius, was the subject of this memoir;
nor needs there much of prophecy to pronounce that such, also
shall long be the hallowed memory of Claude-Louis BerthoUet.
He was a man, whose thirst after science was strong in his
earliest youth, and remained unabated during the extended period
of a basy half century. > In all this time, neither the perplexing
subversion of the old system of his favourite study could damp
bis zeal, n^r the revolution in the goverpotent of his countiy
wifthdiuw his attention from the constant pursuit of chemistry*
And it surely yields one a pleasure of no ordinary kindtordkct,
that during tiie fri||htful tempesta which agit^d the political
world throiighottt tne Ufe of this cfaHd of ssiencej we fifd the
sphere of his pursuits to have been jdaced. beyond the reach of
tlie storm ; nor can a greater contrast be imagmed than the even
tenour of his useful life presents to all the baneful changes and
desolating wars that meantime oppressed his country and the
world.
During the long life which BerthoUet thus devoted to science,
he is uniformly found with a pure and disinterested ardour of
research, pressing on from discovery to discovery, and usin^
each new step that he gained, as an instrument of farther and
more powerful research into the hidden relations of nature.
Independent in his opinions, he frequently stands alone in
doubting, or at least in qualifying the most |Hrevdent dogmas oi
Ntiv Series^ vol.. \x. »
2 ilfr. Colquhoun im the life and Writings [Jan»
the day, and these doubts have been changed by subsequent
discovery into certain objections against those theories, now
that their merits are discussed with more cool discrimination.
We must not, however, suppose that Berthollet is always as
correct as he is original, or that his views are as unerring as they
are profound. On the contrary, he is not only wrong sometimes,
but occasionally a little obstinate in his prejudices. In return
for this, however, we find him openly ana manfully renouncing
his adherence to an erroneous opinion the moment that full
conviction has forced itself upon his understanding. And if, in
some cases, his errors were of a longer duration, we need not,
therefore, be surprised, since the amazing ingenuity of his expe-
riments and of his reasoning has oftener than once, in such cir-
cumstances, compelled the whole world of science, for twenty
years together, to yield implicit assent to his doctrines. Nor
was one of his peculiar and most characteristic features the least
honourable to himself, or the least useful to his fellow men. For
he was not one of those profound theoretical speculators, who,
in the energy of their abstraction, forget the practical applica-
tions of which their discoveries are susceptible. Far from this,
Berthollet, while he loved science for itself, also loved to teach
it how to foster the arte. On one occasion in particular, he was
80 eminently original and successful in the substance he enh>
ployed, and the method he pointed out, for improving one of. the
most useful arts, that bis name was given to his system, and by
the common sanction of his countrymen, to perfqrm this process,
was called bertholler^ the workman bertholleur, and the manufac-
tory fcer^Ao/ferie. So that thus, if every other memorial were to
perish, his name would nevertheless be familiar to all his sue*
ceeding countrymen, while the French language continues to
bft a spoken tongue.
Berthollet was not a native of France. That country claims
him alon^ with Cassini, and Winslow, and La Grange, say«
Cuvier,"^ m the Eloge of which Berthollet is the subject, only
at the son of her adoption, and whom it was her glory to foster
and tp cherish. He was born at the family mansion inTalloire,
near Anneoy, in Savoy, on the 9th of Dec. 1748. From this
spot, he made bis first progress into the world, to commence bis
Btudies at Chambery, in prosecution of which he next proceeded
to the College des Provinces at Turin, a celebrated establish*-
ment instituted by Charles Emmanuel III. King of Piedmont,
where many of the distinguished men of talent which that coun-
* The eloquent Eloge Historique de M. le Comte BerthoUet, par M. le Baron
Cd^er, whidi, as perpetual Secretary, he read to the Royal Institute of Paria in June
laftf if iio9rb«finre tlie world, i take this opportunity of paying my tribute to the
dl^wc9 of thfvt J^loge, and of adding, that I have not scrupled, in preparing the mate-
riauT(n tlds hip^praphy, to u^e it &e3y, wheneyer otiber sources seemed dther dsif^tiye,
€^ Mi^ ffhnttocDticMMit
1826.] of Ckuie^Louis BertMlBt. 3
trj^ hsa^ produded^ liave been imbued with their first thjrsi for
•ctetiee.
H^e the young Berthollet attached himself to the study of
medicine, less, it piay be supposed, from any views of intere^
to be gratified in its pursuit, than from that mclination already
powerful, which soon became the master passion of his breast,
for the investigation of those sciences which form the basis of
the school of Hippocrates. He remained no longer at Turiii
th«fi juBt tp take the degrees in his profession, after which
he proceeded to Paris, as 3ie future theatre of his speculatiouB
and pursuits*
His first appearance in thatcs^ital was a singular onf,. wd
the first acquaintance he made is a remarkable proof of the opep
frankness of an honest and independent heart. In that immense
city, Berthollet had not one friend ; he had not events sing]^
introduction to any one. But, at that time, it happened, tSdtt
one of the most distinguished of the medical profession ws«
Tronchin, a native of Geneva ; and the young Savoyard conr
ceived that in Paris he might be claimed as- more than half n
couotryman. On this slender ground of introduction he waited
upon Troachin, and quite contrary to what the manners of tb^
times might have led us to expect, his new-made acqupiintani^fy
prepossessed at first by his frankness and intelligence, grew
gradually more and more attached to him, until intimacy ripened
into firm friendship. Nor did this friend content himself with
mere professions of regard, but soon, by means of his all«powei>
ful influence with the Duke of Orleans, Louis, grandfather of the
present Duke, and then uncle of the reigning king, he procured
for his proteg6 the situation of one of the physicians in ordinc^
to that prince. In this situation, the independent character of
the man, and his attachment to science, appeared. For whilt
others found their way to rank and riches by their assiduity at
Court, Berthollet at once and entirely abandoned himself to t^
prosecutipii of those studies, which continued to* occupy and
engross his whole after life* Let us endeavour to aceoii^>aii.y
him in hi^ resear^ehes by detailing the principal discoveries thai
he made, by stating the various opinions Uiat he maintained,
and by describing tne chief works that he pubUshed, whilst we
occasionally survey the state of science in Europe at the era of
each.
The first essays of M. Berthollet, and his first appearance as
a philosopher, are so intimately connected with the revolution
which the science of chemistry was then undergoing, that it is
impoesible ;to understand the one, or to appreciate the other,
wijQiout ashort view of the leading principles of the old and new
systeois. lHot cmght we to forget, when we find our chemisi:
somewhat obstinittely wedded even to the absurdities of the ^d
school, the lengtli of time during which it had ruled without
b2
Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings £J
cUsputej^ and the number of iDustrious namea which it enro
I among its disciples. Analogy will suggest to every one that
same pbenomena have accompanied each successive revolu
in science, or in philosophy, or in religion, from the daw:
letters in the raiiddle ages down to the present day.
- The radical evil of the ancient system of chemistry, wl
baneful influence pervaded every part of it, was Stahl's doct
oiphlogiiton. When a metal is calcined under contact with
air^ it is gradually converted into an incoherent earthy m
formerly styled a calx. This calx, according to the old sch
is itself a simple substance ; and the metal is a compound of
catx and phlogiston. When a metal, therefore, is calcined,
in their language, is resolved into the calx, its basis, and at
same time it loses some other thing^tmknown, — the ideal p
ciple named phlogiston. To this l^poth^is, the processes
experimenting, as theyimprovedf, furnished an insuperable ob
tion. , When a metal is converted into a calx, or gets rid of J
of its composition, viz. phlogiston, it increases considerabh
weight ; and, on the contrary, when a calx is brought bacl
the metallic state, when it gains its phlogistic constituent
loses precisely the amount of weight which it had previously gau
That is to say, the simple basis, the calx, is heavier than wi
to this same basis there is superadded phlogiston. To i
unprepossessed mind, this objection is fatal to the hypothesis
Stahl ; but men, bred up in any scientific creed, are not so eai
induced to renounce their first belief. And, accordingly, the c
ciples of Phlogiston only declared that this substance is spec
calty light, or has a principle of levity; or to speak more cleai
that it paralyses the action of gravity.
However, the science of chemistry continued to advance, 2
her busy votaries, in every quarter of Europe, by the ardour
their researches, were every day making new and interest!
experiments, the results of which circulated among them w
electric rapidity. It is plain that in such a state of things, a
theory, which every day put to the test, if radically vicious, mu
notwithstanding its weight or prevalence, have its errors at lenj
exposed ; and after a struggle, perhaps severe, be utterly ov
thrown, and for ever discarded. Accordingly, whilst every oti
chemist in Europe, With an obsequiousness unfortunately m(
to be lamented than wondered at, was perplexing his judgme
and even distorting fact itself, in order to adapt the phlogis
theory to the progress of science, Lavoisier felt it every d
more and more impossible to admit its accuracy. The importsi
discoveries of Black, Priestlev, Scheele, Cavendish, and othe
respecting factitious airs, and the phenomena attendant on t
t^alcination of metals, at an early period seemed to him, not c<
rective but subversive of the system of StahL ^ And the proce
adimmfmng by. which he gradually arrived at his results is
1S25.] of Claud&'Lofms Berikoiki. 6
oftce so simple and so conclusive, that one cannot avojd won-
dering, with Cavier, at the modest style which he assumed in
arguing in support of the Antiphlogistic Theory, on the one
hand, and at the confident tone of the obstinate phlogistians on
the other. Lavoisier reasoned nearly as follows :
A metal calcined invariably gatns a considerable increase of
weight » In any ^ven close vessel, only a determinate portion of
metal can be calcined. Heat may be applied to the vessel in
every various degree, and for any length of time : the quantity
of metal which may be calcined within it has nevertheless its
fixed limits, and calcination in such a vessel, once brought to a
period, can never again be renewed. But if the vessel be now
opened for a short time, and a fresh supply of atmospheric air
admitted, the process of calcination may be renewed, and again
carried on, but within the same limits as before. In the open air,
metals may be calcined fo any extent. After calcination in a
clbse vessel, the body of air originally included has lost consider^
abhf in volume and weighty and has changed several of ivs proper*
ties. The increase of weight gained by the metal measures the
exact loss of weight sustained by the air, so that the weight of the
whole remains unaltered. From these premises, Lavoisier con-
cluded, that since the presence of atmospheric air is essential to
criciiiation, since a given quantity of air si^rves to calcine only a
given quantity of metal, and since this prociess invariably trans-
ms a given weight from the air to the metal, calcination must
consist in the absorptioii of a ponderable principle from the air.
Surely no process of reasoning could be more simple — ^no
results seem more inevitable than these ; and just at this time an
experiment made by Dr. Priestley enabled Lavoisier to give an
analytical demonstration of his theory.
when mercury is calcined in a clbse vessel, it is gradually
converted into a red coloured calx : at the sAme time a portion
of the confined air disappears, and the residue is incapable of
contributing to new calcination, or of maintaining either com^
bustion or respiration. If the red calx be now exposed to a
stronger heat in contact with this deteriorated air, the metal and
the air simultaneously assume their original appearance, and
recover their original properties. The phenomena of this expe-
riment at once furnished Lavoisier with the analytical and syn-
thetical tests of his theory, and enabled him to prove that atmo-
spheric air is no element, but a compound substance, of which
one constituent can support combustion and respiration, while
the other cannot.
He next generalized the subject by showing that in all com-^
bnstions, a portion of the atmospheric air combines with the
oombttstible.
There still remained one serious deficit in the proofs of the
fmth of this theory. This arose from a phenomenon attiending
6 Mr. Col^htfUn ^ the Life and Writings \
tkc sotiitton bf metak in Hcids :«^whence restdtB so considl
m qttantit]^ of inflamraaUe air ? If the fiole ooiiBtitudntt 43
phnrio acid» b9 sulphur and o^tygeti^ whence coined it that '^
it is brought into contact with a metal^ with the addition
little water^ so large a quantity of inflammable air should be
duoed during their reaction? This objection^ which at
appeared ui^answerable, was soon converted into a proof ot
theory which it threatened to subvert, by Cavendish's |
discovery of the composition of water. He proved it to fe
longer an element, but formed it by combining its constittK
oxygsii and inflammable air. This experiment was eagerly
hold of by Lavoisier, and repeated by him and his associate
1783# And now Lavoisier's theory was established by
vnbroken chain of reasoning from experiment, connecting
double processes of synthesis and analysis in its support, sac
should have constrained all enlightened chemists to renoi
for ever the ancient system of error.
' This, however, was far from being the case : and the sk<
whidi has just been given of the fundament^ principles of
•Id and new systems of chemistry is necessary on two accoi
HI a life of Berthollet. It is necessary in the first place to unx
statid the errors under which he laboured while yet he remaii
a staunch adherent of the theory of Stahl ; and it is so in
second, to explain the large share which his subsequent reas
iiigs and discoveries had in elucidating and supporting
theory of Lavoisier, after he became fairly convinced of its tru
The first extant memoir of BerthoUet (which appeared in 1
Journal de Physique for 1776), the subject of which is Tartarc
Aoid, seems never to have been laid before the Academy
Sciences. The first which our chemist appears to have subiB
1»d to that learned body, is an essay on Sulphurous Acid, re
in the end of the following year. It is the custom of the A(
demy, it may be here remarked, upon receiving any origlr
memoir, to appoint one or more of their members to exarai
into its merits, and to report on them. Lavoisier was not unft
quently one of those who reported on Berthollet's earli€
memoirs, and. they ali furnish most striking proofs at once oft!
e!fttreme repugnance of the latter to adopt the doctrines of ti
new theory, even when these seemed most necessary to hir
and of the great respect which the former showed even for tl
errors of our chemist, whose genius from the first he fondly ar
tenderly cherished. In this memoir on Sulphurous Acid, whi
BerthoUet is compelled to admit that sulphur during itscombiii
ttonnnites with a portion of atmospheric air, he nevertheless, i
viewing its constitution, most wantonly encumbers and pei
plexes nis explanations with an unsparing use of the phiogisfo
of StahL Lavoisier regarded sulphur as a simple body, salphv
fptts acid fts a compound of that body with a certain d«se c
1^.] JdfCkmdeiLfmhB^fikiU^.
ixtjfg»f and ralphtiiio (M}id as the sane babe umted to a grtattlr
i>nqx>rtioii of the same air^ BetthoUet^ ,&a the other h^id, in
Iiifl Tiew of the GonBtitutioa of Bulphur and its two aoidsy giTtB a
stcikiag specimen of the old school of error driven to extfemity^
and unable either to check the progress of experiment and know«-
ledge^ or to go on with it. Sulphur^ says BerthoUet, is not a
simple body^ but a compound one^ and its constituents, are phlo^
giaton and a base ; sulphuric acid is a compound of phlogiston,
the same base, and vital air or oxygen gas ; and sulphurous acid
is the same base united. to less vitil air than exists m sulphucio
acid, and to less phlogiston than is found in sulphur* If this
complex explanation be deprived of the phlogiston, with so
Urgg a dose of which it is combined, the exposition pf the
nature of sulphur and its acids given by BerthoUet is not really
(Uffeient froto that of Lavoisier. At die same time it is difficult
tp conceive how that chemist could preserve his patience at
seeing theories, otherwise so excellent, wholly spoiled, and
talents which might have been so usefully exerted, whoUy frit^^
tered away by the bigotted support of a system which every
day's experience made less and less defensible, and in defiamce
of asimpleyet ji^st doctrine, of which he had several years before
developed the outlines, and had now nearly completed the
pioofs. Yet, at this time, he stood single in the Academy, and
even BerthoUet, while he admits the Lavoisierian principle of
the ^esenceof oxygen in these acids, cannot rest satisfied until
he confuses and perplexes every thing by superinducing the «rror
neous views of Stanl upon the plainest facts and the simplest
theory.
It seems surprising too, that a man who thought so freely for
himself as Berthollet's whole after life proves him to have done,
8(hould so long have remained attached to the tU-founded system
of Phlogiston. .Yet, independent of the force of prejudice^
which, once deep-seated, rules with most power the strongest
minds, it is no more than justice to BerthoUet to state, that be
himself, in a memoir^ read to the Academy in the beginning of
1776, on the subject of Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas, details the
experiments which became the foundation of a subsequent
material. restriction of the theory of Lavoisier. Of course, even
if the conjecture of Cuvier be correct, that neither BerthoUet
nor Lavoisier at that time saw aU the consequences resulting
from this experiment, yet as the former chemist, in a few years
after, resumed the subject^ and was the first, by many a year, t9
lay down this very Umitation of the doctrine of the latter, it is
fair to suppose that, even at thia time, he must almost d, son
intfUf ha^ felt a powerful, and in this case a well-grounded
prmadice^ against a leading part of the new s^^tem.
(t was unfortunately laid down by Lavoisieri as one j&( his
iondamental principlesi that oxygen constituted the sole foinai^
8^ Mr.Col^iihoimi\tmAe^lAfiaM^W ^am
|de df acidification. In his iBemoir.BeviiioUet shoews iiiat svl-
piniretled hydrogea gas, in which oxygen is not present, never-
theless per^nnt all the Junctions of an acid: and surely it'seems
reasonaDle that a doctrine opposed in toto by every one, sbould
not first be received as generally correct by nim who alooe had
discorered any just grounds for qualifying/ one of its leadii^
pfinciphs. Yet it is strange enough that this very man proved
eventually the first leading chemist who did admit the iust doo
tnnes of the new theory, and it seems stranger still that thxMe
who held out longest against its truths, were also the first to
embrace and defend its errors. But so it was ; for BerthoUet'a
gttbvequent assertion, arguments, and numerous decisive espraEi-
mentSy all proving oxygen not to ccmstitute the sole priDCtple of
aeidifiication, fell for many a year unheeded on the ears ami
understandings of men of science, until the united force of the
fiiets brought forward by Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and Ampere,
joined to the profound and admirable reasoning of Sir H. Bayy,
«t length established the accuracy of this limitation and quadifi-
eatidn of the principles laid down by Lavoisier.
' . in another memour of our chemist, on the Nature of the Vola^
tfle Alkali, presented soon afi^r to the Academy, he announced
a; theory of his own upon the subject, which proceeded upon a
basis altogether erroneous. This essay was entrusted to Lavcfer
sier,' to report upon its merits to the Academy, who, with disi&^
terested tenderness for the honour of his antagonist, dissuaded
him from committing himself by the publication of his system;
and Berthollet's conduct is not less to be admired for the assent
which he immediately yielded to the kindness and to the expe-
rience of his adviser. The memoir was not published. His
reputation was thus not publicly staked in support of any enro~
neous system ; and the stimulus which this very restraint gave
to the ardour of his researches, led him a few years afterwards to
one of his most elegant discoveries, that of the true, nature of
the volatile alkali. It is impossible not to esteem so much gene-
rous co-operation on the part of these two illustrious chemiBts,
eager only for the advancement of science, and opposed as they
then were in many of their views ; yet the younger remaining as
free from distrust of his antagonist's advice, as the elder was
untainted by jealousy of his rival's reputation.
In the subsequent experiments of Berthollet on the decofl^o-
sition of nitre, phenomena presented themselves of so easy an
explanation on the antiphlogidtic system, that it seems astonish-
ing how even prejudice itself could avoid the discovery of the
true composition of nitric acid. At this time, however, Berthollet
was prepossessed against the truth, he clung to the old system, )
and was rewarded accordingly: for the tine discovery, that ^
oxygen and a^ote are the constituents of nitric, acid was thereby ^
reserved for Cavendish. N
it k mmiBcessiaiy,. bowever^ to detail all the sepaisate difficnl-
ties in which Bertholiet was involved in coaunon with the hi^«-
est intellects of Jiis day^from the same cause, that of having the
nuBd previously warped by prejudice. Never was there. a
system which can bear the test of cool unprejudiced exainanflH
tion less than StahFs theory of Phlogiston* That Proteus*
|»i]icmle, which performed the most inconsistent and contradio*
tory ranctions ; sometimes possessed of weight, tangiUe, and
esaly oonfinable by the simplest mechanical means; at other
times, imponderable, invisible, and eluding all the efforts of the
chemist to confine it within the compactest vessels ; at other
iaaaeB, possessing even a principle of levity ;-^he chemical
hktii of the times, sat enthroned on the understandings of aU
men of science. And though nothing was more simple iStiwx
Lavoisier'stwhole process of reasonings while no resi:dt couldbe
more inevitable than his, the leading doctrines of his theory had
been propoimded in 1773, and th^r proofs were nearly complete
in 1777 ; yet they gained no adherent of any note until fo li^
as 1786, when Bertholiet became a convert to the truth of. the
syatetn. . So long preirious to this, however, as 1777^ ym have
seen bim oUiged to admit in his memoir on Sulphurous Acid,
which was afterwards printed in 1782, that sulphur unites with
QH^gen during its combusticm and acidification, aud that it is
heavier in consequence of.it. And in anodier memoir, printed
in the same year, in his • ^^ Researches on the Augmentation q£
Weight which. Sulphur, Phosphorus, and Arsenic sustain, when
they are converted into Acids,^' he employs the same doctrine*
In this latter essay too^ he expressly confirms the observation of
Lavoisier, that any given volume of air is diminished duriae
combustion to an extent, the weight of which is precisely gained
by the combustible. It is in a memoir read by him in 1785, on
the subject of Oxygenized Muriatic Acid, Ihat be made a full and
manly confession of the change which had taken place in his
opinions, and in that very memoir combats Guyton de Morveau,
one of the most illustrious disciples, of the phlogistic school.
Previous to this time, however, M. Berthouet had given to
the world several works, all of the highest scientific merits and
some at ths same time of great practical value. Thus he was
the first person who took an ac^burate view of the constitution of
soaps, in his essay published in 1780, on the Combination of
Oils with Alkalies, Earths, and Metallic Oxides. He therein
showed that soaps are true chemical compounds, analogous in
their nature to salts, and in which the oily princi[>le performs
the part of an acid. He also showed that this principle is capa-
ble cf forming soaps, not merely by combining with the fixed
alkalies, potash and soda, but also with the volatile alkali, with
the alkaline, earths, with the earths proper, with the metallic
10 Mr. CoigfuAoiai on ih^ Life Md Writings (J Aif •
Qiddeiy and in short with every substance which, in combinaUon
with the stronger acids, forms a salt.
. In the same year he published two memoirs, one on the
KsAure of Animal Substances, a subject which he more fully
elticidated afterwards cm the occasion of his brilliant disooveiy
of the composition of ammonia; the other, on Phosphoric Aeid,
in which he succeeded in proving, that this acid exists ready
fbrttied in the animal body, and that it is not a product of
putrefaction, or of the artificial processes employed to separate
it, as was beUeved by some of the most eminent chemists ok the
day.
In 1781 he was elected Member of the Academy of Sciences
it Paris, in preference to the celebrated Foarcroy, Quatrem^e
d'lsjonval, and other competitors. This was oiie of the moat
distinguished learned bodies of which he could be chosen a
member ; and long previous to the close of his life, he had beea
elecited into almost all the celebrated scientific societies in
Europe, who were proud to enrol such a name as that of Ber-
Ihollet among their fellows^
In the year 1784, M. BertboUet again found a competitor in
M. Fourcroy, though the result was a different one. The death
af Macq[uer left the chemical chair at the Jardin du Roi vacant,
and M. jBuffon, Intendant of that Institution, bestowed it oa
Fourcrpy in preference to BerthoUet. It is said that Bufibn's
Vanity was piqued by the idea that the Duke of Orleans, who
supported BerthoUet's interest, had not paid him sufficient court
on the occasion ; but we may well say with Cuvier, that there is
BO need to recur to such a motive for the explanation of the ill
success of BerthoUet^ For if his chemical acquirements and
oHginality of thought procured him the seat in the Academy
before Fourcroy, the fascinating elocution of the latter equally
entitled him to be preferred to the professorial chair, which
immediately tinder bis auspices, engrossed the attention of
crowds of admiring pupils.
Let us not here> nowever, omit to mention, that one of the
situations which had been held by Macquer was at this time
conferred on BerthoUet. He was now appointed Government
Commissary and Superintendant of the Dyeing Processes ; and
it may be supposed that this nomination necessarily turned his
peculiar attention to the study of that useful art, into which he
by and bye introduced so many capital improvements.
The next memoir pubhshed by our chemist appeared two
years after this, on the occasion of his succeeding in discoveting
the mode of obtaining the caustic fixed alkalies in a state of
complete purity. This discovery, although not one of the least
useful, is certainly not one of the most brilliant of those made
by BerthoUet, and ind.ee4 is chiefly rem£U*kable as a proof that
1826.3 of Clmde-Louii BerthoOet. 1 1
eveil at tfaid eArly period he stood pre-emitieilt ftmon^ the
ehemistfs of his day, by his stif^erior acquaintance ^ith th6
r^soarces of analyi^is, and by his greater penetration itt fore*
seeing Ae new applications of which they were susceptlWfe.
Bat although this is not "One of the discoveries which redounds
most to the fame of the individual, it is one which hAs Contri-
buted most materially to the advancement of science. The
pufe caustic alkali has continued ever since that ittomeiit a most
powferfiil instrument in the conduct of almost every department
of analysis, in the animal, the vegetable, or the mineral king-
dom ; and to it we are especially indebted for almost all the
knowledge we possess respecting the constitution of the pre-
cioti6 Btones, and other refractory mineral compounds. • The
greatest eclat does not always attend the most useful improve-
ments»
The year 1785 was on many accounts a remarkable one In the
Hfe of JBerthoUet. In it he had the honour of being the first
French chemist of any note who acceded to the doctrines Of
Lavoisier : in it he gave to the world his brilliant discovery of
the composition of ammonia ; and in the course of the same
year, he published- his first essay on the Nature of Dephlogistt^
dated Marine Acid, or Chlorine, thus entering upoh a fieHTrom
-Which he afterwards reaped so rich a harvest of fame.
The constitution of azote and its combinations had long beerl
a bar to the progress of the Lavoisierian doctrines. Nothing
<5an be more strongly marked than the* difference which fexistS
between the natures of animal and vegetable substance, yet
there was no subject whose investigation proved more difficult
for chemists, than the cause of these distinctions. One of the
firststeps towards' distinguishing these characteristics waS made
by BerthoUet, when, in i780, he showeji that a large proportion
or azote forms an invariable constituent in every animal Bub-
stance. Still, however, the prominent part which azote performs
in chemistry organic and inorganic, long continued an itnpene-
trable mystery, and remained one of the last and most serious
obstacles to rtl6 establishment of Lavoisier's theory. If or need
Ais inystery be wondered at, for at this time neither the com-
position of ammonia nor of nitric acid was known, and water,
which 80 often mingled itself in every analysis, was yet regarded
as an element.
The destructive distillation, or the spontaneous putrefaction of
animal substances, gives invariably as one product a quantity of
the volatile alkali : the same process applied to a vegetable prin-
ciple, as certainly produces a substance of an acid nature.
Bodies belonging to either class, when abandoned to sponttme-
oos decomposition, yield matter which is eminently adapted to
the support of vegetable life ; but in addition to this^ subjects of
the aumal kingdom^ . under certain eircumstattcesi are eharac«
12 Mr. Colquhaun en the Life and Writings [J A N .
temed by venerating a ^eat quantity of nitric acid, during the
progress oi decomposition. In what state of combination^ it
vas vainly asked, do these three singular products, azote, am-
monia, and nitric acid, or their constituents, exist in the animal
body ? It has been already remarked that Uerthollet proved azote
to be an invariable constituent of animal matter : he now pro-
ceeded a step farther by making the famous discovery that
ammonia is a compound of azote and hydrogen. The only
blank remaining to be filled up, with a view to the complete
development of animal nature, was the exploring of the nature
of nitric acid, which was successfully performed by BerthoUet^B
friend. Cavendish, who showed it to consist of oxygen and
asoie*''^ BerthoUet was now enabled to form a completely new,
simple, and satisfactory theory of the constitution of animal
■ttbstance, founded entirely on experiment, and accounting
easily for every appearance which had hitherto embarrassed file
chemist. Animal substances, said he, differ from vegetable, by
conlainine a large proportion of azote as an invariable constitu-
ent. Dunng destructive distillation, or during putrefaction, the
dements of the complex animal principles are disunited, and in
obedience to the new affinities wnich are thus called into action,
mute in new proportions, and form with each other more
simple combinations. The azote, at this time disengaged, has^
a strong tendency to unite with the hydrogen (another invariable
constituent of animal substance), the instant it is set free, and
the product is ammonia. In a situation favourable to the union
of the azote with oxygen, there will also be^a formation of nitric
acid.
Nothing could be more simple — nothing more complete, than
this explanation; and by combining with it the brilliant disco-
very made shortly before by Cavendish, that water is a compound
of oxygen and hydrogen, a lustre was shed abroad upon the
science in every jquarter, illuminating even those regions over
which obscurity had. previously hung her deepest shade. In
almost every department of chemistry, there had till then been
a number, of important facts unexplained, and seemingly
isolated* but wfaioh the intimate relations subsisting between the
composition of 4he8e three substances served at once to eluci-
date and to connect. Chemistry, at this period, was at that
stage of advancement; when an immense mass of facts had been
accumulated, which, however, had no apparent dependence on
each other, but which only required the regard of a masterspirit
to be thrown over them in order at once to appreciate theit* indi-
vidual value, and their mutual relations, to penetrate the general
and uniform laws and principles which govern them all, and lo
* So nmultaneous were these importimt disooveiies in the neigfbbourmgJnngdioiDS,
tluit the private letters of the emuloUs friends, mutually announcing the discovery of
tich, are said to have actuaUy passed each other on the way.
1885.] ofOmd^Lmm BertiiaUet. IS
combine^ them into a simple and weH-'digested whole. Tfaia
undertaking was made practicable after these discovmea . of
B9rthoUet and Cavendish, and the mode in which Lavoisier and
Q^hollet performed it ranks them among the first pbilosophen
of the age.
As BerthoUet was by this time confessedly- one of the very
first, chemists of France, he almost necessarily became one of
those who now undertook to introduce an important reform into
the las^age of that science of which they had completely
changfsd the system. Lavoisier, BerthoUet, Fourcroy, and
Gn^ton de Morveau, combined to plan and organise a. new phi-
Ips^pbical chemical nomenclature. Such, an undertaking liad
Iqng been a great desideratum, of which every day's experience
asadje the necessity more pressing and imperious. After the
important discoveries which had bei^ made, and the many new
v'ww^ which had been introduced into* the science, it beciane*a
matter of very great dilficulty to describe the one or to explain
the other in a language which had a'Oonitant i»leren^ to the
phlogistic system. For Lavoisier andixis'oonfi^eralea, this was
wholly impossible, since the basis of tiiie new« system ras4edoft
the subversion of the old. They accordragly set aboutaiadftcal
reform where no palliative measures could be available, amti^
a£(^r all the changes they effected, and all the improvements
they introduced, by their ^' Methodical Nomenclatare,'' tbisre
sbquld still be discovered not a few omissions and anomaHesy
any feeling of regret that they did not do more should be
absorbed in the gratitude that is justly due to them for having
done so much. . .
Indeed it would be difficult to point out how even men so
gifted as they were could have employed their talents in a man*
ner move beneficial. to science, than m the construction of this
new language. . The imagination can hardly conceive a more
barbarous, repulsive, unmeaning chaos, than Ihe ohemijcal
nomenclature bad for more than a centiary presented. It was
founded by Stahl in 1720, and it is easy to suppose how Uttle
the first attempt at methodising chemical facts, made in the
y^y- infancy ot the science, would suit the rapid progress oi
discovery which characterised the 18th century. It retained
not a few of the unintelligible terms of the alchemist, and more-
over was adapted to the system of Phlogiston, so as to be wholly
void of meaning when detached from it. Thus the access to
knowledge was rendered unnecessarily thorny and difficulty
while the initiated found the science itself proportionally less
advanced. Nothing could be more wildly arbitrary than the
names then affixed to the various chemical bodies, forming a
jargon in which men and gods, beasts, fish, and fowl, and things
of the inanimate creation, all found a namesake which the inven-
14 Mr. Colquhmm an tht L^e and Writings {iTM •
tarintaided abct)rdiQg to his Taryiag whim; now %a a coiaHi}i»*
metit to heaven, and now aa a ma^ of regard for aught tafNt
struck his fancy in or upon the earth. Nay it would .aeemtbftt
BomQ men of very perverse inclination endeavoured by the nam^
to mislead and deceive the uninitiated as to the thing /-^as it is
difficult in any ether way to account for a fact such as that three
most deadly poisons, the acetate of lead, the chloride of anti^
mony, and the chloride of arsenic respectively, should have beea
styled the susar of lead, and the butter of antimony aj^d psf
•arscivic^ In mie, system wa$ unknown, — rthere was no co^pp^i^
ration, but each in his turn, in this important work, invented for
himself; and the greater part of the names thus bestowed hay«
no reference to the subject designated, and are totally iodepeor-
dent of methodical arrangement.
That after the total revolution which the science had under-
gone, it could continue much longer to be tolerated, was impos-
sible; and so early as 1782, Guyton, the last of the great French
chemists who acceded to the new doctrines, was neverthele«p
the first to furnish a memoir to the Academy proposing a new
chemical nomenclature. So soon, therefore, as he became a
convert to the new theory, the four leading chemists in Francje
set about providing for the exigencies of the science, byfurmshr
ing it with a new methodical nomenclature.
The first piinciple in planning the new nomenclature was t0
connect the words with the things they were intended to reprer
sent, as is shown in the only words they truly invented, oxygen,
hydrogen, and azote ;-— the next was so to methodise them^ as
to present a connected view of the chemical facts then known#
at the same time endeavouring to provide for the future exten-
sion of the science. The roots of new denominations employed
to express bodies of recent, discovery were drawn from the
Greek lamguage, partly to avoid entirely any connexion with the
barbarous system previously used, and partly because this mode
afforded a facility of expressing a compound substance by. an
easy compound name, at the same time that, by varying the
termination, it was easy to mark the different states of the. subr
stance so compounded. Thus these terminations, are the same
in analogous substances, and to name them conveys at once the
natttPe of the composition to which each is appropriated ; and
by this method there was introduced the greatest precision and
accuracy into the whole science, in which system immediately
took the place of chaos.
Of the great benefits^ conferred hy this new nomenclature oa
chemistry, it is impossible to doubt ; and of the philesophical
vi#ws on which it was constructed and arranged, the success
with which for many years it adapted itself perfectly to eyer^
improvement in the science, is sufficient .evidence. Indeed, it
UaSu] of Oaude^LouU Bertholkt. l&
is only wHhia these few yt&fs that the new views yhi^h btve
been takea of the mture.of chlorine and fluorine^, the. disQovery
of i<H}ine and cyanogen, the decomposition of the alkalies, ^^nd
the eleetro-cheoiical theory, having together, introduced more
enlarged and philosophical ideas of the nature of combustioyi
and of chemical affinity, than were entertained by Layoisies,
BerthoUet, and their associates, a coiTespondingmodidcationof
their nomenclature is become necessary. The recent doctrine
of chemical equivalents too renders this reform still more requi-
site, and promises to give a degree of mechanical precision to
chemical nomenclature, such as the French chemists could not
possibly have imagined or anticipated. The difficulty now is, to
Diiog the leading chemists of Europe to concur in any one
method or set of principles in introducing the innovation. £aoh
has his own peculiar ideas on the subject, and for want of some
centre of reunion, some mode of having a full discussion of jtbeir
.separate opinions, there is as yet no immediate prospect of even
a provisional nomenclature, liowever much its want may be felt
to be injurious to the interests of science.
. We' now approach a brilliant period in the life of BerthoUet,
who had not yet however completed his 40tb year. In 1787, by
his «6say on the Composition and. Properties of Prussic Acid,
he gave a striking proof of the independence of a mind which
ever judged freely for itself, and thereby often rose superior to
the prejudices of the day. It was, as has been previoutdy
noticed, one of the doctrines of the theory of Lavoisier, that
oxygen is the acidifying principle, and that no acid exists wiihr-
out its presence. So soon as the leading features of this theory
began to be received by chemists as correct, an implicit assent
to all its details was given by almost every chemist, save Ber*-
thoUet. We have already seen that in his memoir on Sulphur
retted Hydrogen Gas, in 1778, he stated it to perform all the
functions of an acid, and now again, in this Essay on the Natoiv
of Prussic Acid,. he found himself enabled, after the successftU
isa«ie of an analysis, attended by no ordinaiy difficulties, to
decbre, that|?rii£3rc acid contains no oxygen. He showed that it
nevertheless performs every function of an acid, having affinity
for and combining with alkalies, neutralizing them, and forming
with them crystallizable compounds, and being again displaced
from these combinations by the more powerful acids. The ana-
logy to an unbiassed mind was complete ; yetBerthoUet's opinion,
that acids may exist without the presence of oxygen, ^ned not
a single convert. The new theory now found an impUoit acquies*^
cence in its errors, not less unreasonable than the reluctant and
lardy 'assent which had been yielded to its truths. Nay, so
nnsliaputed became its authority, even in those points in which
eadi maof a own experience sbiould have been his guide, Ibat
16 Mr. Colquhoun en the Life and Writings {Jan.
when BerthoIIety nine years after this> again resumed the subject,
again investigated the nature of sulphuretted hydrosen^ and
again confirmed every former statement he had made,
though he had lon^ been confessedly one of the first French
chemists, again found the same ill success in attempting to
establish an important truth which has only commanded
general assent since the recent era to which we have already
alluded.
But the year 1787 is further remarkable as the date of the
publication of some of Berthollet^s most important researches
into the nature of chlorine. He had already given to the world
his first memoir on this subject in 1785 : it was one which came
repeatedly under his notice, and on each occasion his investiga*
tions were attended by results the most important ; at one time
to the interests of science, at another to the advancement of the
arts. His experiments on this substance may be divided into
three branches. The first regards the nature of simple chlo-
rine ; the second, its combination with oxygen ; and the third,
its property of destroying vegetable colour.
The history of M. BerthoUet's researches into the constitution
of chlorine is one of the greatest interest and instruction. The
views which he adopted have been proved by subsequent expe-
riments to be erroneous ; but the process of reasoning by which
he arrived at his results appeared so plain, his conclusions
seemed so inevitable, and all the phenomena were by its means
so satisfactorily accounted for, that during a period of twenty-
five years, his theory was universally received. Its overturn has
been the consequence only of the discovery of facts unknown
at the time of its formation, the metallic basis of the alkalies,
the new substance iodine, and several others, all of which are
closely analogous in their properties with chlorine.
Scheele, who discovered chlorine in 1774, had also the great
merit of taking a correct view of its constitution. He cdUed it
dephlogisH(mted muriatic aeid, or, in modern terms, muriatic acid
deprived of its hydrosem BerthoUet, on the contrary, considered
muriatic acid to be tne simple (or at least the till then undecom-
pbnnded) body, and he regarded chlorine as acompoundof this
simple substance and oxygen. And his reasoning on the subject
seemed then to be close and irrefragable.
If muriatic acid be digested over the black oxide of manga-
nese, a portion of it is decomposed, and separates in the state
of chlorine gas ; the remaining portion is found to hold in solu-
tion the oxide of manganese at an inferior degree of oxidation;
Of course, the black oxide has also undergone decomposition,
and given up a portion of its oxygen ; but nota trace of this gas
remains in the liquid. From this, BerthoUet concluded, that it
hnAgom^with the chlorine, and formed part of that sutnta$me:
io' place .of wbkshy the modem accouQt ia thftt^nmnaiic ^sCdd
being-eeoipomided of chlorine and hydrogen, the hydrogen cchb4
bioeswit^the excess of oxygen in the black oxide of manganese^
forming water, while the cblonne, a simple substance, is jset Jot
liberty. This experiment, however, seemed to Berthollet and
to all his brother chemists, to furnish a convincing synthetical
demonstration of the composition of chlorine* His analytical
proof was the following: i
> An aqueous solution of chlorine, exposed to the light for some
^^^> g«H;e off a quantity of oxygen gas amounting to nearly one*
thirdof its volume. After this evolution had ceased, no trace of
chlorine appeared behind, the only substance remaining in the
liquki being muriatic acid* Here, then, the chlorine seemed to
be decomposed into muriatic acid and oxygen, Berthollet mea-
-sured. the volume of oxygen gas evolved, and estimating .the
quantity of muriatic acid formed- by throwing it down wit]^
nitrate of silver, he found himself able to calculate the propoi^
tions of the supposed constituents of chlorine. - The modem
account of the phenomena-just mentioned is, that a certain quann
lity of loater undergoes decomposition, its hydrogen combining
with the chlorine, and forming muriatic acid, while its oxygen
escnpes in.the> state of gas. fierthoUet, however, having his
views of. the nature of cnlorine now rested on apparently the
stxongest of all; grounds, changed the appellation of Scneele
intOi^maLt x>( oxj^enixed muriatic acid ; a name which it retained
until Sir U. Davy published his new view of its constitution in
1810. . . . . • . *
On this occasion, it is proper to observe, that the very extent
of BerthoUet'iS' acquaintance with chemical facts tended to mis-
lead hia views when once they- bad taken a wrong bias, and. to
strengthen the confidence he felt in this erroneous opinion,
Lavoj^serhad shortly, before this shown that no metal (^an unite
with sniacid, unless it be in the first j^ace combined with a dose
of oxygen. Now, if metallic zinc be put into an aqueous sola-
tiiHiJo£<dilorkie, it dissolv^es there as >silently as sugar does;. in
water,. There is no effervescence, no evolution of gas^ as.is
ordinarily the case during the solution of metals in acids^ and
from the liquid, by the proper chemical reagents, there may be
separated muriatic acid and oxide of zinc* Here, said Berthol-
let, tke oxygenized muriatic acid imparts its oxygen to the zinc,
and then, tlie disengaged muriatic acid combines with the newly"
formed oadde, and produces muriate of zinc. In place of which
the modem explanation is, that the chlorine acts directly upon
the zinc; and that when these two substances are obtained in
the state of muriatic acid and oxide of zinc, a corresponding
quantity <of/-water has undergone decomposition, its hydrogen
and oaqpgen having united respectively ,wiA the chlorine andihf
jnetal.
New Strie.% vol. ix. c
18 Mr. Qmrgt M'CSUoHkitjjf T^a^um. £Jxs k
; Anotlier o£ tbo leading correbonttioDB of ibis theory ofthiQ
Miure of Qhloriae^ it is surely, interestiiig to give, in order to
explain fully the grounds on which the whole chemical worlds
with Berthollet at their head, went into a great error at a period
when investigation was peculiarly alive^ and continued in it
during the active researches of a quarter of a century. It
iwas this : the weaker acids are unable of themselves to expel
the excess of oxygen from the black oxide of manganese, so as
to unite with the salifiable oxide ; but when aided by any sub-
stance, sugar for example, having a strong affinity for oxygen,
the salifiable oxide is then developed, which the acid immediately
sdissolvea. This Berthollet held to be the precise account of the
<{dienomena attending the solution of the black oxide of mangar
•aese in muriatic acid. The acid has a strong affinity for oxyi-
:gen ; it has also a strong affinity for the salifiable oxide of manr
^neat ; hence, a portion of it combines with the excess of
-oxygen, and flies off in the state of oxygenized muriatic acid :
ithe remainder .combines. simultaneously with the salifiable oxide
-thus developedi and forms along with it the common muriate of
;inanganese.
There are few more interesting explanations of chemical
rphenomenai than those on the one hand urged with so much
•force by Berthollet in support of his theory, and those on the
•other which modern science is now enabled to offer in complete
4»uhver8ion of it. It is entertaining to consider each of these
*Tiew8 even separately, and it is highly useful to compare them
with each other. We thus find as the result of all the intellect
and research which has been broujght to bear on the question,
-that Scheele has the praise of having truly viewed the nature c£
that important substance, which he had also the merit of disco-
.vering ; while to Bertholkt belongs the scarcely smaller honour
of having. overturned the doctrine of Scheele, and of having ao
firmly erected his own hypothesis in its stead, that it remained
unshaken and almost unquestioned, until our illustrious covntrj^-
:]QaKi Davy succeeded in restoring chlorine once more to ite
original character.
{^Tobe continued.)
Article II.
On the CUoride of Titanium. By Mr. E. S. George*
(To the Editors of the Annah of Philosophy.)
. GMt^VV^UWi Grove Terrtuse^ Leedt, iSToo. 19t 1^^
Iir a paper.puUisbed in the Philosophical Transactions for
1823, Dr. WoUaston states^ that the substance from Mertkyr
1925.] Mr. George on CM&fide of Titanium. W
lydvil, wKich he has shown tbbe metallic titamaniy dccura also
at the Low Moor Iroa Works, near Bradford, Yorkshire. Hav-
ing a short time ago an opportunity to examine the foundation
of a blown out furnace at the Low Moor Iron Works, I found the
upper part of the stone, upon which the melted metal rests, com-
pletely penetrated by metallic iron, sulphuret of iron, and carbo-
naceous matter, amongst which brilliant cubes of metallic tita-
nium were thickly dispersed.
Upon: a portion of this substance reduced to a coarbe powder
I poured muriatic acid ; a large quantity of hydrogen and sul-
phuretted hydrogen gases was extricated, and after ebullition in
excess of acid, the iron and earths contained in the slag were
dissolved, leaving brilliant cubes of titanium having a colour
between that of copper and gold and possessing great metallic
brilliancy, mixed with grains of silex ; tne carbonaceous part bad
floated away with the muriatic solutions.
Having removed the grains of silex, 60 grains of the metallic
titanium were placed in a glass tube, and a current of chtoriaa
(from which all moisture had been removed by dry chloride of
calcium), passed over them, no action was perceptible, nor was
the lustre in the least impaired ; on heating to ignition the part
of the tube in which the titanium was placed, a fluid gradually
condensed in the cool part of the tube, and was collected* by
gently inclining it.
This fluid is transparent and colourless ; it possesses consi-
derable density ; on exposure to the atmosphere, it emits dense
whitefumes, having a pungent odour resembling, but not nearly
so offensive as, chlorine ; the dense fumes appear to depend upon
the presence of moisture ; it boils violently at a temperature a
little higher than 212^ Fahr. andis recondensed without decom-
position : on the addition of a drop of water to a few drops of
this liquid, a very rapid, almost explosive disen^gement of
chlorine ensued, attended by a considerable elevation of tem-
perature, and when the water is not in excess, a solid salt is
formed.
This salt is very soluble in water, deliquescent, and its solu-
tion possesses all the properties of ipuriate of titanium, giving a
brownish red precipitate with prussiate of potash, a dark red
with infusion of galls ; with pure potash a gelatinous precipi-
tate, soluble in excess of muriatic acid, and after subsidence
nitrate of silver, occasioning in the supernatant fluid a precipi-
tate of chloride of silver: ammonia throws down a white
precipitate from the solution.
A salt possessing the same properties crystallizes in the inte-
rior of the tube when the chlorine is not freed from hygrometric
moisture.
To ascertain the composition of the two substances, upon 14*6
c2
20 Mr. George on Chloride of* Titanium. . [Jan .
I^ains of the fluid in a long test tube, I dropped a weighed por«>
tion of Wftter very gradually ; chlorine was disengaged rapidly,
and the temperature of the tube became considerably elevated ;
after cooling I found the loss of weight 4 grs. : the solution
gave with gallic acid a dark red precipitate. This fluid is the
pl^rohloride of titanium, since, by the separation of chlorine, it is
converted into the protocbloride, which becomes the muriate by
solution.
From the difficulty attendant upon the drying of tlie salt
(whether formed by crystallization in the tube, or by the deoom-
position of the perchloride), without rendering a part insoluble ^
X added water to a solution of muriate of titanium formed by the
decomposition of the perchloride by water, and divided the solu-
tion into two equal parts; from the one I precipitated the
oxide of titanium by potash; the precipitate when dried weighed
7 grains, and from the other 1 precipitated the chlorine by
nitrate of silver ; the chloride of silver when dried weighed
15 grains, containing chlorine 3*6. Hence the muriate oftita.*
ifti^im is composed of oxide of titanium 7, muriatic acid (chlorine
3*64 -r hydrogen 1 — ) 3*74. Supposing the muriate to be com-
poised of 1 atom muriatic acid and 1 atom oxide of titanium,
the oxide is the protoxide resulting from the combioation of
I atom of oxygen with! atom titanium^ and the weight of tita-
nium will be 61*2, it is probable that the true number is 64, as
indicated by the experiments of M; Rose. From this analysis,
the compositiou wilt be,
]\f uriate of Titanium.
Oxide of titanium 7-00
Muriatic acid 3'74
Or 88 Protocfaloride.
Titanium 6*12
Chlorine 3-64
Perchloride Titanium.
Titanium 6-66
Chlorine 7-94
I remain, your obiedieat servant,
£. S. Gkobok.
[825.] Corrections in Right Ascension. 21
AaxicLE III.
Corrections in Right Ascension of 37 Stars of the Greenwich
Catalogue. By James South, FRS.
i
1
r PegMi
Polarts
a Arietls
a Ced
Aldebaran
Capella
Rlgel
pTwtl
■ ^
« Orlonii
MBS. 31
i, m. 8.
} 4 14*25
h. m. s.
0 58 17-5('
b.m. s<
I 67 19-77
b. m. s.
8 63 8-58 1
b. m. s.
4 25 53-44
ll. ID. 8.
5.3 46-61
b« in. >•
5 6 8*00
h. m. B. h. UK B*
5 15 14*295 45 42-18
•I
Jan. 1
+ O'OS"
+ 9-21
+ 1-71"
+ 1*87''
+ 2-41"
+ 3-36^'
+ 8-30 '
+ 2-79"
+ 2-48"
2
91
8*52
70
86
41
35
30
79
48
3
90
7-83
68
85
40
36
30
79
49
4
88
714
67
85
40
SB.
30
79
49
5
87
6*45
66
84
40
35
SO
79
49
6
86
5-75
64
83
39
35
30
79
50
7
85
5-04
63
82
. 39
35
SO
80
50
8
84
434
62
82
39
34
29
80
51
9
83
3*64
61
81
38
34
29
80
51
10
82
2*93
59
80
38
84
29
80
52
11
81
2-26
58
79
37
83
28
79
62
12
80
1-59
56
78
37
33
28
79
52
13
79
0-93
55
77
36
32
28
79
52
14
78
+ 0-26
54
76
35
31
27
78
52
15
76
- 0-43
52
75
35
31
27
78
52
16
76
M7
51
74
34
30
26
78
51
n
74
1-91
50
73
f 33
29
26
78
51
18
73
2-65
49
72
33
28
25
77
51
19
73
3-40
47
71
32
27
25
77
61
SO
72
414
46
69
31
26
24
• 77
51
21
71
4-dl
45
68
30
25
24
76
50
22
70
. 6-48
43
66
29
24
2j
76
60
2S
69
6*16
42
65
28
23
22
75
50
24
68
.6*83
41
64
27
22
21
75
49
25
68
7*50
. 39
63
26
20
20
74
49
2fi
67
8.16
38
61
2p
19
90
73
48
27
66
■8-81
37
60
24
18
19
72
48
28
65
9-47
36
59
23
17
18
71
47
29
61
10-12
34
58
22
15
17
70
47
50
63
10-78
33
56
21
14
16
69
46
31
62
11*40
31
55
20
12
15
68
45
fcb. 1
61
12*02
30
53
18
11
14
67
45
2
61
12*6/1
. 28
52
17
09
13
66
44
3
60
13-25
27
51
16
. OS
11
65
43
4
59
13-87
25
50
15
06
10
. 64
42
5
;.8
14*48
24
49
14
05
09
62
41
6
56
15*09
22
47
12
03
08
61
40
7
56
15*71
21
46
11
03
07
60
39
8
55
16*32
19
45
10
00
06
59
38
0
55 1 I6'9.1
18
43
08
2-08
01
57
37
10
55
17*48
16
42
07
98
02
.56
36
11
54
is^w
15
40
05
94
01
64
35
12
53
18*58
14
39
04
92
1*99*
53
34
13
hfi
1912
IS
37
02
90
98
51
32
14
5« j 19-67
11
36
01
88
96
50
31
IS
52
90*^0
10
34
00
86
95
49
30
Ifl
51
20*74
09
33
199
84
9.1
48
29
17
51
21-27
07
31
97
S2
92
40
28
Ifi
50
21*81
06
30
96
80
90
45
27
Ifi
» 50
22-34
05
28
94
78
88
43
25
2C
\ 50
22*81
OS
27
99
76
86
41
24
21
50
23*27
02
25
91
74
85
39
22
2S
\ 49
23-74
01
21
89
7'3
83
38
21
22
I 49
24-21
0-99
2iJ
87
611
81
36
19
94
1 49
24-67
98
21
86
67
80
84
18
21
^ 49
25-09
97
19
84
65
78
32
16
n
} 48
25-50
96
18
8^
63
76
80
16
%'
r 48
25-91
95
16
80
61
74 ! 28
13
2f
i AS
26-32
94
15
79
58
73
! 27
12
22
Canediom in Si^ AMcemion
0/
L^^
Sirint
CittM
ProosroB PoUnx
« Hydne
RegQlnt
lUonU dVirginis
SpicaVi
MeanARl
182». J
n. 1ll< B*
ii« in* 8«
fa. m. s.
Da 10* 9%
h* ns. 8.
b. m. 8*
h. n, 8*
h. m. 8.
b. in. 8
6 37 9511
7 28 2590
7a0 8-47
7 84 8§'fl6
9 18 59*40
9 69 2 78
U 40 7'9D
114ia4'9$
13 i;iS»
Jan. 1
+ 8-98''
+ 8-95"
+ 8-47"
+ 8-84"
+ 8-18"
+ 807"
+ I'sor
+ 1-47"
-h O-Q^
8
39
97
48
86
14
10
63
SO
91
9
39
98
50
87
16
18
56
54
1-OC
4
40
900
51
89
18
15
60
57
04
5
41
01
53
91
81
18
63
61
07
6
41
03
54
98
83
80
66
64
11
7
48
04
56
94
25
83
69
67
14
8
43
06
58
95
28
85
78
71
18
9
43
07
59
97
30
88
76
74
91
10
44
09
60
98
38
31
79
77
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11
44
10
61
99
34
34
82
80
S8
1«
44
11
68
3-00
36
36
85
84
31
IS
44
11
63
01
38
38
87
87
35
14
45
18
63
08
40
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90
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38
15
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64
03
42
43
93
93
41
16
45
14
65
04
44
45
96
96
45
17
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15
66
05
46
47
99
99
48
18
46
15
67
05
48
50
801
01
51
19
46
16
67
06
49
58
04
2-03
54
SO
46
17
68
07
61
64
07
05
67
81
46
17
68
07
62
66
10
08
60
8S
46
18
69
08
54
57
13
10
64
28
45
18
69
08
55
59
16
13
67
84
45
19
69
09
56
61
18
15
70
85
44
80
70
09
67
63
21
18
79
86
44
SO
70
10
69
64
83
SO
76
87
44
20
71
10
60
66
86
S3
79
88
44
20
71
11
62
68
88
25
88
89
43
81
72
11
63
69
31
88
85
90
43
81
72
18
64
71
33
30
88
91
43
81
72
18
65
72
35
33
91
Feb. 1
48
81
72
12
66
74
38
35
94
8
48
81
71
12
67
75
40
37
97
3
41
20
71
12
68
76
43
39
800
4
40
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71
12
69
78
45
41
03
5
39
80
71
12
70
79
47
43
06
6
38
80
71
12
71
80
49
45
09
7
37
19
70
12
72
81
52
47
12
8
36
19
70
12
73
83
54
49
15
9
35
19
70
12
73
84
56
51
17
10
34
18
70
11
73
85
58
53
20
11
33
18
69
11
74
86
60
65
22
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38
17
69
10
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62
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31
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14
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15
68
09
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89
66
61
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16
29
15
67
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75
90
68
63
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16
88
14
67
08
76
91
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35
17
27
13
66
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72
67
37
18
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13
65
07
76
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19
24
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06
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89
11
63
05
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• 72
45
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81
10
62
04
77
94
78
73
47
88
80
09
61
03
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79
75
49
83
18
08
60
02
77
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81
76
52
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17
07
59
01
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82
77
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15
05
68
00
76
95
83
78
56
86
19
04
67
2-99
76
95
84
79
59
87
18
03
66
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76 95 1
85
81
61
86
10
08
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96 76 I 95 1
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Principal S(ar9f
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ly. ip. 1.
b* m, B.
h* m. 9*
b. m. B.
h. m. s.
b. in. s.
h. m, 9.
b. 91. I.
14 7.41-C6
1441 12-02
1(271607
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16 1841"fi7
17 6 40-4^
172649^18 81 1*01
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+ 0-5S"
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+ 016"
+ 0-14''
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- 0-94'^
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2
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57
03
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17
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24
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3
60
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25
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5
66
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06
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6
69
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10
30
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48
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91
93
31
51
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+ 0-02
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16
14
94
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34
54
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04
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78
15
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19
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58
78
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19
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05
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25
61
81
82
27
21
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04
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S6
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15
16
17
18
10
20
21
28
23
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96
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77
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53
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92
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51
49
48
47
46
46
44
42
41
40
38
37
36
35
33
32
31
29
27
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23
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75
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74
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73
73
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70
69
68
68
67
66
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63
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61
60
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56
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5
6
7
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84
85
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88
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69
79
74
76
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81
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03
06
08
11
14
17
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27
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^ AquitcB SaCapricor
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48*20 2D 8 20*34
40
43
0-68"
70
73
75
78
80
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85
88
90
92
95
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02
05
07
10
12
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17
20
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14
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23
26
29
32
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43
46
48
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37
34
32
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22
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55
57
59
60
62
64
66
67
60
71
73
74
76
78
80
82
83
85
87
89
91
93
39
40
41
42
43
45
46
47
48
50
51
52
54
56
57
59
61
63
64
66
68
60
11 \
+ 042"
32
33
34
35
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
51
52
54
55
57
58
60
61
63
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34
34
34
34
34
35
35
35
35
35
35
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
,48
49
1825.3 Mr. Qrnjf m the Structure ofPiarh. 87
Article IV.
On the Structure of Pear h, and on the Chinese Mode ofproduC"
ing them of a large Size and regular Form. By John £dwar<ji
Gray, MGS.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy,)
GENTLEMEN, JDt9. 10, 1884..
Pearls are merely the internal pearly coat of the shelly which
has assumed) from some extraneous cause, a spherical form;
they are, like the shell, composed of concentric coats formed of
perpendicular fibres; consequently when broken they exhibit coor
centric rings and fibres radiating from a central nucleus usually
consisting of a grain of sand or some other body which has irritated
the animal. A pearl having been once formed, the animal con^
tinues to increase its size by the addition of fresh coats, perhaps
more rapidly deposited on it than on the rest of the shell, as the
prominence remains a source of irritation.
The pearls are usually of the colour of the part of the shell to
which they are attached. I have observed them white, rose
coloured, purple,''^ and black, and they are said to be sometimes
of a green colour ; they have also been found of two colourti,
that is, white with a dark nucleus, which is occasioned by their
being first formed on the dark margin of the shell before it is
corered with the white and pearly coat of the disk, which, when
it becomes extended over them and the margin, gives them tha^t
appearance.
Pearls vary greatly in their transparency. The pink are the
most transparent, and in this particular they agree with the
internal coat of the shell from which they are formed, for these
pearls are only formed on the pinna;, which internally are pink
and semitransparent, and the black and purple specimens are
generally more or less opaque.
Their lustre, which is derived from the reflection of the
light from their peculiar surface produced by the curious
disposition of their fibres, and from their semitransparency and
form, greatly depends on the uniformity of their texture and
colour of the concentric coats of wliich they are formed. That
their lustre does depend on their radiating fibres may be distinctly
proved by the inequality of the lustre of the "Columbian pearls
which are filed out of the thick part near the hinge of the pearl
* I can witli certainty infonn the anonymous author in the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal, No. xxi.p. 44, who observes, that ^^ in the British Museum there is or wos a
famous pink pearl,*' that there not only now U one, but three of these pearls, as he
aught have convinced himself, for they have been exposed to the public now for these
laife three or four years to my owu knowl^ge*
28 Mr, Gray vn Ike Structure vf PeaflL £JAKi
oyster^ Avicula Margaritiferay* so that they are formed like
that shell of transverse larainse, and they consequently exhibit a
plate of lustre on one side which i^ usually flat^ and are sur-
rounded by brilliant concentric zones, which show the places of
the other plates, instead of the even beautiful soft lustre of the
true pearls.
Sometime ago in examining the shells in the British Museum,
I observed a specimen of Barbala plicata,f with several very
fine regular shaped semiorbicular pearls of most beautiful water,
and on turning to their superb collection of pearls, I found
several fragments of the same shell with similar pearls, and on
the attentive examination of one of them, which was cracked
across, I observed it to be formed of a thick coat consisting of
i^everal concentric plates formed over a piece of mother-of peairl
roughly filed into a plano-convex form, like the top of a mother-
of-pearl button. On examining the other pearls they all appeared
to be formed on the same plan. In one or two places where the
pearl had been destroyed or cut out, there was left in the inside
of the i^hell a circular cavity with a fiat base, about the depth> or
rather less, than the thickness of the coat that covered the
pearls, which distinctly proves that these pieces of mother-of-
pearl ihust have been introduced when the shells were younger
«ud thinner; and the only manner that they could have been
placed in this part of the shell must be by the introduction of
them between the leaf of the mantle and the internal coat of the
shell ; for they could not have been put in through a hole
in the shell, as there was not the slightest appearance of any
injCiry near the situation of the pearls on the outer coat.
Since these observations I have tried the experiment of intro-
ducing some similar pieces of mother-of-pearl (which may now
be truly so called) into the shell of the Anodonta Cit/grieus and
Unio Pictomm, which I have again returned to their natural
habitation ; and I. am in hopes that some pei-sons who have more
convenience, and are better situated for the purpose, will repeat
these experiments, especially with the Unio Margaritifera* I
found the introduction of the basis of the pearl attended with
very little difficulty, and I should think very little absolute paiii
to the animal ; for it is only necessary that the valves of tlie
shell should be forced open to a moderate breadth, and so. kept
for a few seconds by means of a stop, and that then the basis
should be introduced between the mantle and the shell, by
* I have placed this sheU with the Jvicula^ as, when young, it has the teeth of thtft
gams; and I have seen an old specimen which would scarody agree with Lamark*«
" Cardo edentutus,**
-f- This shell was described and figured by Dr. lieach in his Zoological Miscellany
under the name of Dipsas pHcatus^ but Dipsas has been used as a genus of AnnuloMt.
I have, ther^re, adopted Mr. Humphrey's name ; Dr. Leach had changed it to yip^
pint pttcatus. — It may be the Mytilus plicalus of Solander*s MSS. confounded by Dill-
wyn with the Mytilus duiiMs of Gmelin, but the pearls are certainly not '^ iumished
with stalks," as they are described in the Portland Catalogue, p. 59, to be in that shelL
1825.] Mr. Gray on the Structure qf Pearh, • 2& •
slightly turning down the former part, and pushing the pieces
to some little distance by means of a ^tick, when tne stop may
be withdrawn, and the animal will push the basis into a conve-
nient place by means of its foot, and of the 30 of 40 bases
which I thus introduced, only one or two were pushed out
again, and these I do not think had been introduced sufficiently
far. In several which I afterwards destroyed, I found that the
bases were always placed near the posterior slope of the shell,
where the pearls are situated in the Barhala,
If this plan succeed, which I have scarcely any doubt it will,^
we shall we able to produce any quantity of as fine pearls as can
be procured from abroad. My reason for believing that this
manner of forcing the animals of the freshwater bivalves to pro-
duce pearls, js the invention of the Chinese, a nation celebrated
for their deceptions and trick, is that in looking over the col-
lection of shells of Mr. G. Humphreys, I observed that a shell of
this species (the second perfect one that I have seen) was
marked as having come from China.
This plan at least is certainly much preferable to the one pro-
posed by Linneus, and by the above quoted anonymous autaor,
as the pearls are all of a regular form, and that the one best
suited for setting. In cutting these pearls from the shelly
it is necessary that the shell should be cut through, so that the
mother-of-pearl button may be kept in its place ; for if the back
were removed, as it would be were not the shell cut through, the
basis would fall out, and then the pearl would be very brittle*
The only objection that can be adduced against these pearls is,
that their semiorbicular and unequally coloured sides preclude-
them from being strung, or used any other way than set; but
this fault will always be the case with all artificially produced
pearls, as the mantle can only cover one side of them ; and
the only pearls that well answer the purpose of stringing are
those found imbedded in the cells in the mantle of the animal.
No/e.— Since the above was written, my friend Mr. Children
has pointed out to me a paragraph in the Encyclopedia Britan-
nica, vol. vi. p. 477, in which it is stated, '• Pearls are also pro-
duced by another artificial process. The shell is opened with
great care to avoid injuring the animal, and a small portion of
the external surface of tlie skeil is scraped ojf. In its place is
inserted a spherical piece of u)other-of-peailj about the size of a
&iaall grain of shot. This serves as a nucleus, on which is depo-
sited the pearly fluid, and in time forms pearl. Experiments of
this kind have been made in Finland, and have been repeated
in other countries."
dOr OnAf the of Ammal Charewd as a Flux, [Jaic .
ARTICLte V,
On the Use of Animal Charcoal as a Flux.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy/,)
GENTLEMEN,
The great power of wood charcoal as a flux for minerals and
metallic ores has been long known, and extensively taken
advantage of in the arts and operations of chemistry, but I am
liot aware that any application of animal charcoal to the same'
Eurposes has hitherto been attempted. The following facts,
owiBver, it is thought, furnish sufficient grounds for believing
that the latter might prove an advantageous substitute for the
former^ in those cases where its comparative expense would
admit of its employment ; and they may, therefore, perhaps,
obtain a comer in the Annals of Philosophy if not occupied with
more important matter.
' Being in the habit of using animal charcoal as a dentrifice, I
nearly mled a brass crucible of moderate size, and about four-
tenths of an inch in thickness, with ivory-black, for the purpose
of purifying it by re-ignition. The crucible was closed with a
cast iron cover, which had a small perforation in it as a vent for
the gas which was extricated; and in this state was set in the
fire-place of an air furnace, which was commonly employed for
heating alkaUne lixivia. The fire was not very large, though
thoroughly inflamed, and the grate door was left wide open.
The crucible soon acquired a red heat (to which it had, prior to
this, been frequently exposed), and the gas burned steadily at
the aperture in the cover. Being obliged to leave it at this
period, on my return in about ten mmutes, I was a little surprised
to find the iron cover of the crucible lying by itself, and no ves-
tige of the latter apparent in the fire-place. On examining the
^sn-pit several rugged pieces of brass were found, and two large
masses of cinders, firmly compacted together by an upper coat-
ing of oxidized brass. In one of these a large stick or the metal
was imbedded, which broke with a rough coppery appearance^
but on filing immediately displayed its brassy nature.
As the heat by which this was effected appeared to me much
inferior to that which brass generally requires for its fiision, I
exposed some brass wire, about one-tenth of an inch in diame-
ter, by itself in the same fire, and closed the door. After
rem)frining there nearly half an hour, it was taken out broken
into two parts. It was become oxidized, and, as it were, worm-
eaten on its surface, and was rendered very brittle in its fracture,
but it had not the least appearance of any loss by fusion.
Endeavouring again to effect my purpose with the ivory-black,
1886.} Cd. Bem^oy^s A^nmwiical Observations, 31
I exposed some of it in a cast iron crucible^ in the same fire-
place, and the door open as before. / This crucible was only
three-tenths of an inch thick^ and had occasionally been exposed
for short periods to the greatest heat of diis fire-place ; not
expecting, therefore, that it would receive any injury in the
present instance, I left it unnoticed fdr about 20 minutes, by
which time the ivory-black had ceased to emit any more gas. it
was then taken out, but unfortunately not in the conditioa ia
which it wasiotroduced. Keady half the circumference of the
e/:ucible for one and a half inch upwards, and a large part of its
jbottom, had rqn into a complete slag upon the opposite side,
;wbi<^h happened to have fallen lowest in the fire, and the ivory-
black was almost consumed, from the access which the air thus
acquired to the inside of the crucible. The cover and upper
parts . of it had suffered no inj ury .
l^rom th^ great heat which brass and particularly cast-iroi^
r^uife for their fusion, and the low degree of it employed in
these cases, little doubt can be entertained of the superior
agency of animal charcoal as a flux. Both the crucibles it must
afco be noticed bad been formerly used for the very purpose of
procuring charcoal from wood in a common grate, when it is
conceived the heat was little inferior to that in the present
instance, and the chances of their fusion then otherwise eq'ual.
It. might, therefore, be worth the trouble for those whom it may
concern, to make one or two comparative experiments on this
aubject, with greater accuracy than the preceding, in order to
determine it decisively. F.
Is it not probable that in the experiments above detailed, the
metals were converted into phosphurets by the decomposition
of the phosphoric acid? and if so, the increased fusibility would
probably be derived from this circumstance. — Edit.
Article VI.
Astronomical Observations, 1824.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.
Bushey Heath, near Stanmore^
Latitude 51o 37' 44*3" North. Longitude West in time 1' 20* W".
^■■*""— —■■■■•■■
Nov. 15. Emersion of Jupiter's third 518)* 20' 52"' Mean Time at Bushejr.
satellite i. ^12 28 13 Mean Timb at Qieenvidi.
Nov, 81. Immenion ef Jupiter*s first 515 24 22 Mean Time at Bush^.
satellite 215 25 43 Mean Time at Greenwidi.
Dec* 7. Immenion of Jupiter's first (13 38 52 Mean Time at Bushey.
aateifite 2^3 40 13 Mean Thoc at Gt«eiiinch
f//>tj Occultation by the Mo(m.
^el. 29. Immenion of x Pisces Oh 01' 36*5" Siderial Time.
On ParBtotmerret. [Jaw/
Article VII.
Ow Paratoniierres.
(To the Editors ol" the Annals of Philosophic .)
GENTLE.1IEN, Eec, 10, 1824.
I HAVE read with much interest the article in your last mimi
ber by M. Gay-I.ussac, un Paratonnerrea ; and as I have long
wished to erect one on my house in London, 1 should take it as
a great favour if you could, inone of your next numbers, devote
a few lineii to satisfy roe and some more of your constant readers,
■who feel equally anxious on the subject with myself, as to the
practicability of placing a conductor to a house in a street ia'
London, without endangering, by the attraction of the electri^T"
fluid, the safety of the houses contiguous, and also whether yod
know of any persons who are in the habit of undertaking thS'
erectioiiof such conductors.
I remain. Gentlemen, your very humble servant, '_
A Constant Reader. '*
;■'»
A " Constant Reader" need be under no apprehension of
endangering the neighbouring houses by erecting a paratonnerre
on his ovra. He will observe in our translation of Gay-Lussac's
crticleon that subject, in our last number, that paratonnerres
are in general use in the large towns in America, and we beliera
there is no instance on record of mischief of the nature he'^'
apprehends, having been produced by them. When raised to a "'
sufficient height above the rhimiie^%, and furnished with sharp
copper points (if well gilded so much the better), they may not
only save a building if struck, by conveying the lightning in. j
harmless current to the ground, but also, for the reasons given
in our last number, pp. 429 and 43S, prevent' the stroke altoge^'
ther. The directions given by M. Gay-Lussac, both as to the"
mode of constructing the apparatus, and of fixing it, should be'
carefnlly attended to, especially observing that there must be no
breaks m auy part of the paratonnerre, and that it descend to a
sufhcient depth into a well of water, or ground that is constantly
moist.
We are not acquainted with any artist who has paid particular
attention to the subject, but from our knowledge of his abilities,
and the excellence of all the philosophical apparatus that we
have bad occasion to employ, which has been made by him, we
should recommend Mr. Wewman, of Lisle-street, Leicester-
square, as the fittest person we know to be employed on such
an occasion. — C. and
=1
1825.] Mr. Webster's Reply to Dr. Fit ton. 33
Article VIII.
Re^ly to Dr, Fitton's Paper irt the " Annals of Philosophy'* for
November f entitled " Inquiries respecting the Geological Rela-
tions of the Beds between the Chalk and the Purbeck Limestone in
the South-east of England'* By T. Webster, Esq. Sec. G. S.
(With a Plate.)
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy,)
GENTLEJMEN, November 4, 1824.
It was with some surprise that I read a paper by Dr. Fittoa
iu the Annals for November, since it appears to point out as the
present state of my knowledge some letters written by. me
13 years ago on the subject of geology. Although my profes-.
sioual avocations ill admit of the sacrifice of time, yet I cannot,
in justice to myself, pass by entirely unnoticed some observa*
tions in that paper ; and should I appear tedious in my reply, I
must crave the indulgence of your readers, since it is obvious,
that a few words may depreciate, but that to remove the im-
pression thus produced, many are often required.
Dr. Fitton observes, that the " geological relations of the beds
of sand and clay, which are interposed between the chalk and
the Purbeck limestone, have been of late the subject of consi-
derable discussion :'* but as he does not state what was the par-
ticular matter in dispute, and since the general reasoning in his
paper rests upon his assuming that as decided which . was the
very thing discussed though not determined, it is not astonishing
.that he should have arrived at the conclusion, that the ar-
rangement and names which I have adopted for the beds in
the Isle of Wight are erroneous.
Perhaps this discussion should have been confined where it
originated, among a few members >3f the Geological Society,
until, by a more correct examination, than has been hitherto
made, of the whole of this part of the series of English strata,
the question should have been determined; .yet (anxious only
for the truth), 1 can have no objection to the tribunal before
which it has been brought, well knowing it to be always just y
when the facts are laid before it. Had I been previously
acquainted with Dr. Fitton's intention of publishing on this sub-
ject, I might have been spared the duty of pointing out some
misstatements respecting myself, which could have originated
only in the haste which he appears to have been in.
As some apology, however, for thus occupying the public
attention, I think it probable that this will ultimately prove use-
h\ to the obtuse of geology, by illustrating some points extremely
ifflportant but Jiitherto obscure, and attended to by a few.persons
only.
ritw Series, vol. ix. d
34 Mr. ft^ebsier^s Il^fy to Dr. Fittan.
Siuce, I believe^ the work is but little known, which !Dr. !
has described as a '' standard publication which has
refefred to by all geologists in treating on the Isle of W
and which has now become the subject of his criticism^ it
be desirable that your readers should know something '
history.
English geology was, in 1811, only beginning to arri
that advanced state for which it has been so much consider
every part of the civilized world. Many persons of distingu:
abilities had occasionally bestowed their attention on a sul
than which none i« more capable of exciting curiosity and ei
siasm.; and although little parade was exhibited by men eq^
remarkable for their modesty as for their talents, yet the ni
of Woodward, Michell, Grew, Davy, Smith, Parkinson^
many others whose names it would be invidious to mention,
^ver live in the history of the science. But that beautiful o
which genius had begun to develope, and to separate from
almost chaotic state in which it had been hitherto concea
was yet but imperfectly traced. No fixed principles of clas
cation were established. : no types of particular beds or for
tions were pointed out, to which all ought to refer ; but e^
man who had, or fancied he had, a mind capable of arrang
facts into a system, thought himself at liberty to make
attempt in his own way.
About this period it was, that my attention was accidents
l^d to the subject of geology. Having been originally educa
as an architect, and much accustomed to the practice of dn
ing, I was fixed upon by the late Sir Henry Englefield
examine into a few points which had escaped lus notice in i
Isle of Wight, with the view of completing a work which he I
composed on that island several years before, and which he vi
then preparing for the press.
. It was not in the contemplation of Sir Henry Englefield tl
I should make a complete re-examination of the Isle of Wigk
but, in order to accomplish the object which he had in view,
felt the necessity of looking more particularly into its stratific
tion, and of applying to it some of the geological doctrin
which were afloat at that time, but which had appeared since 1
had been a practical geologist ; and I was in consequence h
to view the subject veiy differently from him, and to devdoj
the general structure of the island.
Sit Henry Englefield, with that liberality of miud whi(
rendered him esteemed by all who knew him, eipeesM
his satisfaction that I had exceeded the commission ^ive
to TM, assisted me in making anodier journey to the coas
of Dorsetshire for the purpose of extending my inquiries, aiM
on tky return, far from veishing to appropriate to himself th
formation I had thus procured, resolved (as he has himse
1835^] Mr. WebOer's Rqpiy to Dr. tSttotu 35
8tetie4) to give it to the world in my own words^*" thus 'setting a
noble* example of that strict integrity and refined sense of
hQQOuf iwbich ^ver distinguishes the trtie patron.
. i^jboie of the observations which I had then made and reflected
on, led me to perceive that I had discovered di freshwater form-
ation \vhich bad hitherto been unknown to all Ejiglish geold-
g'sts: and I afterwards undertook a journey^ at my own expence,
. r Uie purpose of studying^ with all the attention that circum-
(taiices would allow me, a phenomenon so curious and unex*
S feted. The result of this journey I communicated to the
eolpgical Society, and it may be s^en in the second volume of
it» Tratisactions.
- Such has been the conunencement of my geological pursuits ;
an4 if it had happened that this production became '^ a standard ''
^ir other geologists (an honour never aimed at or imagined by
ipqe), it would have proved that it was well thought of by my
qotemporaries ; but the table which Dt. Fitton has inserted in
his paper wiU show, that my arrangement was not adopted " as
the standard,'^ but that the several geologists who have since
visited the Isle of Wight had zeal, ''industry, and independence
enough to look and think for themselves ; and that if, in most
eases, their observations agree with mine, it is either because
b^th are right, or that such causes of obscurity existed, that we
sometimes fell into the same errors.
It is well known that since the publication of my lettiers to
Sir Henry Englefield, I have made several visits to the districts
there described, for the purpose of examining them still more
particularly, thus acquiring the knowledge of many facts that
SjmI originally escaped me. Many of these additional observa^
Hqbs I have, sometime since>laid before the Geological Society,f
and while Dr. Fitton's paper was in the press, I was preparmg
one which has since been read (see an abstract of it in the
Afmah for Dec. p. 465) on the same subject.
'',71ie /discussion to which Dr. Fitton has alluded in the begin-
iung of his paper, first made its public appearance in a work
eiKje^d "OutUnes of the Geology of England and Wales, by
^iRev. W. Conybeare, FRS. and MGS.; and W.Phillips, FLS.
aid MGS." and published in 1822. The passage, which may
' ]* !Eliei90T];herc alluded to was published in 1 81.6, and is entitled <' A I>e8cription of
the principal Picturesque Beauties, Antiquities, and Geological Phenomena, of the Isle
(ff Wight, bj Sir ^enry Englefidd, Ban. ; with Addidonal Observations on the Strata
mmt^shOidy an^ their Ckmtintiation in iiie adjacent Part of Doisetshite, foy Thomas
yfMtiet^ £»q. ; ^Qlustrated by Maps and numerous Engravings by W. and 0« Cooke,
^Qi,Ori^al Jl>rawijigs by Sir H. Englefield and T. Webster." 4to.
j^ Sfee a paper onttieReigate Stone, vol. v. Trans. Geol. Soc. *
.'^ ''..•• ^ ; .... . QD a Freshwater Formation at Hordwell, voL i. Second Seri«8^ Trans.
.b( i. ^r. . . ^ Geol* Soc. J ^
.'J: .{,'.>^^ •».... on the Cliifsat Hastings; not yet published: but of irhich an ab-
( , "' stract appeared in the ^wnafe for July, 1824.
^ d2 , ■ ■
/
36. Afr, Webber's %?/yi tQ Or^ Jllttm. (
l^,6e(Hi iQ ihe chapter '^On theBsda bistiiyem'tb^Oli^]
tl^t) Ooli^Si/' p. 150, k, a6 follows : ... ,.,...
, .'^ Haying thus traced these formations uninterraptedly
tlfe coast into Surrey^ it will be our next object to describe
3u>pearaQce on the east of tliat county, near Merethaiu
Keioate ; and this we shall do somewhat more miuutely^. s
on the ground above stated, — 'namely, the continuous cour
each foimation from the coast, we feel ourselves copaapeUi
dissent from the opinions advanced by a writer of whose ami
services' to English geology one estimate only can be fart
and who, from the inspection of this single spot^ has pronoui
the Jirestone beds, which we assign to the chalk marl, forn^
tQ belong to that of the green $and, and the range which we.
sider as the true green sand, to be iron sand" This is ibUc
by many details respecting these beds, from observations, n
by Mr. Phillips and himself, who, throughout their work, <
tinue to employ the term^ green and iron sand according to t
own views as expressed above.
-The paragraph by Mr. Conybeare, just quoted, wag writte
consequence of a paper which I had, a short time before, i
before the Geological Society, " On the Geognostic Situa;
of the Reigatie Stone." I there endeavoured to show, that
section c^ the country from Merstham to Nutfield is analog
to that of the beds below the chalk in the Isle of Wight; slat
tiiai.the Reigate stone agreed with the Undercliff, and that i
sjind of Nutfield and Redhill below the fuller's earth pits W£^s
ferruginous or iron sand.
I The object of this paper was not to go into a closer compj
sflu. between the beds in the two places ; but any one whg ,v
cQnsider with attention the table which I originally formed,
these strata, in the work of Sir H. Engletield, and the followi
pussage from my paper on the Riegatc stone, may easily pqrcei
w;hat was my opinion on this subject: —
" On putting together all these circumstances, viz. the nataj
of the Reigate firestone, and its subordinate beds of tiberta^i
hard rag, its situation. below the chalk marl and above thfi fe^yr
giupus sand ; and comparing it with the nature and situ.atjoni
th^ green sandstone in other places, for instance, at the IJod^
cliff ini the Isle of Wight ; the identity of these formatious; appea
to ,we as evident as any with which I am acquainted ; and wfeji
ever anomalies there may be in the history of the English straj;;
yet here^ at least, no difficulty presents itself, but oplyj^Mf
sH^Kt differences as every new locality exhibits.*' j
Jn order that your readers may feel some interest iiitbis-qw^
tion^ which is really extremely curious in its nature, yswejBf^^a
in^portia^nt in English geology, I must explain, that ui^ji^m
trne^gj^eu mnd liVkd iron sand, as used by Mr. Coftybeam:«B»
Uit^fcfft af^ imcriVrted notmerthf minerahmcaUy, or as e^X'^^.^jJ^
1824] i^^'^VfeMh^ RiipBf to Dr. Jittdni 37
iB^d ^diAt««4)f «b^ Mibd'taticeB found in tk^ plates spok^n^of, h\it
that they are meant to apply to certain strata or beds of Engtjand,
iddeh "llaT^i b^n formerly observed, and so named by English
gedl^vte ; the first from its containing abundance of daiic
gnen- pafitroleB cdled green sand, and the second from having
iit>it^ittiuch iron ore.
^crilti9j66'tiaines, therefore, although originally given to the beds
tpithi^li^einceto their obvious general characters, are, sis far tiR
tlfMiqtiestion h concerned, no more than A and B. . A certaiii
bddv^'itiitDediately below the chalk, and containing much gree^ii
dtt&dior green earth, had been called the greeii mud, or A ;^ and
aiMllMflr bed, situated lower down in the series than the last, and
oMCainiDg much iron had been denominated VAg^erri/giV^oJis- or
^stfttf'sufHfd, or B. Now, two beds have been subsequent! v;
oitowved* in another part of England ; I have referred the upnec
otf6> to A of former geologists, and the lower one to B ; but Ml*.
Odn^beare refers the lower one to A, arid the uppfer one to
another bed still higher in the series, viz. the chalk marl.
'^•The propriety of these names have nothing to do with the
<]tt^tioQ, nor the opinion of any geologists respecting another
itfode of nomenclature. They are mere names, by which we
di^ngoish these beds from each other ; and indeed they are
highly -eicpressive ojF the characters of the' beds. Had Mr.
Conybeare intended to' state, that, in His opinion, the term greieh
sati^ v^uld be more properly appHed to another bed than tha£
wilicfa had hitherto received it, this would entirely change
the view of the case ; but he would then have alluded to tne'
■ 'I
bed which Jiad previously been so called, and have proposed
dve change. I do not think that this was his meaning, add
Tam certain that hfe is too candid to resort to such in expflatia-
tifin. *
*ln giving names to the beds below the chalk in the Me of =
Wight and the wealds of Surrey andSussex,ih 1811,+ I followed
wtsat'i considered to be the practice of that time. We had nof.
tlteft^ geological map of England, and I called them green aii<f
fefhightotts sand, as I thought they would have been nunied by
giologlste. I considered the rock' of the UndercliflF to hd'fM
griek^fiUdy having in my mind the vale of Pewsey and otheiV
pltfc^lj'^the bed of clay below it I called the blue marl; and the
wtteife'" series of beds below this I denomina ed thefdnu^indh^
jau^^i;4)y the last I intended to express a group;}; of several
• Se^^erM ot^er'beds of England have similar green particles as a part of their com «
position ; as some parts of the London clay, plastic elay, the ooEtes, &e. but We do r.ee ' *
fiicti^^pasfvijcall; them green sand.. - - . • m1
ij^BfeV)^ .'JCftble ^l, the end of my letters to Sir Henry Knglefield, , . , , , j
l' Tots pra^Ucfe of .arranging beds first into groups I had found necessary upon seve-
itPttflttfifcn^f'kndl'Waa the first who divided the aine bcdsdesoril\cd by C\ivier antl*''
fibgpjvt^}^ tfir 4>flHJi of^^aris into lour groups, for the purjx^e otcmxit e^rrqiati^n ^ ^
wit|i^f^^<f^r/ the chalk in the Isle, of Wight, founding this anangemont upi^n ihd
CMises tMX, operated during the formation of the strata. I'his practice has ^een oooti«
iHied, and is fouud to facilitate the «tudy of the secondary beds.
38
Mr. WebttirU tteplp tb Dr. Uttoh.
beets of ferrnginous Bands and clays, which> having ex^
them not only in the Isle of Wight, but through an &xi
tract in Dorsetshire, I found so connected together, that
not then able to separate them from each other throu(
whole of that distance. The term ferruginouM appeared
not inaptly applied, on the first view of the subject, sin
beds both above and below the weald clay contain in man^
a very large quantity of iron ore ; and they hare both, 1
author or other, been called the ferruginous sand. The ]
pies for the classification of beds, even in the present da
not determined ; and hence, in a great measure, the v
opinions with respect to where the lines of the separat
groups should be drawn. At that time, when still less was ki
it cannot be extraordinary that I should have been led to i
together a set of beds possessing a common feature so rei
able.
The following table will exhibit my arrangement of these
in the southeast of England, together with the view whici
Conybeare took of the same subject :
Arrangement and Kama of the Beds,
By Mr. Webster*
Chalk.
»■ ■"
Chalk marL
Green gand.
Blue marl*
Upper ferrugi-
nous sand.
M^eald clay.
CO
•I
Lower ferrugi-
nous sand.
0)
By Mr. Conybeare ^
Chalk.
Chalk marl.
Green sand.
Weald day.
Ferruginous sand<
Places wliere the Beds are well *
Surrey^ Keni
Sussex*
Isle of Wtght.
Culver CUff, in San.
down Bay.
Sandown Bay. St.
Cath«ine*8 Down.
Sandown Bay. Un-
dercliff.
BeachyHead. '.
stone. Aferstl
Merstham. G
ford, Beacfayl
SakidownBay. Un.
dercliff.
Red Clifr, in San-
down Bay. Black
Gang. Compton.
Sandown Bay. Cow-
leaze Chine.
SandownBay. Cow-
leaze Chine. Brook-
point. ^^
Merstham. i
stone. BeachyE
Folkstone. i
stone. Meistlii
Nutfield. TTd
Forest. HindH
Bethersden s
Marsden, in K€
Hastings.
To show, In part, the evidence from which I have deduced \
order and arrangement of the strata, I have represented in "Ph
XXXV, fig. 1, a Section across the counties of Surrey and SuSs<
from Merstham to Hastings. Fig. 2 is a section taken from t
top of St. Catherine's Down, Isle of Wight, to the bottom
Black Gang Chine ; and fig. 3 exhibits a rery satisfactory a
instructive section \thich is seen on the north side of Sandot
1^39.
jv:^: J
of thicS. E. Part of
L
^^JLB of fTX^^^
Drawn by I7ur'?We^jtir
189ftJ Mr. Weh$i^$ jB^ t0 JDr. MtM. 39
fiiyr^ vliicli is perfei^tly acoessiblei and wfaieh ftofti <^e r^lpatk*
9bte lok^ Ugbly inclined positioa of the beds^ is ox^e of the very
beat sitaations for examining the beds immediately below the
obalk*
...The map in Plate XXXV is a slight sketch of the SE of
Bngland coloured geologically, according to my original view of
iha snbiect,
. Jh. Fitton has inserted in his paper, (p. 369, of the Annals for
KiOvember,) a table of these strata, in which he gives the same
Q^une as Mr. Conybeare to one of the principal beds, viz. that
j|f bich he calls green sand, and which was a part of my ferrugi--
t^fnuM^and group; but he does not stop to discuss this question;
and by his continuing to call the bed by the name oi green san4
throughout hia paper, I must suppose that he has adopted Mr«
Conybeare^s view of the subject.
In order to bring this matter to an issue, it appears to me that
Ve o^ight first to inquire what were the beds originally desig-
Mted by the terms the green sand and the J'erruginous sand,
I am not able at present to say by whom the term green sand
was first employed as a name for one of the strata of England ;
but that is not necessary. It is sufficient if I point out that it
had been long in use by the geologists who preceded us.
The term green sand is to be found in the writings of Mr«
William Smith, who, as will be seen by an able sketch of the
history of English geology in the Edinburgh Review for 1818,
and by Mr. Conybeare's introduction to his '^ Outlines," above-
mentioned, has the strongest claims on our gratitude, and who is
indeed (I had almost said) the father of modern English
geology.
Another author of great authority, by whom this name has
been employed for a long time previous to this discussion, is the
late venerable rector of Jrewsey, the Rev. Joseph Townsend, in
kifi work, entitled ^' The character of Moses established for
veracity as an historian." In the preface to this work, which, is
replete with the most valuable facts, he informs us, that he was
indebted for his knowledge of the succession of the beds of'
England to Mr. William Smith ; but as he was himself a most
assiduous practical geologist, we may consider his account of
them as the descriptions of Mr. Smith, verified and extended by
himiielf.
It appears to me that from these and similar sources, our first
ideas respecting the green and iron sands have been derived,
either directly or indirectly.
1[n the writings of these authors, it will be found that every
where pn the west escarpment of the chalk, which passes through
Norfolk, Bedfordshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, &c. the beds
lidttij&diat^ly below it are seen in succession; and that they
have 4if cw^ri^ them, begiaoifig with that idnexV^tq tike * dkal
gre^n saad^ blue clay or marl, and a red or fetni^iloii^^
Of the first, we have a remarkably fine example in tim
of Pewsey^ celebrated for its fossils $ and the latter <the i
finbus) is weH seen at Wobum and Lei^ton* Beaad
hese I consider as undoubted types of the formatiofMf iiti
tion,, being described under these names by all geologists t<
f resent day, in the tables and maps which have been pubiu
t will, therefore^ simplify this discussion if we attend to
points. ■ ■ ' " .
' L^ Whether the bed which I have called green sand, vii
UndercIiiFy Isle of Wight, and the Reigate stone, be the i
bed with that so called by Smith and Townsend on the w«
the chalky and particularly in the vale of Pewsey ?
2. Do the Woburn and Leighton Beaudesert sands a
with that bed in the wealds of Surrey, Kent, and Suss&k, W)
is, between the Folkstone blue marl and the weald clay>
which is seen at Cox Heath, Nutfield, Wolmer Forest, &c»
with the Hastings beds in Sussex, which are below the w<
clay?
With respect to the first, I might observe, that the Under
-has been actually called green sand not only by me, but by '.
Conybeare in his '* Outlines ;" by Prof. Buckland in his Tabic
the English Strata printed for distribution ; by Prof. Sedgwi<
in short by all English geologists who have attached the sa
name to tne bed in the vale of Pewsey ; and I might show ti
Dr. Fitton in his paper admits what 1 have be ford endeavoui
to prove, that tlie Underdid is identical with the Reigate -stoi
The thing, therefore, seems to be done. Pewsey = Uodenc
by Mr. Conybeare ; Reigate = UnderclifF by Dr. Fitto
aad henoe^ since things equal to the same are equal to ea
other, Pewsey = Reigate. Q. E. D.- But I will not take ti
advantage; smce Dr. Fitton has done me the honour to •hi
that these gentlemen followed me with- respect to UndertJ
being = Pewsey, a circumstance which I never h^ard of beft
it was rumoured that I was wrong.*
I find that'Mr. W. Smith, in the memoir whichraccompaili
hiB geological map of England, api^lies the term green saodi:
the bed immediately below the chalk, and above &e blue msii
or oak tree clay. This blue marl he identifies in his map wit
the Tetsworth clay, and with the gault, the latter being adpaiUe
by. all to be the same as the Folkstone clay. It appears Uiiiii
to be dear, therefore, that the green sand of Smith coiUd wV'h
* ■ * ,
♦.ifr. Conybeare states, (" Outlioes," p. ISO,) tliat "in 1813 he »ii»d« ji.tour.iii .^
I4p. o^ M'^jght and in Purbeck, and formed detailed lists of the several sttata^io^Mi^u
iQ^ ibe series as exhibited in the various pciuts where, their sectioiis ate expo^ia t|)j
interesting district." • - * . i
IkbM the CV>lkfitotid blae mari. -- But as Wdecisi'rii pf6(>f 6f ^f^^
testsft^y that'thebed below'the bine marl is tfa^ Kei^tish Vai^,
idmsk mlh bicfi is a different bed from tihe green $and.^ ' It id
t6-te^)i«grtttedy' that the writings 'of Mr. Smith are rqnder^d
otoq^re when describing these beds, by his cdnsidering' th^
MlrbfeK:lciitoti6tmd' the Ketitish rag to be the same ; ai^d h^ eVeti
sbttfblitteB jJaees'the Pottiand stone in this part of the se¥i^s;
But it does not appear that this geologist was acquainted with
the' latter beds in situ; nor that their true place was under-
itilod^ previously to my examination of these countries ; the first
ttfbie in- which they were correctly placed being that in- Ih^
toiiasaemsehientofmy paper on the Freshwater Fotmationi^ of 4h6
laie of Wight, vol. it. Trans. Geol. Soc. ; and the author of the
lew^ of Smith's Map (Edinb. Review, 1818, p. 32), seems id
lMfi^''i>Q6a aware of this eireumstance. '
i>rWhi&Jerru^n0us sand of Smith is evidently the Coxh^ath and
Kutfiekl range^ which he identifies with the Woburn sarid^;
iiMl>ici Ilia map* he places his Kentish rag properly in this bed;
although (pemaps through inadvertence) he arranges ihe'
desmptioh as if it 'were above,
*(Hfp. TowBsend describes the sands immediately tinder Ih^
^halk as of three varieties. 1. Green sand; 2. Grey s^k^d;
3«^ Red sand (arena ferruginosa, Lin.) The first, or uppeimiost,
^ttiM the vales of Pewsey and Warminster^ and is a sand con^
tnidngdark 'gteed particles. The second is a calcareo>siKqeoicii'
saudslooei called fireistoiie> which be considers as idi^ntical with
^ fii^stone of Reigate, and the whetetone pits of 'Bhckd^^n;
A&he^^es not mention any cl&y between these two (and it i^
reOMlrkable that his ^reen sand is not under j but oi)tr his gr€(^
gimd' or fireatone), I imagine that they form one mass, and diffi^
(Hfefy i&ihe quantiir^ of green earth which they contain; for th^
fimetone <^f Keigate is never quite without this ingredient^ 'and
ita^lli^ I^le of Wight the upper part of the Undercliff contains
laroite green earth than the lower. The occurrence of the fite-
stone in the green sand of the vale of Pewsey is important,' fbt'
ttothifiglike this is found in the Coxheath and Nutfield ran'ge
eiAledihy Mr. ConybeareandDr.Fittdn^^egreeitsanei. Thefosf
ste <if the vale of Pewsey, agreeing in general with what W6'
^**yHi^tt)t<Wgfaa!ly Aware of this circumstance My letters to Sir H. Eriglcfieti
Sore Mr. Smith*ft memoir; and not hutingbad anoppot^
pvltUalifli sen^al years before
tittj^jf^ ,th{^ ^pji^ of examining fFolkstone persenaUy, but having hflaard thrFoUuioA^
blue mart described as the chalk marl, and the Folkstone rock as the green sand ; and
knowing ton hand specimens that the Kentish rag is almost identical in appearance
^ftfithetkig^ the Undercliff; I imagined erroneously the Folkstone rock to be a part o£
Ud^iM^ hSilgfrwlth the Reigate stone, and consequently to lie decidedly above xiyfhu
fi^^r'^Mi^ $ nor was 1 undeceived until by a visit which I made to Folkstone ^'
Ae mmomer erf 1822, I found that the Folkstone rock lay immediately upon ^ewealil
day, without the intervention of any ferruginous sand.
haom ^'tJMwe of tlie Undercliff, a0brd. an additiMiftl '^r*
iff faTOQc of the idoDtity of theee beda*
We bȴe aoother fieotiqn of the strata below Ahe cha]
scribed in Mbr. Conybesre's '^Oatlines/' p. 162* He sti^<
in the parish of Roak, in Oxfordshire, a stone lies uoii<
chalk, and is worked for building* The fossila found
(hamites^ turrilites, inooerami, acaphites, and ammonites)
^ith those of the Undercliff ; and it stands upon the Tets
Gltt?> which again rests upon an iron sand.
The stone of Totternhoe, in Bedfordshire, and of. B
in Cambridgeshire, is soft, immediately below the chalky
16 similar to that of Roak and Rei^ate.
I hare already mentioned my original cpinion, that the i
tare of the weald and that of the I^e of Wight are the sai
circumstance that it was impossible to comprehend upoi
supposition of Mr. Conybeare ; but my late discoFery OJ
Hastings limestone in that island, having enabled me to s
with more confidence on the subject, as affordiug me a :
point in each of these places (see the abstract of my paper «
snlBJeet, togc^ther witn the table of the equivalent beds ia
two places in the Annals for Dec. p. 465), the identity o:
rock of the Undercliff with the Reigate stone is no lo
doubted, and is admitted by Dr. Fitton. The rock of
tJiidefcliff, Isle of Wight, is immediately below the dialk c
and has the general characters of the Reigate stone, altbo
its thickness is much more considerable, and its beds of c
and hard limestone are in proportion more striking. It r
upon a bed of blue marl, ana that again upon a ferruginous sj
Thus we see that almost every where below the chaU
Eeglaad (or rather below the chalk marl according to
acrangemeat), there is a stone composed of siliceous gra
aica, and dark green pa;rticles, with a calcareous cement,
aoffie places it is very hard ; in others sofl, and fit to be (
ployed as firestone ; and in others again too soft for this p
pose, and scarcely distinguishable from the common chalk m
into which it sometimes passes. This stone also varies mi
in ^colour, chiefiy from the greater or less proportion of g£<
particles dispersed through it. Its fossils are also very uaequ9
distributed ; those which are the most characteristic of the li
are inocerami', bamites, turrilites, trochi, alcyonites, ammomti
&e. It is to this bed, as appears to me, that the name
green sand was originally given by English geologists; andfr(
the above and similar observations, i conclude ihat the gre
sand bed in the vale of Pewsey is the same with the rock
the Undercliff, Isle of Wight, and with the Reigate stone.
Let us now attend to the second question ; viz. whether ti
Woburn sands belong to the I^utfield rangcj or to the Hastii^j
'-i^ykm*%i¥i^^^ \^ tbtt a»bed of fompinDtts ^and
apf^ears at Uunstaaton, in Norfolk; and passhaig uadettha
llutrrim of £Iy, reappears in Huntiogdonshire ; is seea ia Bed-
JWdislin^ uml.er the name of the Wobarn and Leightoa Beaa-
liteert'saiida^ and extends into Oxfordshire. This bedhiuibeepi
tsalted by dl English geologists, to the present day, thefamifptr
nHk^-saml; and is so represented in all the geological maps. It
ik tiiiti diird iti sticcession below the chalk, being separated firooa
it by one of firestone (the green sand of Smith), and ano^er
fii^'btii^ clay or mail.
^-'*ln the wealds of Kent and Surrey, a bed extends from Folki-
stone through Coxheath, Leith Hill) Nutfield, Wohner EoresI,
HlMthead, 8lc. but sinks below the sea at Beachy Head. In
Vli% greater part of its course, this bed is highly ferruginooai;
%btiii some places, and remarkably from Folkstone to Maid^
UttHie, it has in it beds and nodules of hard limestone with dark
l^en and ferruginous grains. The fossils are much fewjsr, and
db not appear to be the same as those in the bed abovl^ it
if^iA { haTe called green sand.
In the Isle of Wight, also, a bed of highly ferruginous sand
lies in the same situation with respect to the chalk, at Rad
CXff in Sandown Bay; and it may be traced along the
south side of the islahd by Shanklin, Dunnose, Blackgang,
Atherfield, and Compton; and also over a great partof theiati^
nor of the isl^uid. This sand, which varies much m its chaiactaji;,
•contains in many parts abundance of granalar hematitic. ima
.ore, and sometimes green earth* It also has, in some 'plaooi^
4)iougii not^nerally, nodulesof limestone with fossils andgcaan
particles which resemble the rock of Folkstone. ' ■ '
.. Although the Oar stone and Wobarn sands hava been
regarded hy Mr. Conybeare as identical with the Hastings badic,
ted not with tite Nutfield range, yet he has not favoured us wkh
"Ms reasons for this opinion ; and no sections have been fHiblished
ihat prove it. On the contrary, when we examine the sucaa%>
aton of beds as described by Mr. Smith and others on the waat
of the chalk in England, we find that it resembles exactly the
atttfactuire of Kent and Surrey, the succession being green sand,
Mne marl, ferruginous sand. 1 may add, that on examinii^g
band specimens Irom the bed below the gault in Cambridge, they
Itfipear to me to resemble exactly those from Red Cliffy Isle of
Wi^fct, which is allowed by Dr. Fitton to be the same as.th^
fTtiCfiehi range.
^ ' fe afl the above-mentioned places, this bed is separated frcMapi
th^ last (the green sand of Smith and Townsend) by one of blae
qlay df htarl, which in Cambridgeshire is called gault, at F^tk^
'tfCQi^' IJhe Folkstone blue marl, and in the Isle of Wi^bt, by
iUifMfy the blue marL This bed is genemlly charaotertsed by
pecidiar fossilsi although these ai*e very unequally distributed.
44 Mr.' Welter's JRgpfy h I)i^.Ktm.
Those, of tbe gaule and the Folkstone marl are^
ideoticali while in the Isle of Wight th^^y ate extveiHd
Mr, SfoiUi has named this bed sometimei^' the Oak breieclii
6ometi)n6S be calls it Brick earth. He describes it in Mf
on Organized Fossils;,' published in 1817, d. 36, as existi
Crodstcme ; to the north of Reigate, under the Reigate sto
Xe^ton Beaudesert, Bedfordshire ; at Grimston, in IXo
and at Westering, in Bedford, four miles SW of Ampthil
is in all these places distinguished by its characteristic fosc
siH^U fusiform belemnite, and contains many other foss
itxiB bed, as homites, inocerami, depressed ammonites; 8qc.
blue marl is identified by Smith with the Tetsworth day,
mthstanding the latter has been considered to bethe wealc
'by Prof. Buckland, in his table of the order of the strata. '
brick eatth mentioned by Townsend above the red sac
Devizes is probably this bed, and I have little doubt but ti
may be traced all round the west side of the chalk as Smitl
represented it in his map.
From the above consideratiuns, I am still inclined to ti
that the bed extending through Goxheath, Nutfield, &c. bel
t^ the ferruginous sand of former geologists, and not to i
green sand.
With respect to the ferruginous sand below the weald <
the Hastings beds, -we have nothing satisfactory to prove tib
exists on me west of the chalk. It has not been steted
wherie (as far as I know), that the ferruginous sands in Bedf
shire contain any fossil shells, or this question might be decii
since the fossils of the Hastings beds are peculiar, and s
posed by some to be chiefly, if not entirely, of freshwater crij
whereas those of the Nutfield ranoe are marine. Nevcrthei
it may yet be found in that quarter^ although we have no <
dence before us from which we can draw any conclusion ; i
it is quite surprising to find, that, at a time when some imag
the geological account of England to be nearly complete;
should be absolutely in want of materials for detenpining
important a question.
Having now arrived at a certain point in this discussion^ i
the determination of what were the original g^r^en hnd J'errugim
sands, and having stated my reasons for giving these names
the beds in the Isle of Wight, and in the wealds of -Surrey, Kei
and Su^ex, it is natural that I should inquire how it cooidhetii
the bed which I imagine to be theferruginotts savdofSmitbf cat
to be called the true gieen sand by Mr. Conybeare, and sevei
other geologists of the present day. I think I pereeivevthe sol
tionof this in Mr. Conybeare's work itself, the ^' Outline? .1
be^{lKhi« examination of the beds below the chalk iU.F>dk8t0al
and lin^iii^ there a dark coloured argillaceous fbediiasifdiate
bekMK the chfilk^ be^)aU» it (thottgh inaccurately) tbexhalknan
UOSL] M^iWgtkkf^i ^R^fy t0 J>^; mum. 45.
opt
laMer bed'yefiembteDg, :ife(l^ed/in many particulars^ the Todk <^
liiafllQdIercliff, lele of Wi^fat. It happens that the bed of Hel^
giifaestoney which continues its coarse eastwards past Oodstone^
^ipwiB not to reach to Maidstone^ and is actually Wanting at
Eol]Estoile,, at least in the form of firestone : thus the chalk or
dUHb snarl is divided from the hard rock of Folkstone only by a.
bad o£:blae tnaerl; and since the true chalk marl is itself fre<-
featly grey, and as the hard rock below the blue marl i'esem'-
s^ftcffiie of the states of the original green sand^ it is not at.
idld A'utpnsing that this error should have been fallen into. W<^
baore no method- of. determining upon the identity of beds itt
pl8tea>idiBtant from each other, but by the correspondence in
Aek nature and their order of superposition : there appeared,,
tkerdfbce, considerable reasons for determining the Folkstone
Tftck itD ' be the green sand. This being supposed to be estab-^
littbed^' it .followed necessarily, that although the rest of this
latter range, from Coxheath all round the weald, varied almost
enlvdy in its character, so as to hez,ferru^inom sand (mine-
raipgiically) ; yet (since according to the principles of geoOTOstia
mmiisnclatttre, beds do. not change their names in different
places according to the qualities of the substances forming them,)L
tbfir whole bed acquired the name of green sand which had thus.
beea:^v«n«to a part. This is my view of the vvay in which £!'
conoeive so good an observer as Mr. Conybeare might have-
been led to give to a stratum a name which did not properly
beleagto it, I have thus stated frankly my opinion on this.
sdb9ect;.and it will remain for him to say how far 1 am right*.
lti», I am aware, putting his candour to a severe test; but in:
tbnt'Lbave the fullest confidence.
I must now return to Dr. Fitton. In p. 366, line I2> he
otwerves, that Mr. Conybeare " adopted my arrangement of the*
stmt% q£ the Isle of Wight, and regarded the lower part of that
isfead aa. composed of one series onlj/ of ferruginous simd which
be ifd^ntiiies with those of Hastings." He then proceeds to-
show, in p. 367, that there are itvo distinct series of sands below
what X 'have called green sand^ which are separated from each
other by a stratum of clay. In this passage I am under the ne« *
cawily. of pointing out a double oversight ; for, in the first place^
be^miui:.have been aware that I had two ferruginous sands in my /
aci«0gWR9nt, since he actoaily states it in his table, p. 369. ' In
thftiieooiid place, he might have seen that Mr. Conybeare does
ffdiL^utojfid my airaiigemeut, but distinctly confines A»^ ferruginous '
sand tObUxy. lower one onlt/, » ■
^A". Fitioit has also stated, erroneously, thdt I mention the •
Pi»heok/i.bedft as existing in the Isle of Wight. Since Ihttct'
im(aiiespi«B6ed this decidedly, and as I had long known tiba^
th^jiadte^tifli'to be found there (having several y«ara a^
46 Mr. ff€hter*8 Beplf tQ Df% J^i^
Qlinf d the ide of Purbeck, and presented to the Qei
Society a complete set of specimens of all the beds)^ I
not conceive what hacl led to this mistake, aiid turne
my letters to Sir H. Englefield in search of any passag
could bear such a construction. The only one that app
be the least obscure is that where I mention (p. 122) ti
layers with shells in a clay (the weald clay), in Sandow
called Flatten, respecting which 1 observe, that ** they
resembk Purbeck stone, but the shells are larger.** It m
obvious, that by this 1 mean only that the two kinds of
have much the same appearance, without any attempt to id
the beds from which tney came. I had not at that time
the Purbeck stone in sitUy and spoke merely of it as know
va building. Indeed that no other inference can be fairly c
from my expression is evident, since Dr. Fitton himself
p. 374, that " the limestone of the weald bears altogether a
ing resemblance to the Purbeck limestone;" and yet he
Aot intend to express thev are the same. My having menti
this resemblance shows that at a very early period of my ij
tigation, I was struck with an analogy between the PL
in the Isle of Wight, and the Purbeck andPetworth marble
analogy which 1 have since extended.
Dr. ritton is perfectly correct in stating, that, at the time v
I wrote those letters to Sir H. Endefield, I had not duly ap
ciat^d the importance of the weald clay. The fact is, it w
less conspicuous in the Isle of Wight as a valley separating
ranges of high ground than in Kent and Sussex ; nor, at that e
Eeriod, had the difference between the fossils of the Hast
eds and the Folkestone rock been noticed. But I had t
gradually approaching, and had finally arrived at the same c
dlu^ion as Dr. Fitton has now done.
I mentioned in my paper on the Freshwater FormatioQt
the Isle of Wight, and also in one of my letters to Sir H. £^
field,* the probability, that part, at least, of the Purbeck se
was of freshwater origin; and I possess specimens whi^
brought with roe from the Purbeck beds on my first viis»
them in 1812, containing several species of freshwater s&
converted into calcedony, but mixed with others that aremari
I also stated in my table of the strata, that the Petfvorth m^
might perhaps belong to the same series^ from the analogy i^
fossils. The univalve shells of the Petworth marble are in gq
ral larger than those of the Purbeck, but I have since found t)ji
* The passage is as foUows : — '^ It was long ago observed by Woodward, i^
Hiftoiy of FoftOs, that the sheUs in the Furbedk marble consisted chiefly of the k
wraNMp; /iQd it is rather surprising that this very ancient freshwater formation j1m|
^Aave excited nust attention. Beautiful impressions of fish are iVequcntly m«t,"
%f tlie ^umryiMn between the humoce of the limestone ; and I saw abundance of
Wm^^hmi$% fone of ^hi^ J^^pged to the turtle. Complete fo^ turtle hare
* -^nd, and lirtcly one extremely pcriect.'* (Letter 9, p. 192.) X
I8^J Jtfr. WebsterU Repfy to Dr. Fitton. 47
in ffi» i$Ie of *Purbeck witli shells quite as lar^e as iAose of
wbith, aitd apparently of the same species. In my exahihiatidn
of the Hastings beds, I remarked the resemblance of the casta of
<66 unmilves to those of the Puibeck and Petvrorth marbles, and
tiiat the fossil shells were altogether different from those of the
^^sisind.
-TWlwiavs considered the weald clay as intimately connected
inth the ilastings beds, and with the Purbeck stone, worn the ana-
Ibgy inihe fossils,* and from the resemblance between the Pltflten
lii^ the Isle of Wight, the Battle beds, and the Purbeck beds^
ift^Ough I could not then determine to what part of the series
iach or these should be referred; This led me originally to class
ALeti^eal4 clay as a subordinate bed of the Hastings ferruginouii
ianS, which contains several other beds of clay, although that **
oTthe Weald is the most considerable ; and this arrangemebt I
(sfttl adhere to. In my first examination of the Isle 6f Wight,
(he fossils of ShankUn escaped me ; and I owe my knowledge of
them to Prof. Sedgewick's valuable paper on that island in the
Annah f<5r May, 1822. Since that time I have perceived the
necessity for separating the upper from the lower ferragino^ia
sands. <
I agree with Dr. Fitton, therefore, in the propriety of making
the Separation between the two sands at the top of the weald
clay; but I think I see zoological reasons why the latter ought
not to fee called a distinct formation, but that it should be
formed into a group with the Hastings and the Purbeck beds.
I do not go so far however as to consider these as freshwater
formations, a term which lam accustomed to restrict to such b^ds
only as have been probably formed in freshwater lakes.
1 come now to consider the changes which Dr. Fitton has
proposed to make in the names of the beds which have be^i
mated of. '
' ' With respect to the proposal to change the name of the rock
of the UndercKff from green sand to Jtrestone^ I am compelled
entirely to dissent i'rom it. It has already been called green
stod by all geologists ; no arguments have yet shown that it is
not entitled to that appellation, and mere change is obviovfeiy
worse than useless. Firestone is a term used by builders to
express a stone of a certain quality, that of resisting the fire,
iiid' which is employed for hearths and covings to chimneys*
fEtb "B^tiie can, therefore, be applied with propriety only to a
sifone' liaving that property. As only a certain portion of this
bedji and that only in a few localities, is fit for such a pnrpope^
■:l y -• .
- W'*yji^'ijjlaa11 organic body supposed to be a cypris, I fbilnd » flie veald €lay)ft^iS6«
i^B^^j^^ vhen on a visit to the Isle of Wig^t, in 1819, vidi Mr. Broelee^ OgMlitt
^& |^]ad||is and the teeth of fish. I also pointed out to I>r* Fttton tlie yesemldtoot
M%e^l&igton fimestone (first observed by him in that locality) to rhefteshwate^fM
at East Cowes.
48 Mr. Webster's Reply to- Dr. Btititu
thcj ij^e of this term, applied indiscriminately to all paits:
bed> would lead to mucn confusion when it came to be u&
economical purposes.
The appellation of the fourth in Dr. Fitton's list (my
ferruginous sand) is more difficult to agree upon, since v
opinions have been entertained respecting it. If my view
subject be ultimately found to be correct, that is, if this fc
found to agree with the ferruginous sand of the west, it
seem right that it should retain its original name ; for to cf
Oarstone of Norfolk and the Wobum sand, 8cc. the tru
only green sand, would be such a preversion of t
that it could not be tolerated : and should the rock imi
ately under the chalk in the vale of Pewsey really j
by a correct examination, to be the same as the UnCM
and the Re^te stone, what would be the consequence
adopt Dr. Rtton*s nomenclature? The answer is obviot
also must be called firestone ; thaf is, the name green sand
be taken from the bed to which it originally belonged, t
attached to another which received it only through an overs
I do not wish to insist that this has been the case ; but at
the contrary has not been shown ; so far, therefore. Dr. Fit
decision is premature. However^ as it has been called g
sand by some eminent geologists ; and since indeed it cont
in some places^ a great quantity of the mineral from which
name has been derived ; I have proposed, in a paper lately
before the Geological Society, to style it the lower greeri sam
(to compromise the matter,) as Iproposed before, in my pap€
Hastings, ferrugino-green sond : the Undercliff beiug called
upper green sand. By this arrangement, a group wiil be forr
which may be called the green sand formation^ consisting oi
upper and lower green sands ; and the blue marl between t
will be the marl of the green sand. This marl has indeed cc
derable analogies in its fossils with the bed above it,
which it sometimes passes.
The Hastings beds may continue to be described by thatna
until more is known ; and the term ferruginous sand hitherto gi
to it maybe relinquished, as that has been applied to the Wot
sands.
With respect to that part of Dr. Fitton's paper (p. 367 and 3
where he appears to dissent from the opinions that have b
stated on the subject of beds being more irregular than •
usually been supposed, arising partly from the want of eontMn
in some, and a difference in the structure and composttiol
others, I shall only observe, that the subject on which his c
paper and the present treats furnishes ample proofs, tbaf^
ibffieatties of identifying beds have been frequently undenv
hf geologists, from their not sutfictently attending to thevsr^
cumstances. At first, in studying the secondary beds,'
1885.] Mr.\ Websier^s ^ly to- Dn Fiiton. 49
newly di^pOTered analogies occupy our attention moat, as being
infiiutely the most interesting; out afterwards^ our eyes are
opened to the discrepancies, and these are also worthy of our
uatice. as it is from the ^' facts alone " that we can draw rational
conjectures respecting the mode in which the strata have been
4'(Htned^
„ I have now, I trust, prepared your readers for appreciating
|)r. Fitton^s remark, that I had ventured to make an arrange-
-jjl^nt of .the strata of the Isle of Wight " without sufficient
^^^mination." It must be obvious to all experienced geologists,
4hfL% the character of a formation, or series of beds, should not
iH^dJfawn from any one spot, except that spot should contain the
pbole series : any character drawn from an imperfect part of
Hib^ series must be liable to be corrected, when more is known.
But wlio can say that he is acquainted with the whole series of
ibeds in the great European basin^ of which those of England
.'fuoe certainly but a part ? and yet to delay making an arrange-
meat of the British strata until the rest of Europe should be
aecurat^y examined, would be to neglect one of the very means
hy which we hope to arrive at the' truth. To heap facts upon
.fac49« without endeavouring io arrange them, would have excited
IK) interest. An attempt, therefore, at an arrangement, haii
been made even at an early period in the progress of investiga-
tion, trusting that our successors, in making additions to the
science, • would duly appreciate our zeal, take into their consi-,
deration the progressive nature of knowledge, and correct our
erforS' with a gentle hand. After all, what is sufficient exami-
imtion? -To some this question may appear to be easily
ansLwered; but when we reflect upon tlie changes that are per-
petually making in the systems and arrangements of natural
history from the discovery of new facts, we must soon perceive
itj^ di&culty. Few districts of England have been more fre-
quently visited and examined by geologists than that in ques*
tion ; and yet it appears not to be exhausted.
Wjkth respect to myself, I can truly say that I have omitted no
0{>pQrtunity, that my very limited means have allowed me, to
extend my inquiries, not only in this island, but on the opposite
side of the Channel. Since the period of my letters to birH.
^ff^e&eld, 1 have visited and examined, at my own expence^
the. neighbourhood of Paris, in order to see if my conjectures
wtfre w^U fidiunded with respect to the analogies which 1 supposed
to aixtsi< between the uppers beds of England and France; and I
kttdy in^^tbe sumoier of 1823, in a tour over the ground we have
been exaaioiQing, accompanied M, Brochant, Professor of Mine-
oAo^ in the Ecole de3 Mines at Paris, who, with two of ti^
iriiaf&ik l^v i^t establishment, had been sent by the French
fltfvjiMrmiieut to visit this country, and to verify the observatiook
60 Mr* Webster^s Reply to I)r, fitting ^
which have been made by the geologists of England. As
visit by M. Brochant may at some future time be importa
the history of geology, I think it may be useful here to inse
extract of a letter which I lately received from him.
# # * * u Une de mes plus grandes occupations, depuis <
raois, a etc de ranger et d'etiquer nos recoltes geologique
Tannic derniere. MM.Dufresnoy etElie deBeaumontontemp
d'abord beaucoup de terns a mettre chaque chose en place : ;
n'avons aucune confusion, au moyen de notre catalogue e
notre journal, et de toutes les precautions rainutieuses que
nous avez vu prendre. Cela m'a fait refaire cet ete tout
voyage d'Angleterre avec une vive satisfaction. J'ai revu i
charmante Isle de Wight, ou vous nous avez fait si bieu
tapt de coupes geologiques ; etj'ai pense sL cette aventur
navigation pour doubier le cap de Handfast. C'est dans <
revue generale de nos recoltes, que nous avonsreconnu, plus
jamais, combien nous vous etions redevables. J'ai fait^ de
30 ans, bien d'autres tournees geologiques : aucune ne m's
a beaucoup pres aussi productive, n'ayant pas, comme en Ai
terre, de savans guides pour me conduire sur les points chs
teristiques, et m'en faire voir les rapports, ce que je n'auroi
decouvrir que par un sejour prolonge. Je suis etonn6 moi-m^
tout en pensant aux facilit6s de tout genre que vous et'd'ai
savans avez eu la complaisance de me procurer, d'avoir pu :
tant en une seule campagne. Car je vous assure, qu' a Tex
tion des fossiles, dont il nous manque un grand nombre, i
avons une suite trfes belle, et presque complette, de touted
formations geologrq^es de TAngleterre. Avant la fin du i
d'Aout, celle de TEcole des Mines sera livree aux yeux du ]
lie; et j'esp^re bien qu'elle contribuera a faire bien des
prochemens entre nos terrains et les votres." # # # * #
I am. Gentlemen, very truly yours,
Thomas Webstb:
Additions to the Itepli/ to Dr, Fitton.
QENTIiEMEN, Dec.S,\%
I am happy to find that the paper which I read before a m
ing of the Geological Society on Nov, 6 (see an abstract in
Annals of last month, p. 466), containing, in other woiijs,
substance of the above reply, has jiot been without its efl
since I perceive that Dr. Fitton has, sincQ that time, in
" Additions," given up tfie term j^>e«^o«e upon the ground wl
I stated to the Society.
With respect to the term green sand, Dr. Fitton now obsei
that '^ the misapplication of the term has really been the soi
1825.] Mr. Webster's Reply to Dr. Fitton. 61
of so much confiision, that it seems better to give it up altoge-
ther (also), and to choose for the beds in question names
entirely new/* But is this quite necessary ? and what will be
the confusion in all the books already written and to be written,
should we adopt instead of it the proposed name of Shanklin
sands? For my part, I cannot help thinking that we ought to
retain the term green sand: it has become almost national,
and i6 endeared to us by many associations : it has been the
freq^uent companion of our travels, and passes current on the
Continent even without translation. Shall we discard an old
friend because some one has misnamed him? or is this any
thing like the classical practice of covering the combatants with
a cloud to prevent the decision of a contest? Seriously, whea
will these changes end ? or is every month's Annals to produce
a h6w geological nomenclature ? I really thought I had given up
enoiigli (considering the state of the question), when I proposed
to turn my " ferruginous " into " lower green,'* not to savd my
own credit, but that of others.
In the same communication to the Geological Society, I sug-
gested (I verily believe before any other person thought of it)
that the Woburn sands agreed with what was considered by some
as the true green; and 1 find by Dr. Fitton's " Additions," that
he has since been consulting his maps, and that he has now
come very near indeed to adopt my opinion on this subject. I
am pleased also to find that Mr. Lyell has confirmed the obser-
vations which I made on the green sand at Beachy Head in
1813 (see my paper on the Freshwater Formations, vol. ii.
TVans. Geol. Soc. p. 192), and that he otServed a section at
Shiere which is the counterpart of that which I described before
at Merstham (vol. v. p. 353). It is also satisfactory to perceive,
that this gentleman has now arrived at the same conclusions
that I had come to. several years before with respect to the cor-
resp6nclence between the general structure of the weald and the
Isle of Wight, and which had not been doubted until lately.
I shall be glad to avail myself of the extensive circulation of
the Annals to state, that I will feel obliged to uny gentleman,
who^e local knowledge of the districts on the outcrop or basset
of the chalk in England, or on the Continent, may give him
the TiieanB of examining them, for any information respecting
the beds which appear immediately below the chalky since it is
my wish to pursue this interesting part of English geology, until
the 0bd<5urilies complained of shall be completely cleared up.
1 am, Gentlemen, very truly yours,
iOj Bedjbrd'ttreetf Covent -garden, Ltmdon, THOMAS WeBSTER .
£2
1 ^
' » . * J t". Tboms
>u^*.i,»- Bt J. G.
ur«:Lriifd lo ns
1 «-wt«^I»KMS, in GTi
c-.:;;i j^ag seleoiuc
- ^-1 iSil by the
--_ i: -^ t-Sae uolou
u c ^itis tube clo$
. s.<3i; sttlphur aex
z^x^ ~:3> the flaUie
. ■:ss?-i oa the sides
, % lad very ue;
- ,.i -:i'Ur, (he
1626.] Mr. Phillips's Reply to Mr. Whipple. 63
part of the. tube was filled with a yellow vapour, a good deal
like chlorine, but of a deeper colour, and an unpleasant odour
was exhaled, very similar to that of cabbage water. After the
whole qf the vol^itile matter, had been sublimed, a fixed dark
coloured residuum remained at the bottom of the tube. This
was transferred to another tube, open at both ends, and again
heated ; some more of the red sublimate was thus obtained, and
the residuum assumed a grey colour. It amounted to about
53 per cent, of the weight of the. substance operated on, and on
examination was found to consist of earthy matter^ principally
silica ^nd linie ; consequently the assay contains about 47 per
cent. of. volatile matters, by far the greatest portion of which
coasists of the red sublimate. The red sublimate had evidently
been fused and spread over the inner surface of the tube.
When detached from the tube, a morsel of it imparted the same
beaiitiful blue colour to flame that has been already mentioned,
but more intense.
Another fragment, heated in a tabe open at both ends, sub-
limed without giving ofi* any sulphur, exhaling at the same time
a strong odour similar to that of horse-radish. It fused very
readily on being gently heated in a close tube over the lamp,
and remained tor some time in a soft pasty state.
These experiments are quite sufficient to establish the identity
of our red sublimate with selenium, and in external characters
also it perfectly answers the description of that substance. It
has a metallic lustre, and a deep brown colour when seeii by
reflected light. Its fracture is conchoidal, and has a vitreods
lustre. It is easily scratched by the knife ; is brittle, and its
powder has a deep red colour ; but it adheres together readily
when rubbed in the mortar, and then assumes a grey colour,
and a smooth and somewhat metallic surface. In veiT thin
laminae it is transparent, and when viewed by transmitted light,
has a beautiful cinnabar red colour.
Article X.
Observaiions upon Mr. Whipple's Amwer. By R. Phillips,
FRS. L. and E. &c.
In (hp seventh volume of the Amials q/' PA//o5opAy, p. 450, J^.S.
I offered, some remarks upon the Pharniacopceia Londinensis,
lately published .by the College of Physicians; and in the last
niiiQ^er of the Annals^ I am requested by a correspondent who
subscribes himself ** G. Whipple," to give him an explarlation of
them. The manner of Mr. Whipple's commuixication is such as
would, have prevented its appearance, if any one but myself had
Ineen the object of it. I shall, however, show, that he may at
64 Mr. PkilUps's Reply to Mr. Whipple. {
least congratulate himgelf upon his consistenoy, fbr hki mai
worthy of his style.
The part of Mr. Whipple's letter which I shall first not
the following : '^ I should esteem it an obligation^ if fav<
with a translation of the first nineteen lines of the papei
parvum in multo," These lines I do not think it necessa
repeat, but their meaning is, in my opinion, so obvious, t
have no words to render it more so ; i am, therefore, comi:
to leave the reader to decide, whether I write sense, oi
Whipple cannot understand it.
"On the formula for the preparation of sulphate of potash,"
Mr. W. " the writer of the paper is most fatally mistaken . I
opinion, the College have acted most judiciously in directing
the excess of acid be saturated with potash, instead of lime, U
this instance, they employ a salt of a very inferior vak
obtain one of a greater (and, by the bye, of some considei
importance to every manufacturing chemist)> and, there
contrary to the opinion of the writer (of that paper), who i
" The College would have acted economically in imitating
directions of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, by saturating
excess of acid of the bisulphate, with lime instead of potash
this the waste would have been avoided of using a salt of gre
value to obtain one of less." A single importunity to any oi
drug warehouses will convince him of his error." This caj
very easily settled, and I shall make great allowances in
W.'s favour, and yet the result will be in mine. Having ir
more than " a single importunity " to the requisite source
information, I will admit that sulphate of potash is sold
higher price than the subcarbonate ; and this fact I may ft
claim as favourable to the accuracy of my statement; for
high price of the sulphate is the natural result of expen
means employed for its preparation.
The circumstances of the case are these : the College din
nitric acid to be procured by decomposing nitrate of pot
with an equal weight of sulphuric acid ; the residuum is coi
quently bisulphate of potash composed of 88 sulphate of pot
and 40 dry sulphuric acid^ The question, therefore, is, whe<
it is more economical to reject those 40 parts of dry sulphi
acid after saturation with lime, or to convert them into sulph
of potash b3r employing the subcarbonate.
rearlash is impure subcarbonate of potash, but Iwillsupp
it to be pure ; it is sold at about 44/. per ton ; 40 parts of
sulphuric acid require 70 of it for saturation ; 22 of carbc
acid are expelled, and 88 of sulphate of potash produced,
short calculation will show that the cost of a ton of it thusj
pared will be 35/.
Impure sulphate of potash is readily procurable in the mar
for about 15/« p^r ton, and when the impurities and sligiitexe
ifl35.] Mr. PktUips'i JRepfy to Sir. Whipple. St
ofmdd are reinoved by Ume^ I will admit that only three^fourtlis:
of it are obtained in the state of pure sulphate of polaah, the
QMt of whiclt will be 20/. per ton.
Id making these statements, I suppose the trouble and
expeose of the operations to be equal.
The remarks next requiring observation are separated by a
pmragraph which I shall presently notice : they are, *^ Moreover-
Iw»uld ask, aince economy be the maximum on which he has.
feanded his examination, whether this salt could not be more
economically obtained by employing potash in the process for
forming tiie ferrum praecipiiatum ;" and ** My remark relative
to the ferri subcarbonas, will be seen in the note on sulphate of
potash/' It is to be observed that the College directs subcar*
Donate of soda for the decomposition of sulphate of iron in the
preparation of what they term ferri subcarbonasy and Mr. W.
oaUe ferrum pracipitatum. I have repeatedly endeavoured to
obtain this compound by using subcarbonate of potash instead
of soda, but from some unexplained cause, the carbonate of iron
never contained so large a proportion of carbonic acid in the
former case. I do not suppose that the carbonic acid has any
immediate good effect, but when combined with protoxide of iron,
it prevents its becoming peroxide, and consequently retains it
in a more soluble state.
Mr. Whipple's next observations apply to what I have stated
respecting. the preparations of iron. " To attempt a definition
of his remark on the preparations of iron, would be Aquarrt
arare, wherefore I ghall be obliffed, if favoured with information,
as to its abstract tendency. What must be the inference of an
assertion like the following? ' That in the preparations of iron,
there have been some alterations which are to be considered as
amendments ; but I am apprehensive that the ^ood which has been
done is more than counterbalanced by the omission of improvements,
or the commission of errors,' Surely, if in the formulse, that is,
such as have been altered, amendments have taken place, how
can we ascribe to the College a want of ability, or the commis-
sion of error?" I trust that most persons would understand
that I conceive the College to have done some good, and more
harm — the harm being of two kinds ; positiveby the commission
of errors, and negative by the omission of improvements. I will-
give instances of each : the process for preparing Ferrum tartar^
tzatwn is improved ; Vinum ferri is rendered worse by depriving
a weak preparation of nearly one-third its strength. In the direc-
tions for preparing /irrwA/i ammoniatu?n, about one-third only of
the subcarbonate oi iron ordered to be used are dissolved by Ihe
muriatic acid, and by the alterations introduced not only is waste
incurred, but the apparent strength of the preparation is much
greater than its real power. With respect to the omission of im-
ftfBOiraiBoaUr^) it is to bo observed that more thaaone«fourth of the
SS • Analyses of Books.' [J
sulphate of iron is wasted by continuing the direotioiis ibr m
too small a proportion of subcarbonate of soda; and a la
auatitity of solution of subcarbonate of potash should have I
irected in preparing the liquor ferri alcalini.
With respect to my proposal for substituting stpong ac
acid diluted with water for distilled vinegar, Mr. Whipple©
"The.acidum aceticum fortius diluted witfi water does
answer for the purpose of making the liquor plumbi subacet;
I have frequently tried it, and ever been unsuccessful^ foi
soOn as it assumes the density, as required in the Pharmacop(
it becomes opaque, which cannot be removed by filtration/'
have no doubt of the accuracy of Mr. Whipple's statement w
he admits that he has " ever been unsuccessful ;" and he
continue to be so while he employs impure acetic acid; i
must have been the case, for I assert that the acidum acetii
fortius diluted with water, does answer for the purpose of mak
the liquor plumbi subacetatis, a perfectly clear and colour!
solution being immediately obtainable by filtration.
Article XI.
Analyses of Books.
An Explanatory Dictionary of the Apparatus and Instrumt
employed in the various Operations of Philosophical and Ex
rimental Chemistry. With 17 Quarto Plates. By a Practi
Chemist. London. Boys, pp.295. 16s.
Sevknteen well executed quarto plates (for such they rea
are) for sixteen shillings can hardly be a bad bargain, and if t
text at all equal the engravings, in matter as well as type,
must be a very cheap one, at least as books go now. At
events, Mr. Adlard, the engraver, and Mr. Green, the print
have done their duty, and the paper does not disgrace t
stationer who sold it. So much for the getting up ; and i
assure our readers, it is no small part of the art and mystery
book-making in these days of bibliomaniacal fastidiousnes
We could wish indeed, for our own sakes, thait matters won
take a turn, and the price of books descend a little more to tl
level of our " cold" purses; but whilst our friend Mr. Dibd
continues to treat us with such luxuries as his Strasbourg Cdtfi
dra/f Ann of Brittany, and the View of Rouen on the Road
Havre, ^c* we cannot help wishing him to persevere in h
splendid course, though he half ruins us with the irresistib'
temptations. But to the work before us. (
• See his Tour, the most beautifiUly illustrated work of the kind of the present da
1826.] An Exp.l(tmiory ^DicUmiatJi/, S^c 67
Weleft]^ fipom 4he Pre&ee. that the die^gu of the; presents pub-
lication is to supply the want of plates in rnqstofthe element9.ry
treajtises/on cbemistryy.aiad to assist students who attend the
public chemical lectures, but have not sufficient time or. oppor-
tunity to examine the furniture of the lecture-table, so as to be
enabled perfectly to comprehend the construction and principles
of every article of apparatus. . The author acknowledges that he
hafr made free use of the best authorities, and at the same time,
lays claim to many original remarks and explanations.
The first chapter is devoted to a dissertation on the general
nature of chemical apparatus, drnd instruments ; and though the
remnrks are. somewhat diffuse, the young chemist ^ill find in
them, on the whole, a good deal of useful matter ; but we think
the necessity of having shelves, drawers, cupboards, bottle
brushes, sponges, towels^ &c. 8cc. inthe laboratory, might have
been left to the tyro's own sagacity to find out, who will probably
not be long before he discovers that chemical operations are
marvellously apt to make dirty hands, and that he must be no
niggard of his trouble in often cleaning his flasks, precipitating
glasses, retorts, &c. &c. as well as his own lingers, before he
quits the fumes of the laboratory for the perfumes of the draw-
ingroom.
This chapter also contains a pretty long list of instruments
and utensils, and another of tests, &c. ; in the latter of which,
the same articles are in several instances repeated under differ-
ent heads ; for instance, under the head Tests, we find carbonate
of ammonia, nitrate of barytes, nitrate of lead, sulphate of iron,
&c. and the same substances occur again in the next page under
the head Salts. Is this for the sake of amplification^ or from
inattention? It is bad at all events. Next come heat and fuel,
amongst which the author has omitted to notice the new sub-
stance obtained from the distillation of wood, and, not very pro-
perly perhaps, called naphtha ; it is a cheap and excellent sub-
stitute for spirits of wine. This chapter concludes with some
remarks on the method of conducting experiments, including
some good advice to young operators, extracted from Macquer
and Dr. Henry.
The very small space we can afford to our further remarks on
this volume will allow of only a few short extracts from some of
the articles, as a specimen of the general style of the work.
JilQwpipe. — Figures and descriptions are given of Bergman's,
Black.% and Wollaston's, which may be considered as legitimate
blowpipes, as they are supported by the hand, and the blast
urged oy the breath of the operator, the only possible method of
giving all the nice varieties of flame and position that are required
in the dexterous management of this admirable little instrument.
There are also figures of Brooke's Oxy-hydrogen Blowpipe, ah
asefol instrument, when we wish to throw an intense heat on a
S& Aiuifytei of JB^oks, [
single point ; of a setf-acting blowpipe, the oM aeolipile^
worth one farthing ; of a blowpipe with a self^adjustm^ oiii
atick (a ftelf-adjusting fiddlestick to Mr. Fran^oift Orac
Tiolin would be about as neoessary or useful) ; and a blowj
with a 8top*cocky to be used with a bladder.
The artide annexed to blowpipe (Bergman's) is made upoi
substance of the observations found in the best works on
subject; and is culled from Bergman's Treatise, De Tubo Fei
minatorio, Berzelius's Essat de I'emploi du Chalumeau^ &c* (
author tells us, that '*The best kwd of Jlame (or blowing" throL
with the blowpipe, is a thick wax or tallow candle/^ Thic
new to us ; we did not before know that a candle and its flai
are the same thing ; but however that may be, we thinJc t
recommendation erroneous^ and prefer a low lamp^ suppli'
with oil, to any candle whether of wax or tallow ; for the Jan
wants no snuffing ; the wick, when once well trimmed, will lai^t
long time without requiring the least alteration, and we avoid tt
abominable nuisance of having our hands or instruments smeai^
with melted wax, or " stinking tallow.^' The advantage also c
being able to adapt the size of the wick to the nature of th
operation, is materially in favour of the use of the lamp in prefer
ence to a candle.
" In using the blowpipe, the following observations should be
attended to. The end of the nozzle pipe must be just entered
into the flame, and the current of air will then throw out a cone
or dart of flame from the opposite side. If it is well managed^
this dart or cone wiff be very distinct and well defined. Care
inust be taken that the stream of air does not strike against any
part of the wick, as it would then be disturbed and split iato
several parts. The jet or blast of air must be dslivered some*
what above the wick ; and as unless the flame was considerable
diere will not be sufficient for the stream of air to act upon, for
this reason the wick is best to be opened, because it then
exposes the largest surface, and produces the greatest flame ;
the stream of air from the pipe should then be directed through
the channel or opening between the wick, so as to produce a
cone the most perfect and briUiant, directed downwards at an
angle of about 45 degrees."
These directions are not amiss, but require some qualifica*
tions. The position of the nozzle of the blowpipe with respect
to the flame must depend on the efiect required ; if an oxidating
flai^ be wanted, the extremity of tthe blowpipe should b^
inserted to some distance in the flame; for a reducing flame, it
must be drawn further back, and as to the form of the wick, except
in cases where a large flame is required, it is best to let if. be
cylindrical and unbroken* The flame of a wick of this forai
will be found the most convenient and manageable in all Mi*
«ate wpariments^
ISSi/] Proceedings of Pkiloiophicml Sociities* fld
The author has given ao figure of Oahn's blowpipd, vAnth we
fiDcl ftupeiior to any other. Dr. Wollaston's, like all fai$ ifiv6n<*
tionSy is perfect for the object proposed^ viz. portability ;^ but for
constant use, one with a reservoir is preferable^ and of those we
most approve of the form given by Gahn.
. The article Hygrometer is one of the longest and best in the
l»Ook ;. and we give the author credit for having dwelt amply on
the admirable instrument invented by Mr. Daniell. A woOdi>
cut, not very neatly executed^ is given of this hygrometer^ «&d
of Leslie's^ as well as of some other apparatus.
Under the head Hydrometer, Nicholson's useful table of the
eonreapondence of the degrees of Beaum6's hydrometers for
eaits and spirits, with their actual specific gravities at 55^ Fabr<
is. given, as well as Oil pin's valuable tables of the specifie gra^^
vities of alcohol of different strengths, and at different tempera*
tores. Under the article Measure Glctss, also, several useful
tallies are introduced, and generally through the work much
information, which both the student and proficient may refer to
9vith advantage.
. We are surprised that the author has not noticed the pyro^
met^r invented by Mr. Danielt; a long account is given of
Wedgwood's, which, it is now known, is an instrument of very
little service, since the clay pieces which serve to indicate th^
temperature, contract as much by a lower degree of heat leng
continued, as they do by the most intense. We have also
looked in vain for a figure of Mr. Cooper's excellent apparatus
for the analysis of organic substances. * Neither that nor Dr«
Prout's are noticed. Hiatus valde dejiendm! However, on the
whole, we think the Explanatory Dictiouary cannot fail to be
useful to a large class of chemical readers, and hoping the
author will fill up the desiderata in the next edition, we wish he
may eoon have the opportunity of doing so, and bid him heart^y
farewell.
Article XII.
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.
The meetings of this learned body, as we have already men-
tioned, were resumed on the 18th of November, 1824; when
Douglas C* Clavering, Esq. Capt. R.N. was admitted a Fellow
df the Society, and the following communications were read : —
The Croonian Lecture, by Sir E. Home, VPRS. : — In pursuing
his researches in minute anatomy, the author stated, at the
eMRnencement of this Lecture^ he had again availed himself of
the tkill and accuracy of Mr. Bauer ; and in this respect h^
60 Prof^edings iij\ Philosophical Societies. J
remrked^.he enjayed an advantage which no anatomist had
hef<M?e poBsessed^ and whicb^. perhnps^ might never again <
to anv one.
. Proceeding to. the. immediate subject of the Lecture, S
Home stated, that Mr. Bauer had discovered ?ierve.s hoth oi
foetal. and the, maternal surface of the placenta: they en
.over the arteries in a kind of trellis-work, and each tibre^ y
highly magaified, seems to consist of. globules connected t
ther: they are altogether distinct from any sort of arterij
venous tubes, and reflect the light hke white human haii
The arrangement of the nerves on the placentaB of the seal
fallow-deer was then described. — Sir T. S. Raffles, whose
pf the most valuable collection of subjects of Natural His
ever formed. in the East Indies, the author observed, every
must feel. for, presented him with the pregnant uterus of
Sumatran tapir, in which there is no placenta, the umbilical <
ps^ssing from the foetus directly to the chprion; and in this <
the nerves were found in the fiocculent part of the latter or^
' Sir Everard next gave an account of the disjtribution of
nerves belonging to the organs of generation in the hui
female, and in those of the quadruped and bird. — He had I
9ince suspected that wherever there were blood-vessels ti
were nerves, and that the latter, besides their office^of convey
sensation, were concerned in the formation of arteries ; i
fcom the extreme vascularity of the placenta, he had infer
their existence in that organ.. Mr. Bauer's verification of t
inference threyv great light upon various facts, hitherto uji
plained, depending upon the connexion of the mother wjth
foetus ; — it showed that the brain of the mother is connected w
all its nerves. Thus it explained the circumstances, of ,a foe
formed without brain ; of children dying on the too speedy di
»ion of the navel-string ; and of the various effects ascribed
the influence of the imagination of the mother on the offsprir
of which there were too many authenticated instances to reje
though from their not having taken place in certain particui
cases, they had been considered as accidental. The Lectu
closed with an accountof some instances of this kind which hi
come within the immediate knowledge of the author. One
them was that recorded in the Philosophical Transactions,
the mare, which, having first had a foal by a quagga, had af'te
wards -three foals successively by a Persian horse, all of wliic
were marked like the progeny of the quagga. Illustrative dr^v
ings by Mr. Bauer were annexed to this Lecture.
On the Changes undergone by the Ovum of the Frog, durin
the Production of the Tadpole. By the same Author.
Sir Everaid Home having investigated the gradual change
produced by incubation in the ova of warm-blooded animals, b
examining the formation of the chick, had now extended hi
1825.] Royal Society. 61
researcbes,' with Mr; Bauer's aid as before, to the cold^Uooded
class- of animals. The general successive steps of the process
had been ascertained to be the same in both classes. Mr.
Baaer's drawings of those which took place in the ovum of the
frog were- annexed to the paper.
iVow. 26. — At this meeting Richard Penn, Esq. was admitted
a Fellow ; and the name of William Scoresby, Jun. Esq. ordered
to be inserted in the printed lists of the Society : the following
paper was read : —
A New Method of calculating the Angles under which the
Planes ofrCrystals meet ; by W. Whewell, MAi FRS. and Fel-
low of Trinity College, Cambridge.'
In this papei', of which the introduction only was read, the
details being purely mathematical, the author proposed to sub-
stitute for the mode of calculating the angles of crystals hitherto
employed, in which different methods are used, according to the
relation of the different crystals to their nuclei, a few simple
formulae of universal application; and also to substitute for t be
arbitrary and inelegant notation by ^vhich the planes of crystals
have heretofore been designated, a simple and expressive note--
tion of corresponding symbols.
Nov. 30.— This being • St. Andrew's Day, the annrversaiy
meeting of the Royal Society was held at the Society's apart^
ments in'Somerset House.
The President, Sir Humphry Davy, took the Chair at twelve
o'clock, and delivered an eloquent address to a large nuaiber
of the members assembled on the occasion. We are happy to
be able to lay before our readers a faithful and pretty copious
abstract of that able and impressive composition.
After reading the list of members whom the Society has lost
by- death in the course of the preceding year, in whi<;h -the
names of Lord Byron, Mr. Lowry, and Baron Maseres occuired.
Sir Humphry Davy observed, that the only character which he
was called upon to notice, as a contributor to the Philosophical
Transactions, was that of Baron Maseres, whom he described as
having belonged to the old mathematical school of Britain, and
who, thr^ough a long life, devoted much of his leisure, aad a
portion of his fortune, to the pursuit and encouragement of the
higher departments of algebra and geometry. His love of
science was of the most disinterested kind, as is shown by the
natute of his publications, and his liberality in encouraging th«
publications of others. He died in extreme old age, having
almost outlived his faculties.
- The President then announced that the Council had awarded
the medal of Sir Godfrey Copley's donation, for the present-year,
to the Rev. John Brinkley, D. D. Andrew's Professor of Astro-
nomy iti the University of Dublin, and President of the Royal
Irish Academy. - ' —
02' Proceedings vf Philos^hical Societies. '[Jii
To soma of the members of the Society, who faaYt$ not fi
lowed eiosely the usages of the Council, a quefition may strin
why, in two successive years^* the cultivators of a scieilc
whch, during that time, has been distinguished by no remarks
ble discoveries, should receive the highest honours which th
philosophical association has to bestow ?
The progress of science has no annual periods ; and when
medal is to be bestowed every year, not merely important scien
tific facts, but likewise trains of useful labours and researches
mttst be considered, and the zeal, activity, and knowledge o
those pt^rsons, who, having been contributors to the Transac*
tions, most be considered as competitors, are to be taken into
the account.
. It has now and then happened that the Royal Society has bad
the felicity to mark some great and brilliant discovery, such as
that of the aberration of light, or the magnetic effects of electri*.
city, by this token of its respect ; but in general the medcd w,
of necessity, bestowed for contributions of a more humble cha-
racter ; to reward those laborious philosophers who hav^
tmlightened science by correct observations or experiments ; or
those sagacious inquirers, who, by accurate reasonings, or inge-
nious views, lay the foundations for new researches, or new
theoretical arrangements, or applications of science to the uses
of life. If any one department of natural knowledge requires
encouragement more than another, it is Astronomy ; for having^
arrived at a mature state, and presenting few striking objects of*
discovery, it can only be perfected by the most minute, laborious,
and delicate inquiries, which demand great attention, great
sacrifice of time, and often of health, since they must frequently
be carried on at a period usually devoted to repose.
Dr. Brinkley has long been known as an enlightened and
profound mathematician, and his papers in the Memoirs of the
Koyal Irish Academy, and some of those in the Philosophical
Transactions, contain abundant proofs of his skill in the higher
departments of analysis. Whoever, said the President, is in
possession of the higher resources of the mathematical sciences,
may be considered as gifted with a species of power applicable
to every department of physical knowledge. It is, indeed, fdr
this species of knowledge what muscular strength is for the
different branches of human labour. It not only generalizes the
relets of experiment and observation, but likewise correote
them, and leads to new and more refined methods of iiivesti^ft-
tion. The guide of the mechanical and pneumatical philoilo-
pber, and the useful assistant of the ohemint, it is of stiHujore
importance to the astronomer, whose results depend mMj
upon magnitude, time, and motion.
*' ThtVofHey medal was last yen given to tbe Astronomer RoyaI.--f(&
1825«] Boyal Sadeiy. 83
Bndowed in so bigb a degree with tme of the essential darfyd<-
tem of aa accomplished astronomer^ his various and later eora*^
municalions to the Koyal Society show that Dr. Brinkley ii;/
equally distinguiahed as a laborious, acute and accurate
obft^rv^i:. -
After stating the several subjects of Dr. Brinkley's seven
CQnuBunications to the Royal Society, published in the Philoso-
phical Tranaactions, and justly eulogizing their extraordinary
merit, Sir Humphry Davy proceeded to notice the two great
leading questions .ot astronomy, concerning which the Astrono-*.
mer Itoyt^l and Dr. Brinkley are at issue ; namely, 1. The sensi-^
ble parallax of some of the fixed stars ; and, 2. The apparent
southern motion or declination of parts of the sidereal system.
It is well known that sensible parallax is denied by Mr. Pond,
and believed to exist by Dr. Brinkley ; whilst, on the contrary,
southern declination is denied by Dr. Brinkley, and believed to»
exist by Mr. Pond. I mentioned, the President continued, io
announcing the award of the medal last year, that the Council
of the Royal Society had no intention of giving .its sanction to
the opinions of the Astronomer Royal, or of attempting to decide
on these important and difficult questions. I again feel it my
duty to make the same observation on this occasiixi, and -to
state that the general labours of Dr. Brinkley in the most diffi-
cult parts of astronomy, and the approximation that he has made
to the solution of a great problem^ and the high merits of his
philosophical inquiries, are the sole grounds on which the Cop-*
leian medal has been bestowed.
When Copernicus first developed that sublime system of ther
pVuietary worlds, which has since been called after his name^
he was obliged to suppose the fixed stars at an almost infinite
distance, and the astronomical instruments of that day ofiTered
no means even of attempting the discovery of their parallax.
The importance of such a discovery was, however, imme-^
diately felt ; as a demonstration of it would in fact become like«-
wi^ean absolute demonstration of tlie Copernican system of the
universe.
Gallilaeo seems to have suggested the method of inquiring for
parallax, by examining the relative position of double stars, one
of large, and the other of small magnitude, at thatwo extremities
of the earth's orbit; a method founded on the supposition tht€
the stars do not greatly diifer in absolute size. This method,
which was likewise strongly recommended by Dr. Wallis, tvas
first, I believe, said the President^ practised, and pursued with
great sagacity and industry, and with instruments of extraoiKK*
nary magnitude and perfection, by the late Sir WifliamHeifS€h6n>
and, in following his path, by Mr. Herschell and Mr« Sottdl^
Though it has afforded many important results with respect to
the proper motions of the stars and the arrangemeatand groups
64 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies [Jan.
of those heavenly bodies, it has as yet furnished no observations
forming data for reasoning on the distances of the fixed stars
from the sun.
The other method; and that which has been most insisted
upon, seems likewise to have originated with the illustrious
Florentine phitesopher, namely, that of observing stars, about
the summer and winter solstice, in or near the zenith, for the
Purpose of avoiding the errors of refraction; by fixed instruments,
he celebrated Robert Hooke, who erected, at Chelsea, a tele-
scope 36 feet long for examining y Draconis, imagined that he
had discovered a very considerable parallax for this star; but
Hooke's observations were contradicted by Molyneux.
Flams tead drew a similar conclusion from his experiments on
the pole star, but the results which he attributed to parallax
were explained by Bradley's great discoveries of the aberration
of light, and the nutation of the earth's axis ; and it is remark-
able that Hooke reasoned correctly on inaccurate observations,
whilst Flamstead formed wrong conclusions from exceedingly
correct results.
James Cassini, in observing Sirius, attributed a parallax of 6'''
to this star ; and La Caille, from observations made at the Cape
of Good Hope, supposed it to be 4^''.
Piazzi, whose conclusions are given with great diflSdence, in
researches pursued from 1800 to 1806, supposes thaY several of
the fixed stars exhibit parallax. He assumes for Sirius nearly
the same parallax as La Caille, for Procyon 3'^, and for Capra
less than 1'^. In all these observations, ndthing like southern
motion, it must be confessed, had ever been suspected. Dr.
Brinkley, in 1810, rated the parallax for a Lyrse at 2^^\ The
general conclusions of the Astronomer Royal from observations
made both with a fixed instrument, and with the mural circle,
are unfavourable to the existence of sensible parallax for any oiF
the fixed stars, and he refers apparent parallax to imperfections
in the instruments used in the observations, and offers as a proof,
the diminution of the indications in proportion as instruments
have become more delicate ; and estimating the Greenwich, as
superior to the Dublin Circle, thus accounts for the difference of
his results and those of Dr. 13rinkley.
Dr. Brinkley, in reply, does not allow the superiority of the
principle of the Greenwich instrument, and shows the consist-
ency of the Dublin instrument with itself, by numerous obser-
vations which place its permanent state beyond all doubt. The
results of 62 observations on « Lyrae, in 1811, give the mean
difierence between the summer and winter zenith distances as
y^*32'; and repeated observations, in the last ten years, give
Beasibie parallax, though with less consistency, for a Aquilae,
« Gygni, and Arciurus ; but none for y Draconis. Dr. Brikikley
seems entirely convinced of the accuracy of his general conchi-
J826.J , ^al Society. 6^:
sions. If any circumstances depending upon change of teniper-
ature, flexure of the instrument, or other causes of error existed,
why, he says, should they not be general for all the stars f Why
shoiUd such causes exist for a Lyrae, and not for the pole star,
which shows no sensible parallax I
On the question of southern motion, Dr. Brinkley compares
Mi:,Bessers, Mr. Pond's, Mr. Piazzi's, and Dr. Bradley's Cata-
logues, and after endeavouring to pi:ove discordjance in the,
AstFonomer Royal's mode of applying the data in these Cata-
logues to the question, he says, " from the weight of external,
testimony adduced, it will, 1 think, be readily conceded to me,
that the southern motion does not exist, and that it must be
regarded as an error, belonging to one or both of the Greenwich
Catalogues of 1813, and 1823."
Such is ,the state. of these two questions ; they are not, how-
ever, questions of useless controversy, nor connected with hostile
feelings : the two rival astronomers seem equally animated by,
the love of truth and of justice,«and have carried on their discus-
sions in that conciliating, amiable^ and dignified maimer, which
distinguishes the true philosopher. I cannot give a stronger
proof of this, than in stating that the Astronomer Royal w%s
amongst the first of the members of the Council to second and
applaud the proposition for the award of this day.
After soraie further observations on the subject of parallax,
the President remarked, that it is to be regretted that no star
has yet been observed absolutely in the zenith, which .might,
easily be done,, and in a part of the globe, for instance under the
eq^^tor, where almost precisely. the same circumstaAces of tem-.
peralure, moisture, and pressure of the atmosphere, would exist .
m sumoier and winter. An instrument fixed on granite, or an
aperture made in a solid stratum of rock, would destroy the pos-
sibUity of interference from foreign cau€ies, and reduce the pro-
blem to the simplest possible conditions.
^ir Huinphry Davy then, congratulated the Society, on the
great progress that is making in scientific inquiry, and the
means for procuring the necessary instruments, and paid a well
merited tribute of .respect to several of the most eminent astro*
nomers of the present day, and to those artists, especially
Troughton, ♦ DoUand, Reichenbach, and Frauenhofier, whose
genius and industry have brought philosophical apparatus to its
present high state of perfection.
Thje President then concluded this brilliant address nearly in
the ibllowing :Words :-^-
"ni^re is no more gratifying subject for contemplation than
the presen^t state and future prospects of astronomy ; and when
it ii»' .recollected what this science v^as two centuries ago, the
coni^r^t a^rids a subhme proof of the powers and. resources of
the h^man mind.
tiiw Series, y Oh. IX. f
iff Proceedings of PMhnpUcal Societies^ ^S
' HHe notionft df Ptolemy conoenung Cycles, and Epievcles
die moving spheres of the heavens^ were then current; the ah
vtttories were devoted rather to the purposes of judicial astroI<
than to the philosophy of the heavenly bodies; to objectB
superstition rather than of science.
If it were necessary to fix upon the strongest characterie
of the superiority of modem over ancient times, I knoiv i
whether the changes in the art of war from the application
gunpowder, or in literary resources from the press, or even tl
wonderful power created by the steam-engine, could be chos
with so much propriety as the improved state of astronomy.
Bven the Athenians, the most enlightened people of antiquit
condemned a philosopher to death for denymg the divinity <
the Siin ; and as to the other great nations, cotemporary wit
the Athenians, it will be sufficient merely to mention their idi
liiiryj, or utter ignorance with regard to the laws or motions c
the heavenly bodies.
Take the most transient and the simplest view of the science
as it now exists, and what a noble subject for exultation ! No
only the masses and distances of the sun, the planets and theii
satellites, are now known, but even the weights of bodies upon
their surfaces ascertained, and all their motions, appearances,
and changes, predicted with the utmost certainty for years to
come, Tind even carried back through past ages, t6 correct the
chronology, and fix the epochas in the history of ancient
nations. Attempts have even been made to measure the almost
inconceivable distances of the stars, and with this, what sublime
practical and moral results ! The pathless ocean navigated, and
m unknown seas, the exact point of dis^ce from known lands
ascertained. All vague and superstiflVus notions banished
from the mind, which, trusting to its own powers and analogies,
^es an immutable and eternal order in the whole of the universe,
intended after the designs of the most perfect beneficence, to
promote the happiness of millions of living beings, and where
the whole of created nature offers its testimony of the existence
of a Divine and Supreme Intelligence !
The President then delivered the medal to Mr. Baily, to be
transmitted' to Dr. Brinkley, begging him to assure that gentle-
man of the respect and admiration of the Royal Society, who
receive his communications, presiding, as he does, over another
kindred scientific body, not merely with pleasure, bat with gra-
titude^ and who trust that he will continue them both for the
advancement of astronomy, and for the increase ofhis own high
reputation. .
' The Society then proceeded to choose their Couadl and '
Officers for the ensuing year ; and the following were deelared >
dtly elected: • *
Of the Old CounciL-^Sir Humphry Davy, Bart; W. T. ^
1^5.] Ra^ S^cUiy.
Brande^ Esq. ; S. Gh>od6noiigh> Lord Bishop of Ctilislf ^ Mljor
T. Colby ; J . W. Oroker, Esq. ; D. Gilbert, Esg. ; C. Httchett,
Bsq. ; Sir E. Home, Bart. ; J. Pond, Esq. ; W. H. Wolliuitoii^
MD. ; T. Young, MD.
Of the New Council.— W. Babington, MD.; F. Baily, Esq.}
J. G. Children, Esq.; J. W. Viscount Dudley and Ward;
J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. ; Capt. H. Kater ; T. A. Knight, Biq. ;
A. Mac Leay, Esq. ; SirT. S. Raffles, Knt. ; Edward Adotphus,
Duke of Somerset.
President. -^Sir H. Davy, Bart.
Treasurer. ^^D, Gilbert, Esq.
Secretaries, — ^W.T.Brande, Esq.; and J.F.W.fleracbelf Esq*
Dec. 9. — Charles Mackintosh, Esq. was admitted aFeHowi
M. Tbenard was elected a Foreign Member ; and the following
oonmumcations were received.
Three extensive series of Astronomical Observations madetl
the Observatory of Paramatta, New South Wales ; communi-
cated by Sir Thomas Brisbane.
Explanation of an Optical Deception in the Appearance of
the Spokes of a Wheel seen through Vertical Bars. By P. M.
Roget, MD. FRS.
A portion only of this paper was read.
£fec. 16. — ^The name of Dr. John Thomson, of Edinburgh, was
ordered to be inserted in the printed lists of the Society ; and
the reading of Dr. Roget's paper was concluded.
The spokes of a revolving wheel appear curved when viewed
through the intervals of a series of vertical bars, such as those
of a palisade, or a Venetian window-blind. The spokes oo each
wde of the Upper one, which has arrived at the vertical position,
appear bent upwards ; and the curvature of each spoke inoraasfs
accordingly as it is more distant from the uppermost one. Tbo
direction of the curvature is the same, wnether the wbei^l h%
monring to the right or to the left of the spectator. The app^iur**
ance takes place only when the wheel is revolving with a certain
velocity, and remains the same whatever greater velocity is given
to the wheel, as long as the spokes continue visible,
author slates the results of experiments illustrating theinflaeooe
of various circumstances on these illusive appearances ; and
infers from them that the combination of a progressive with a
rotatory motion is essential to their production. He explains
tbetn on the well-known physiological principle of the ooQili'*'
nuance for a certain time of an impression made on the retina ;
and shows that not only all the ordinary phenomena acQOrd
with his theory, but that, by means of it, the result of more
eoni|^4cated combinations may be anticipated; The paper coni^
dudee with li^ mathematical investigation of the curves Ibba
generated ; of which the general equation and leading propeolies
are given.
T 2
68 Scientific NoticH'^Chemisity. [Jan*
The following communication was also read : —
Oh a hew Pnotometer ; by A, Ritchie, AM. : communicated
bythe President.
The principles on which the indications of this instrument
depend; are, that radiant heat does not pass through thick plates
of glass^ btit'iiB conducted through them in the same manner as
through opaque bodies ; that lignt expands in the same manner
ag he^ the substances which absorb it ; and that the intensity
of light twines inrerseiy as die square of the distance. Mr. Rit*
chic's photometer, however, difibrs essentially from that of Prof.
Leslie. Its deUcacy is such that it is very sensibly, aflfected by
tbeMi^ht of acandfe at the distance of 20 or 30 feet, while no
eifeetis produced an it by a hot ball of iron radiating a much
greater quantity of: heat When exf)Osed to several lights at
different distances, it expresses their intensity according to iho
law just stated. ,
Article XIII.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.
Chemistry.
' .1 . Saline Efflorescence upon the Surface of Bncks.
., ,' <Ta the Editore of the AnnaU of Phiio8op?ty.)
GENTLEMEN, Liston Grove.
Walking some time since with a friend in the neight)0ur-
4iood of St. John's Wood Road, where a considerable number
of cottages in the Italian style, surrounded by gardens and
inclosed with brick walls, have lately been erected, our attention
was attracted by observing the irregular distribution of a white
coloured substance upon the surfaces of some of these garden
walls. Upon closer inspection, a pretty thick and extensive
efflorescence became apparent, a portion of which when scraped
off and applied to the tongue communicated a strong and disa-
greeable saline taste. A quantity of this saline substance was
collected, and on being submitted to a slight chemical examina-
tion, it soon became evident that it was almost entirely com-
posed, of' sulphate of soda, blended with minute portions of
muriate of lime and magnesia.
I am aware that sulphate of soda has occasionally been met
with as an efflorescence upon old walls on the Continent and
elsewhere, but I do not think that it is a very common occur-
rence in this country ; and may it not be asked,' whether the
solidity of walls built of such materials is not like^ to be mal6->
rially diminished ?
The salt evidently, in the first intance, crystallizes i4>on,tk&
18257] Scwitific Notices-^Chemistty. 69
SQiiaceg of the brick, and in a dry state of the aimosphere,e^-
rttctss. Th6 action of rain speedily dissolves the emoreisceqce
tlios formed^ and another portion of salt will be quickly deter-
mined to the surface ; should this succession of changes continue
to go on, the bricks may soon be expectiedto become porous;
and t^eir consequent disintegration must happen in a short
time.
If you consider this notice worth inserting in the Annals ojf
Philosophy, it may probably be the means of inducing those
whom it may more immediately concern^ to attend to a circum-
stance of which, perhaps^ they are not aware.
I remain, Gentleinen, your veiy obedient servant,
• • ' . ••■ K.W.
2. SoltAiHty of Oxide ofi^obdlt in Ammonia. — Cobaltic Add.^
Oxide of cobalt does not appear capable of dissolving directly
in ammonia, and a combination between the two substances can
take place only under the two following circumstances:—^
L Either the oxide of cobalt combines with an acid, and in this
state forms a double salt with the ammonia, which is also com- -
bined with the same acid ; as, for example, 'in the carbonate of
oxide of cobalt and ammonia, nitrate of oxide of cobalt and
ammonia, &c. 2. Or, when the proportion of acid is insufficient
to saturate Doth the oxide 6f cobalt and the ammonia, as, for
example, when a neutral salt of cobalt is treated with an excess
of ammonia, there is formed a small quantity of the double salt,
and the greater proportion of the oxide precipitates in bl^ie
coloured flocks; which, so long as oxygen gas is excluded, do
not redissolve. If oxygen gas be admitted, it is rapidly
absorbed; the blue flocks at. the same time assume a green
colbur, and gradually disappear, yielding a brown cplbufeA
solution. If a salt of cobalt containing an excess of acid be
employed, or if there be previously added a sufficient quantity of
the corresponding ammoniacal salt,- the addition of an excess of
amtnonia occasions no precipitate, and there is obtained a palfe
red coloured liquid ; iri the case of nitrate of cobalt, this liquid
uiidfettb'tedly contains nitrate of cobalt and ammonia, and depp-
8!fe"red coloured crystals. This solution also is capable of
ab^fbifag 6xygeti gas, and its colour is thereby changed to' a
brown. • Tlie maxicaum amount of absorption is in the propoV-
tion nearly of one equivalent of oxygen to one equivalent of
ojdtfe' of cobalt'; consequently the cobaltic acid thui^ formed
coiitainB half an equivalent more of oxygen than the hyperoxide'
ofcdbalt. '
If the above ammoniacal liquid, previously saturated wifh
oxytfeti, 'be committed to a rapid spontaneous evaporation^, it
yields a compound of ammonia with nitric and cobaltic acids j in
brown coloured, apparently four-sided prisms with square
70 Scientific Noticis^^Mineralogy. V^^.
basts. This salt dissolves without iindergoing' decomposition
in dilute liquid ammonia, forming with it a brown coloured solu-
tion: in water it dissolves only partially, azote bein^ at tho
same time disengaged, and by peroxide of cobalt precipitated.
Exposed to the air, it is rapidly decomposed, and becomes dull
ima red coloured : it seems probable that the decomposition is
principally occasioned by the absorption of carbonic acid.-**
%eopoid Gmelin^,
MiNBRALOGY.
3. Composition of Garnet.
When writing the short notice on garnet contained in our num-
ber for Nov. last (vol. viii. p. 388), we were not aware that a
systematic examination of this mineral had been all eady under-
takeil and accomplished. Having since received the entire
volume of the Swedish Transactions for 1823, we hnd in it a
memoir by Wachtmeister, containing a de^scription and analysis
q( 13 varieties of Garnet, all from different localities and geolo-
gical positions. With only one exception they all proved to be
constituted in conformity with the formula which we gave in
our notice, namely, an atom of a silicate of a base containing
three atoms of oxygen (as alumina, peroxide of iron), combined
with an atom of a silica of a base containing two atoms of oxyi-
jgen (as lime, magnesia, protoxide of iron, protoxiSe of manga-
nese). , Whenever a genus becoipes so diversified as is the case
with garnet, it is of the utmost consequence, in a mineralogical
point of view, to investigate the connexion which subsists
between the chemical composition of each variety, and it9
external and physical characters, such as its specific gravity^
hardness, colour, transparency. We have, therefore, arranged
the most important of Wachtmeister s results in the form of a
synoptical table; by means of which the mutual relations
between the principal characters of each variety will be made at
once apparent to the reader. In a geological point of view, it is
of no less importance to trace the degree of similarity which
subsists between the composition of a simple mineral and its
matrix : and as the garnet appears to surpass almost every other
class 01 minerals in the remarkable extent to which its composi-
tion is influenced by that of the substance in which it exists
imbedded, or upon which it rests, we have allotted a column
to the matrix of each variety, or, where that has not been men-
tioned, to the minerals with which it is found associated.
1825.J
Scientifie Notices-^Mineralqgy,
n
OS
.+ +
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CO
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40
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oo
00
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&
8
^
s
GO
a
s
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il
s
Si
J
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■S
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8
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g
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^If
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^ ji ^ jd ^M ^IZ
III
e
z
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60
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lj
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»^
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a3 V >
as I a s a iS
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s
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^2 Scientific Notices — Mineralogy. [Jan
The numerical results of his analyses were as follows :
1
1
2
•3
4
5
6
7
SUica ,
40*60
19-95
33*93
6-69
42*51
19*15
1-07
33*5?
5-49
41*00
20*10
1-50
604
28*81
2-88
42*000
21000
4*980
4*320
25180
2-375
0T45
39-93
13*45
14-90
31-66
1-40
35*10
29*10
26*91
7-08
0*98
0*83»
35*64
Alumina
Chdde ot iron
80<X>
29-21
Magoesift
OxMuIe of iron
Oxidule of manganese
Potash
Loss
101-17
101*79
100*33 lOOOOO
101*34
100-00
100*22
■
8
9
10
11
12
13
Sifica ....],
38-125
7*326
19*420
31*647
3*300
0-183»
37*993
2-712
28*525
30*740
0*615
42*450
22*475
6*525
13-430
9-292
6*273
40-20
6*95
20*50
29*48
400
40*55
20-10
500
34*86
0^48
58*107
Alumina • ...••..•..
18*035
Oddeof iion
liime ....
5*775
Magnesia
Oxidttlaofixon
Oxidttle of manganese
Potash
23*540
1*745
«
Loss
100*000
100-585
100*445
101*13
100*^
101*202
The garnet which, in its composition, constituted an excep-
tion to all the other varieties, is the one whose leading chamc-
ters are given in No. 18. It contains so large a proportion of
silica, that one-half of the bases must be supposed to exist in the
state of bisilicates. Wachtmeisier, however, is of opinion, that
this variety may for the present be left out of view, because it is
even to the naked eye distinctly intermixed with a foreign mine-
ral, and it is not to be supposed that the composition of ^^ sub-
stance evidently impure, can be admitted to invalidate a general
law, which all the twelve other varieties coincide in indicating.
The garnet, indeed, possesses a peculiar tendency to crystallize
indiscriminately with other mineral compounds, from which it
differs essentially in chemical constitution ; and the presence of
such foreign bodies, so far from lieing an obstacle, appears even
to favour its crystallization. These foreign admixtures may be
often recognized in the form of dull spots on the surface of the
most regularly formed crystals.
4. Collection of Minerals.
In proof that mineralogy is not on the decline on this .Vvd^ of
th^ water, we may allude to the purchase of Hauy's collection
not hnig ago by his Grace the Duke of Buckingham;, and. we
* Isdading some carbonic acid.
iSSB^ Seknt^ Notices-^Mineralogy, 7S
liave n&w to acqviaiiil our readers with Mr. Heuland^s parebase
of diat of the Marquis de Dree. The Parisians, however, have
still to admire the private collection of the late King of France,
under the superintendance of Count Boumon, that of the Jardin
des Plantes^ and another/ highly instr^uctive, at the College of
Mmes. Besides every Professor of Mineralogy at Paris has a
collection, and that of Monsieur Brochant de Villiers is now the
most valuable of any private individual there. With the excep-
tion of two other pnvate collections of peculiar note on the Con-
tinent, all the others from thence have by degrees found their
way to this country.
6. Supports for Minerals before the Blowpipe.
Our readers will remember the interesting paper by Mr.
Smithson on this subject, which appeared in me Annals of Phi-:
losophjfj vol. vi.p. 412, N. S. Lieut.-Col. Totten, of the United
States, has lately published some experiments on the same sub-
ject. His procesa^ is a modification of that adopted by Mr.
Smithson. We extract a part of his memoir.
" Not being able to obtain any clay suflSciently refractory for
my purpose, though I tried the German and the Enghsh (Stour-
bridge) clay, used for crucibles by glass-blowers, and two or
tbree specimens called pipe-clay, I had recourse to the minerals
which I designed to' expose to the action of the flame; this is
Mr. Smithson's third process. Instead, however, of taking upon
the point of the wire a very minute portion of the paste made of
ihe powdered mineral, according to Mr. Smithson's method, I
formed a paste by mixing the powder with very thick gum water,
and rolling a little of it under the finger, formed a very acute
cone, sometimes nearly an inch in length, and generally about a
twentieth of an inch in diameter at tiie base. These cones, being
held by the forceps, or attached to the end of a wire, or even of
a splinter of wood, may be directed accurately upon the minutest
visible particle ; and being a little moistenea at the point with
saliva, the particle will adhere to the very apex underthe strong-
est blast of the blowpipe.
I conceived that whe<i a very small quantity of paste was
used, the extremity of the wire or forceps must necessarily.
ab^ract much heat from the fhigment under exatnination,
because itmust itsdf be often within the limits of the blue flame ;
and my object was, as much as possible, to insulate the frag-
ment. These cones need not in fact be more than on^^uaxter
or one-fiilh of an inch in length ; for so effectually is the con-
ducting property of the mineral substance destroyed, by
destroying the continuity of its particles, that one of these cones,
of tb6 length of half an itich, may be held at the base' by the
fitiei^rs ^ith impunity, while the apex i^in the foe^ oikk^mV.
One great advantage of this niemod over the others is, that if
fusion ensues, it is owing entirely to the nature of the substance'
•XfMriiMiited upon, and nai in any 4egre0,tQ the .agency af
foreign substanoQ acting aat flu^es.''-*^ Annals of the liyQ^um af
Natural History, New York.)
GEOLoav. ^
6. OntheQeologyqf Snowdoun
GENTLEMEN.
Having observed m No. 24 of the Annah^ in a paper byr
Messrs. Phillips and Woods, giving an accpunt of the geology
of Snowdon, that the inquiries of those gentlemen were unsuc-
cessfully directed in search of a felspathic rock, which had beea
mentioaed to them as existing in that neis^hbourhood, I have
tuQVight it might not be unacceptable were I to point, out whero
such a rock may be found, namely^ close to the town of Caer«
narvou« Here the rock in question forms a conspicuous craggy
knot imnaediately adjoining the north side of the town, whicK
appears to consist entirely of red felspar, with a large intermix*
ture of quartz, chiefly in the form of separate crystals. ^ This
rock is m its appearance so totally distinct from those in the
neighbourhood, that I much regret it should have escaped the
observation of a competent observer. From a quarry oii the
$outh side of the hill, it appears to rest upon the usual slaty
ij^ocks so abundant in that part of Wales. C. C, C.
We have to apologize to our correspondent C. C. C. for the
delay that has occurred in the publication of his communication.
The paper was accidentally mislaid. A scientific friend to
whom we showed the specimens which accompanied C. C. C.'s
tetten having expressed a doubt as to the rock being feldspar,
Mr. children has examined a portion of it to ascertain if it con-*
tain potash. By fusion with nitrate of baryta, Sec. he readily
detected the presence of that alkali.— C. and P.
Miscellaneous.
7. Is the Level of the Baltic stationary?
About half a century ago, the philosophers in the north of
Burope entered into an aniniated controversy respecting ihe
accuracy of an assertion which even then had become very
generally credited, that the water of the Baltic is in a state of
progressive diminution. Owing to the want of the necessary
data, neither party at that period succeeded in establishing their
opinion; but the oiscussion had the fortunate effect of directing
the attention of properly qualified persons to the subject, and of
lAduaing them to observe from time to time the mean height of
the water in jnaog^rous stations both on the eastern and. wesiera
<)oasta» A )a^<? &pdy of facts bs^ thus been gradually, acoumu-*
k^iingi and the reaulta of these ooiacide with such uniformitjr ill
c jWrfigtfi '^'Mkc^hmiUi.
70
iadioaitiiif on aetftal shriaking of the wftt^r, that iht'fftOt ofits^
being iQ a state of progressive diminutioa appewps to ha .now
ascertained almost beyond dispute* In the oouree of the years
1820 and 1821, M. N. Bruncroaa, with the assistance of the
officera of the Footing Establishment, and of other individuals
fiu&iliarly acquainted with the subject, undertook an examina^
tion of all the well-authenticated watermarks which have been
made along; the western shore of the Baltic within the la$t half
centuiy. His results, which are in the fullest extent confirma*
tory of the conclusions which had been deduced by preceding
observers, are Consigned in a short memoir in the SwedishfTrans-
actions for 1823. The following table exhibits the amount to
which, according to his observations, the level of the water has
fallen within the last forty years. It is necessary to remaiic,
that, in some instances, the watermarks were much older, and,
in others, of a more recent date than forty years : in all such
case's^ the change which had taken place within the last forty
years was estimated by calculating the mean annual depression
^om the period of the earliest observation.
»
,
1
Falloftiiatut^
facein40^eani
Province.
Parish.
Place.
Latitude.
in feet.
Vesterbot^.
Bygdea.
RataskSr.
63«
59'
150
•
Ledskar,
.
8-50
Ditto.
^
0-50
Oefleborg«
Aogsta.
BalsS.
Cl"
43
«'50
•
Honxslandet.
61
87
8*83 •
Njutanger.
Ago.
61
32
2-60
HiUe.
Lofgnmdet.
61
45
2-50
Stockholm,
Hafvero.
Svartklubben.
60
11
2-33
Radmanso.
Gisslinge.
d9
46
sn
,
Soderarm.
59
46
2-00
A^armdo.
Sandhamm
59
17
2-17
8orunda^
Landsort.
58
44
100
NjrlSping.
Balinge.
Harts5.
58
43
108
^fvesund.
. 58
45
IIT
St. Nicolai.
Hafringe,
58
35
2*00
OsteigSthUnd.
Jonsberg.
Arko.
58
S8
0*6T
Gxyt,
EettUo.
58
11
0-8!^
•
Haradoskar.
58
S
1*00
Kalmar.
Loftahammar.
Stedsholmen.
57
50
1*00
Kalmar.
Skallo.
56
41
6*41
BUking.
Carlskrona.
Carlshaino.
56
56
H)
H
^
ChOfUiaiistad,
Ahus.
55
55
y^-00
•
Ml^inc^Uf
Falfiterbo.
55
S3
. •
Landskrona.
55
22
•
Halland.
Bahusia.
Otisala.
HaUsund*
57
21
^
Marstrand.
Ko5n.
57
hn
I'W '
Aiiion^ the manjr facts which presented themselves in the
eonrse oPthis investigation^ and which he considers corrobora-
tive 0f the depression in question^ may be menliolidd the fd^
lowing:
76
Scientific Notices^ — Misceildnedus.
^JanI
1. The almbflit univ^al remark that the Baltic has become
shaliawer in the ordinary sailing tracts^ is admitted by the pilots
to be not destitute of foundation^ but they are of opinion that
this alteration is in general most perceptible in situations
exposed to the afflux of driftsand, loose pebbles, or sea^weed, or
where the bottom consists of rock. A similar observation has
been made in the proximity of the larger towns and fishing sta*
tions; for example, according to the chart drawn up in 1771,
the mean depth of the sea opposite the harbour of Landskrona
wras six fathoms ; in 1817, it was scarcely .five fathoms.
2. Between the numerous islets which are scattered al(»ig the
coast of Sweden from Haarparanda to the boundaries of Nor-
way, there are sailing tracts where, 80 or 90 years ago, accord-
ing to the testimony of the oldest and most experienced pilots^
the sea admitted ships having a draught of 10 feet, although at
present they are impassable to vessels whose draught exceeds
two or three feet: at the same time it does not appear that older
tracts, in the immediate vicinity of these, have become sensiUy
shallower.
- 3. It is asserted also by the pilots, that along the whole coast
of Bahusia, the sailing tracts where the bottom consists of rock,
undergo a sensible diminution of their depth every 10 years.
Many other parts of the Baltic might be mentioned/ in which a
similar alteration has been taken notice of. "*>
M. C. P. Ualtstrom, in a valuable appendix to M. Bruncona's
memoir, givesr the following table of the corresponding diminu-
tion which has been observed in the water of the Gulf of
Bothnia.
4
Distance of the
1
Mean height of water
water below
the original
Fall of the
water in 100
Place.
marked in
re-observed in
markjinfeet
Years.
yeairs^leet.
Rftholmen, in the parish
1700 •
1750
2-05
50
410
of Lower Kalix
1775
2-49
75
3»8«
Stor Rebben, in the pa-
rish'ofFitea ........
1751
1785
1-70
34
5-00
1796
1-90
45
4-29
Batan, ia the parish of
iU9
1785
£•70
36
4-72
Bwdea
1795
2-50
46
5-43
y »~ " *'**••*• ***'■
1819
260
70
. 3-47-
1774
1785
055
11
500
1795
1-16
21
5-52
1819
1-60
45
3-57
1795
1819
0-65
24
2-71
RSnnslcar, on the coast
1735
1797
1-70
42
405
ofWasa
1755
1831
1785
2-87
1-45
65
SO
4-35
Wargjin, on the coast of
4-83
Wasa
1797
1821
1*69
2.87 .
42
65
4*02
r
4-35
L9%rundet, beyond
17Sr
17"86
2-90
54
5-37
mBiia» > w. • . «'w ^ •<• • . . «
I ^ * '
nm r
2-17
. 65
y »34»T.'
Ul£on, in Angermanland
1795
,1899
1-58
87
. 5-8d
1825.] Neto Scimtijic Books. 77
n^at tlie nuKAb«rs in the last column, boweveor^ represent the
exact amouot of the secular depressioDy cannot be regar^d a«
fully determined y because it has not yet been satisfactorily ascer-
tained whether the diminution be uniform, or whether it varies
at different periods ; and whether it is in any respect dependent
on local circumstances, or on the climate, or on the stale of the
atmosphere. Neither has it been ascertained whether this
depression, which has been remarked to become less and less
from the north of the Baltic towards the south until it finally
becomes insensible, diminishes in an equal proportion with the
latitude, or whether it follows a different law. Throughout the
whole . of the Gulf of Bothnia, the fall appears to be uniform, and
its amount for the la^t 100 years appears to be about 4-f' feel^
below, at Calmar, it is only 2 feet ; but whether the diminution
between these two stations takes place in a regular progression
is still undecided.
Before concluding, we have only to remark, that this Bwp»
posed fall of the level of the Baltic must not be regarded as dis-;
proved by the issue of the long agitated inquiry, whether. the
level of that sea is actually higher than, that of the German
Ocean; and which the observations made of late years at the
locks of the canal of Holstein appear to have answered decidedly
in the negative. Neither can an absolute fall be accounted for
by M. Otto's theory, that the sea in one position is gaining, iii
depth exactly what it loses in another ; a shifting which he
attributes to the banks becoming in some situations more
extended, and the bottom more elevated, in consequence of the
immense quantities of earth, sand, stones, &c. which are annually
carried down by the large rivers which disembogue themselves
into the Baltic. Admitting the accuracy of the observations as
they are recorded on the rocks themselves, we must also admit
either that the rock constituting the bottom of that sea is actually
elevated by some subterraneous process, or that irs waters are
either dimmishing by evaporation, or are retiring to some other
quarter of the globe. The latter explanation is supported by
numei^ous authentic analogical changes, with which every one
at all conversant in the history of the earth is familiarly ac-
quainted ; while there are no geological facts at present knrown
which bestow any degree of plausibili<^y upon the former.
Article XIV.
NEW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
PREPARING FOR PUBLICAllOV.
Mtf J'Bewick is preparing a work on British Fishes, in the style of
his preceding volumes on Quadrupeds and Birds.
NewPatentSi tJAir,
Tlr^mrif in Greeee; by Dr. P. P. Brondsted, will appear in eight
jPartif royal 8v6.
A New Scientific Journal is about to be published in Dublin, under
the title of the Dublin Philosophical Journal, and Scientific Review, to
be published half-yearly.
The Sixth Edition of Dr. Paris 's I^armacologia, in which will be
introduced a revolving scale, termed the Medical Dynameter, show-
ing the absolute and relative strength of the different preparations of
medicine : in 2 vols. 8vo.
The Mechanic's Encyclopssdia, or General Dictionary of Arts,
Manufkctures, end Practical Science ; in 8 vols, post 8vo. with nume-
rous Plates*
An AnpendiK to Capt. Parry's Second Voyage of Diacovery, can*
gaining the Natural History, &c.
J(7ST PUBLISHED.
The Transactions of the Geological Society, Vol. I. Part II.
A View of the Present State of the Salmon and Channel Fisheries,
comprehending the Natural History and Habits of the Salmon, By
J. Cornish, Esq. 8vo. 6s. 6(i,
A Compendium of Medical Theory and Practice, founded on Cal«
ka's Nosology. By D. Uwins, MD. l2mo.
An Eaaay on Curvature and Diseases of the Spine. By R. W.
Bampfield, Esq. 8vo. 10^. 6d,
Prewster's Edinburgh Encyclopeedia, Vol. 17* Part I. 1/. 1*,
Halkett's Notes on the North American Indians. 10^. ^
Travels among the Arab Tribes inhabiting the Countries East of
Syria and Pale^tme. By J. S. Buckingham, Esq. 4to. With Illus-
trations. 31, 35.
Article XV.
NEW PATENTS.
J. Gunn, Hart-street, Grosvenor-square, coach-maker, for Improve*
msnts in wheeled carriages. — Oct. 14.
W. P. Weise, Tooley-street, Southwark, Surry» manufacturer, for
improvements in the preparing and making water-propf clotbi and
9ther materials for the manufacturing of hats, bonnets^ caps, ^nd wear-*
ing, apparel, and in manufacturing the same therefrom. — Oct. 14^
H. Marriott, Fleet*street, ironmonger, for an improvement in water-
closets. — Oct. 14?.
J. Fetlow, Manchester, for improvements in power looms for weaving
various articles. — Oc. 14-.
H. Mandslay and J. Field, both of Lambeth, engineers, for their
method and apparatus for continually changing the water used in boil-
ers for generating steam, particularly applicable to the boilers of steam
vessels making long voyages, by preventing the deposition of salt or
other substances contained in the water, at the same time retaining the
heat, saving fuel, and rendering the boilers more lasting. — Oct. 14.
182S;3
Mr, HotoartTi Miteorohgical Joamal.
^
Article XVI.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.
Bai^okjetbr.
Thermometer.
,
18S4.
Wind.
Max.
Min.
Max.
Min.
Bvap,
iUfo.
1 lib Moo*
Nov. 1
W
29-87.
. 29 82
58
50
..«
01
-2
S W
2()-98
29-87
48
40
_
3
W
2998
2997
48
34
—
4
N
2997
29*93
44
32
—
5
N W
30-24
29-93
46
25
—
6
W
30-24
30-10
55
25
_
7
w
30-10
29-87
57
50
—
S
w
30-12
29-87
50
34
—
9
N W
30-12
3004
55
37
—
12
10
w
3004
29-99
56
50
—
25
11
N W
3008
29-99
56
42
• —
60
12
N W
30*2 1
30-08
50
40
««
m^.-
13
W
30-21
2973
55
45
—
25
14
N W
30-06
297^
50
35
.—
03
15
N W
30-37
50-06
45
32
— .
—
16
W
30*37
29^98
51
38
' •.
17
s w
29'9^
29*56
58
52
'95
06
18
s w
29-92
29-56
55
48
—
28
19
s w
29*92
29-68
50
39
—
40
20
H E
29-68
29-61
53
43
—
34
21
w
29*6 1
29-60
53
40
— .
38
22
s w
29*60
28-72
52
42
*—
\€
.23
s
29' 13
2871
52
42
—
15
24.
s w
29*48
29-13
52
40
—
25
w
29*81
29-48
50
31
•—
06
2G
N W
29-89
29*81
48
30
^^
27
E
29-91
29-84
53
36
•48
28
S W.
29'84
^•38
53
47
-—
IS
29
s w
29-60
29-38
52
38
—
12
30
s w
29-59
29-46
52
43
•35
M ■'
30-37
28-17
58
25
1-78
3-82
The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-four hours,
begmning at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first column. A daih ^enote^.tlial
tbt result is included in the next following observation.
L
^ Mr. HowartTt MeteorohgkalJquf^L [Jan. 1825.
REMARKS.
Eleventh Month.-^l, Cloudy. 2<-»4.-Fine. 7. Fine: lunar halo. & CiMdy.
9. Fine. 10. Cloudy. 11. Rainy. 12. Fine. 13. Cloudy. 14. Rainy, 1ft. Ckudy
and fine. 16. Fine. 17. Boisterous, 18—20. Rainy. 21. line day: rainy night.
22. Showers: windy: very boistezous night., 23. Starmy wind'continued to blow
ftnioQsly all night. \ 24. Wind a little abated this morning : day fine. 25. ilne day :
a heavy shower at half-past five, p. m. 26, Fine. 27. Cloudy. 28. Cloudy : a
b<»8teroQ8 wind aU li%ht.' 29. Fine day : rain at night. 30. Rainy : windy.
• RiESULTS.
Winds: K, 1; E, 1; SE,1; S,.1;.SW,9; W;iO; NWv7.'
BardmMer : Mean height
» - • . j> .
V > Forthemanth ^ 2g.8l3iaAes.
For the lunar pe^od, ending the 1 4th. 3O«00S
> For 13 days, ending the 1st (moon south). 29-881
For J4 days, ending the 15th (moon north) SOOSl
. For 1 4 days, ending tlie 20th (moon south) 29*613
Th^cnnmieters Hem height
For the month , ,*. 45*61^
t > -^ For the lunar period .'••.••...' 46-383
For 30 days, the sun in Scorpio 47 '030
Bvapi(watian..v.". 1-78 in.
^^ •• •• *..* 3*82^
LtmiUwif, Skra^df Tnf^tA Months 21, 1824. JUHOWABJ>*
ANNALS
PHILOSOPHY,
FEBRUARY, 1825.
Article I.
On the Life and Writings of Claude^Lovis Berthollet.
By Mr. Hugh Colquhoun.
{Continued from p. 18.)
In the course of the investigation into the nature of chlorine,
of which the conclusions have just'been detailed, Berthollet was
induced, to examine its action upon the Uquid fixed alkalies.
In consequence of a very complicated decomposition, the full
extent of which it was impossible for him to foresee, the result
was a new compound, which is now distinguished by the name
of chlorate of potash. This he proved to consist of potash
united to an acid composed of muriatic acid and a larger propor-
tion of oxygen than he supposed to exist in chlorine : to this
acid he accordingly gave the name of hyperoxygenized muriatic
acid. One of the most remarkable properties of this salt is the
great proportion of oxygen which it contains. This oxygen is
retained, united only by a very weak affinity, and of course is
easily disengaged by presenting any of the combustibles with
which it readily combmes. Berthollet, who was ever the first
to foresee the practical application of any of his discoveries,
proposed that the new substance should on that account be
substituted for nitre in the manufacture of gunpowder. His
hint was immediately acted upon, and a manufactory was esta-
bhsbed at Essone. The effects^ however, were lamentable. No
sooner had the workmen begun to triturate the mixture of
chlorate of potash, sulphur, and charcoal, than the whole
exploded with tremendous violence, the building was blown into
the air, and several persons perished.
The discovery of this substance has, however, been productive
of no small advantage to science. It has tended to complete
the theory of chemistry, and has also become an instrument of
discovery, extending still farther the limits of our knowledge.
Witlioutit, the two oxygen-acids and the two oxides of chlorine
had never been known, and cannot yet be prepared ; without it,
New Series^ vol. ix. g
82 Mr. Colquhoun on the Life and Writings [Fsb.
the chemist would be deprived of an extremely easy and econo-
mical mode of prepariiig tHe |iurel3t oxygen gas ; and without it,
Gay-Lussac and Thenard had not been enabled accurately to
disclose the ultimate compositioa of vegetable and animal prin-
ciples. For although the use of chlorate of potash for this latter
purpose is now superseded by other still more correct and more
manageable instruments, yet it constituted the introduction to
this branch of chemical analysis, and indeed suggested the
employment of the methods more recently adopted.
But the researches of our chemist with respect to the nature
of chlorine were attended' by yet another result, which has
redounded, not less to his own honour, than to the prosperity of
France and England. It had been previously remarked by
Scheele, that among other extraordinary features, chlorine is
characterised by the property of destroying every veg^ptable
colour with which it comes ii^ contact ; and this destruction he
found to be not merely apparent but complete. The vegetable
colour treated with chlorine cannot be i^estored by any tnqwn
chemical reagent: its basis has undergone decomposition.
When Berthoflet, in the course of his researches, came to the
consideration of this property, his attention was peculiarly
exdited by it ; and in the hope of its throwing some hght u{>oa
the true constitution of chlorine, he was anxious to examine
into its mode of operation. It will be remembered that he con«-
ceived erroneously chlorine to be a compound of muriatic acid
and oxygen ; and he soon formed a theory conformable to this
idea. He held that, since the pouring of an aqueous solution
of chlorine upon a vegetable colouring matter, destroys thift
oolour, and leaves only muriatic acid behind ; it is an oxidatioti
of the colouring matter which produces this effect, and the con*
sequence is, that the substance oxidised loses its property of
reflecting certain rays of light.
But it is not that Berthollet formed a theory on the subject,
which is now a matter of moment ; it is his immediately con-
ceiving that this property of chlorine might inits application be
made of the greatest practical utility ; and his persevering with
a zeal undamped by difficulties till he really rendered it so, that
throws an intense interest over this part of his history. Since
chlorine destroys vegetable colours completely, he reasonably
inferred that it would produce a similar effect upon those sub^^
stances which injure and obscure the inherent beauty of thread
and cloth, and the separation of which is the object of bleaching.
He accordingly immersed a piece of unbleached cloth for sonpie
time in a solution of chlorine in water, and was extremely gratji,-^
fied to find it come out of a pure white colour. But his mortifi-^
ciGition was proportionally great on perceivibe that cloth so
bleached^ after a certain time, gradually assumed a dingy yellow
Gotour }'**^n Idtdr^tioji which he found greatly accelerated, by
1686.] tf Claude^Uuis BerthQttU. SI
treating the cloth with an idkaline ley. Hai^led \iy this
impediment, tvhioh threatened to take ibway all permanent bene*-
fit from his diseovery^ he began^ however^ to conceive thatlhel^
18 a atroDg analogy between the action of his chlorine upon the
dothy and that oi the ordinary process of bleaching, by snbjec^
tiou to lights air, and the moisture of a meadow exposure.^ He
next considered that as the eflect of this latter procel^s is not fi
bleaching of the clotli, but merely such a loosening of the
colouring matters as faciUtates their final disengagement by
some subsequent prooesiSi the same result might follow a similar
aid given to the bleaching by chlorine. He accordingly conr
joined the action of an alkaline ley with the immersion in chlch
riDe> and by subjecting the cloth to these two processes fbr
several times in alternate succession, he was happy enough to
succeed in rendering it permanently white. The oleaching was
rendered still more perfect by adding the customary finish of the
process, a steeping in dilute sulphuric acid, or in very som*
buttermilk.
M. BerthoUet had brought his new process to this stage af
perfection, when he communicated his success to his ^iend Mr.
Watt, the illustrious improver of the steam engine, who hap-
pened to be then in Paris. This gentleman, whose whole life
wad devoted to the advancement of the arts, saw at a glance the
advantages that must result to his country by transferring this
process from the laboratory of the chemist to the extensive work
of the bleacher ; and soon after his return to England, he wrote
to M. BerthoUet, informing him that his father-in^-Iaw, Mr.
Greeor, proprietor of an extensive bleach field, near Glasgow,
had pleached 500 pieces of cloth upon the French system. And
it is surely well to mention that our countryman, besides the
honour of being the first to carry into England so important ^
saving of time and expense, in one of the most extensive of the
usefnl arts, had also the merit of inventing and introducing
several important modifications of the apparatus required in the
operation.
Unhappily for France, she laboured at that time under a system
of financial disorder accompanied by heavy taxation, of which
that of the gabelle, or ta:^ on salt, was one of the most unequal
and of the most severe. And as all the chlorine was extracted
from this article, she was unable at once to avail herself of the
full benefits which immediately accrued to Britain from this
discovery. Besides, the arts had then made comparatively
snail progress with her; ahd ignorance, ever hostile to improve-
ment aii an innovation, hindered for ^Ome time the general diffii-i
sibn of the new process. Its inherent superiority was, however,
tdo lEianifest to be slighted by prejudice, and too great to be
dedtto^ed by the more formidable obstacle of taxation. It was
jimh intf odyced atid practised jtq alarge es:teht by many inteiti
<»2
84 Mr. Coiqulumn on the IJft and Writings .[Fbb.
;gent bleachers who did not follow their business as, a mere
-routine. M. Caillau at St. Quentin, Descroisilles at Rouen,
Bonjour at Valenciennes, and Welter at Lille, all men of consi-
derable eminence, who could join science with art, introduced
the benefits of the new system into various parts of the empire.
But there are many otner processes in the arts besides that of
the simple bleaching of dingy cloth, in which the removal of
certain colouring matters is advantageous, and which were of
course susceptible of great improvement from the applicatioiii of
BerthoUet's discovery. One of the earliest and most important
of these was first suggested by our chemist himself: it relates
'to that process in calico printing which is technically known by
the appellation of brightening. When a piece of calico is dyed
with madder, the portions meant to be preserved white are
found to have contracted a dull red coloured stain ; because,
although colouring matters in general cannot form a permanent
union with cloth except through the intervention of some mor^
dant, they have often an immediate affinity for the cloth of such
strength, as requires considerable labour for their complete
removal. The old process for removiug such discoloration waa
to boil the cloth in a mixture of bran and water, and then to
expose it to the action of air and moisture for a period of from
one to six, or even eight weeks together. This was generally a
successful, but always a most tedious, operose and coray
system. But the delay, the labour, and the expense, were
very greatly reduced by M. BerthoUet discovering that
a very dilute solution of chlorine destroys colouring matters
which are attached to the cloth only b^ their immediate
affinity, while it produces no material alteration on such as are
held in combination with it through the agency of a mordant.
The new process of brightening by chlorine was of course imme«-
diatriy and universally adopted in all the calico print fields in
France, and has now become part of the ordinary routine of that
business.
But we are still far from having enumerated even the principal
uses to which the bleaching property of chlorine was found
applicable. By means of it, Bertnollet was enabled to instruct
his countrymen in an expeditious and, at the same time, a most
accurate method of ascertaining the relative permanency of
colouring matters when in combination with cloth. By means
of it, Descroisilles brightened turkey red, by destroying the
brown colouring matter which contaminates and conceab the
beauty of that dye : by means of it, M. le Baron de Born gave a
beautiful white to the yellow colour of animal wax, while Ber-
thoUet destroyed the green colour of vegetable wax, and. gave it
the closest resemblance to the bleached wax of de Bom : by
i.means of it, M. Chaptal succeeded in removing the ststins i)rom
old books and prints : by means of it, Loysel UeachedjC^Qlonred
1«%.] of Claude-LMs BeHhiUet. «6
rags for the matrafactuire of paper ; and to cut short a list whioli
might- be extended to a tedious length, M. BerthoUet, hy^eans
of chlorine, introduced the important improTement of giving to
Imt and to flax all the appearance of cotton.*
It wonld indeed be difficult to mention anyone course of
investigation which led to so many, so great, and so immediate
benefits, as that into the nature and properties of chlorine,
instituted and conducted by BerthoUet. It often happens that
the author of an important discovery does not Uve to see it
appreciated, and himself acknowledged the benefactor of his
species ; but in this case our chemist had the felicity to enjoy
the i^ighit of the advantages he had conferred, and even to ham
many distinguished rivals competing with him in exploring die
various uses of which his discoveries were susceptible. Nor
should the biographer of BerthoUet omit to.mention that, not-
withstanding his being thus the source of great wealth, to bis
country and to England, he constantly declined to accept of any
emolument even from those whose riches had never been
amassed but for his researches. All the remuneration that he
would receive in return for his benefits was the simple piresent
of a bale of cloth from England, bleached according to his sys-
tem. Who the merchant was who devised a present at once so
delicate and so acceptable, is not now with any certainty known.
But it seems fair to conjecture, that it was probably made
through the intervention of Berthollet*s much esteemea friend
Mr. Watt, the first Englishman to whom the process was
imparted, and of whom it was as worthy to bestow such a com-
pliment as it was of the French chemist to receive it. Indeedif
ever man loved science for her own sake with a pure and sacred
ardour, that man was BerthoUet ; and he was fortunate in this
instance in receiving not only a reward such as no money or
power could purchase, but also an immortality such as few men
of genius feel assured of. By the universal assent of the French
nation^ the name of the inventor was adopted into the language
* This was not one of the least valuable among the practical appUcatums of the
bleaching property of chlorine. lint has neither the suppleness, the dasticity, nor the
softness of cotton : its fibre is not so slender or so fine ; it has a glistening appearance,
espedaUy after being woven, from which the dull white colour of cotton is exempt, and
it has in consequence the property of reflecting the light, so that its whiteness cannot be
rendered ao perfect as that of cotton doth. Many attempts had been made to oveccome '
these disadvantages, of which carding and bleaching proved the most substantially useful.
Vet even after the most careful performance of both these operations, the approximation
«f Mat inili appearance to cotton, although qpnsiderable, was still very imperftct, an .
die ubiteness thus produced was not found to be very permanent. After BerthoUe.
had, however, employed repeated immersions in chlorine, he obtained the gratifying
lekult'bf approximating lint not only in its appearance, but also in its properties, much
flMe^loMly to cotton than had been effected by any previous process. The subject Was
^oat^ffifyn taken up, and some amelioration introduced into the svstem by Giobopt, . who
enplfl|med bis mode of operation at considerable detail, Immeduitaly after this, uread
ana aMb"'m'anufactured {irom lint were thrown into commerce, whidfi it was imposi^le
Hi'diiKDgtfMi fM ^ose made out of eotton.
Mu Colquhioun on the lAfoa^ Writings \W%m'^
te ddngMte the new process. Hie blecfeclung liquor wts styled
kmve de Berlholkt, or berthoUet$ to bleach by means of it wa«
expressed by the verb bert holler; the bleachers were named
bertholleurs ; and berthoUerie, blanchisserie berthollienne, berihoi^
Umitrej were successively adopted to express ideas which a
knowledge of the root will at once convey. It is somewhat odd,
DescroistUes observes, to find the name of one of the founders
of the French methodical nomenclature introduced without cere--
mony to form the basis of a whole class of words^ in utter OHk*
tempt of all its principles.
The nature of the advantages thus introduced was truly sor*
pnsiag* Persons acquainted only with the modern mode of
bleaomng are astonished when they are informed^ that what is
now the work of a few days^ was formerly the work of a whole
semmer; that what is now done almost within doors» formerly
required extensive tracts of meadow ground at present under the
piough ; and, finally^ that what is now undertaken and accom-
pliehed at all periods of the year^ was then attempted during
oniy half the year, the wintry period being wholly incompatible
with the old process. Nay, in this country the inconveniences
relieved by the new system were peculiarly great ; for it was by
ne means nncommon at one time to be at die expense of sending
goods all the way to Holland to be subjected to a bleaching pro*
oees there, whence they only returned after a heavy outlay, at
soeneet at the expiration of three or four months. The saving
o£ttme and of expense to the individual,^— <the redeeming of so
mach land to the country,^ — and in general the activity which
haeheen given to the rapid circulation of capital in the commas
miy,:have altogether been a source of incalculable benefit to Ae
eommeree of England, and to the general comfort of mankind*
How happy thn man of pure disinterested mind who lived to see
hiasself the author of so many blessinrs !
\Aknost every year in the life of BerthoUet, after he had
acfived at maturity, was productive of a discovery which wlus
eitlier beneficial in extending science, or in promoting some,
useful art. The series of researches into the nature of cmorine^
of which the first fruits were published in 1786, and the appUca*-
tiop of its properties to so many useful purposes which we hava
just detailed, exerted the repeated efforts of the investige^or
during a series of years. That however we may preserve some'-
thing like chronological order, which is not a little difficult
where^ so many new views start up together in the path, and
cross eaph other in their progress to development, let us return
to 1788, the year following that in which the leading views of
BeithoUet on the nature of chlorine were first given to the
world. He had not yet completed his fortieth year, and he ren-
dered it signal bjr the publication of two memoirs, the first rela*
tive to the combination of metalUc oxides with alkalies and lime, .
IMS;] ijfChui^^^lcimB^lialkf' . : ^
«bd ibe Mcond detsijikig his striking cliscoiw^ pf jlji|lwiii»tiBg
Ift was one of the doctriaes commaiiding the most i^mYefpfl
sssent at the time, that acids and alkalies are bodies, ia each cf
whieh there is indefeanbly inherent a peculiar and distimt natu9^
tmd principle. This BerthoUet denied. He asserted that ih§
terms aci<Uty and alkalinity convey no positive and independer^
mMtringf but imply mer^ relation, and that alone, ^e said that
these words were adopted solely for the purpose of facilitatipg
the explanation of the affinities of certain classes of bodies foreai^
other, and that the same substcmce which acts as an alkali whe^
united with one body, may act as an acid when it forms an unioft
with some other. And he referred for the truth of this ppiniQ^
tetke strong fact that the same body, oxide of lead, not (mlyi in
cMsbination with all the substances usually termed acids, ac^i
a» an alkali, but also in union with potash, soda, ammonia, and
lime, forms in some cases erystallizable compounds, possessing
all the properties of salts, and consequently acts as an aciai
This doctrine, however, notwithstanding its own merit, and th#
fame, now universal, of its author, met with no favQur Irommw
of science, although, of late years, the labours of Davy an^
BerEelius have forced its correctness upon the understandings of
nesriy all the chemical world.
In the remarkable discovery which BerthoUet at this time
made of a new compound which has been named fulminatiiiy
silver, although we have no particular account of the circnai»
stances attending its first formation, yet we are sure from iti
naftore he must have incurred imminent danger^ Had he tlion
OMt the fate which so many have since encountered from hapft*
ling tkis substance, and perished on the threshdd (^discQvety^
tbct loss to science must nave been nearly irreparable.
Folminating silver, by the applicatian of a low heat, by Om
Bli|tate8t agitation, by a brush from a feather, or the pressure of
a ndlen drop of water, instantly explodes with tremendeui
violence. By detonation in a strong metallic tube, BerthoUet
fooftd the products to be, the silver reduced to its metallic statei
azote, and water. Before its discovery, no analogous compound
wae known, except that of fulminating gold ; and the numerous
expteriments made on that subject by various chemists duringS^
years, proved suocessful in adding only two others to the list,
Utihe year 1791, BerthoUet conferred one of his mpst sigwi
bMefila upon his country by the publieation of his work,
eotilled ^^ Elements of the Art of Dyeing.'* France in generali
and the Beighbonrbood of Lyons and Rouen jn pertipular, had
Irnlg bden celebrated for the assiduity and euccess with which
theart'Of'dy^iB^ had been, there eultivated, Bver since ttu^
deye'oi^Oelhert,; whose seai fbr.tbepvosperif^y of hi9 eountsy is
86 Afn Colquhounan the Life and Writingi [Fsb.
\Lndoabtedy and whose views of political econdtiy^ tlieugb sadly
narrowed by the prejudices of his day, were nevertbdess
lionestly and earnestly directed to the encouragement of manH-
facturing and agricultural industry, ever since his days it had
been the practice in France to appoint one of her most emin^iit
chemists to the peculiar superintendence of the processes of
dyeing. After the death of Macquer, it will be recollected that
BerthoIIet was his successor in this situation, and it must surely
have been a source of great pleasure to a mind constituted like
his, to find that an enlightened view of the processes of dyeing,
adapted to the advanced state of chemical science, was greatiy
wanted ; and to feel that he was fully able to satisfy the wishes
and fulfil the expectations of his country.
From the time of the publication of M. d'Albo, under Colbert
in 1669 down to 1784, when BerthoIIet was appointed, a suc-
cession of distinguished chemists, Dufay, Hellot, and Macquer,
each filling this nonourable situation in their tarn, presented to
the French dyers an excellent digest of the principles and prac-
tice of their art, in which the improvements of science and of
method were alike explained, and placed on a level with the
advancement of knowledge and the arts. The last of these
chemists, Macquer, though he lived till 1784, had not assented
to the new theory of Lavoisier, and had indeed only in the last
years of his life employed some of its doctrines to an extent so
pai;^ial, as rather to increase the perplexity of the old system
than materially to remove it. Accordmgly, the vacant situation
had not long been occupied by BerthoIIet, when the revolution
in chemistry, and the many important discoveries accompanying
it; rendered every preceding work on dyeing defective in inform*
ation, and to the modern dyer almost unintelligible in its expla-
nations. These deficiencies were amply supplied, and the
various processes of the art were ably explained according to the
new philosophy of chemistry, by the publication of BerthoHet's
Elements of Dyeing in 1791. This was indeed the work of a
master, and bears throughout, in a striking manner, the impress
of its author's character. It is alike remarkable for the profound-
ness, the truth, and the originality of its general views of the
processes in the art ; and by a happy application of correct
theory, the work abounds in new and valuable information
respecting the nature of colouring matters, mordants, and every
substance used in dyeing, which is accompanied with a copious
explanation of the most advantageous methods of employing
them in practice. Thirteen years after this, another gneatly
enlarged edition of this work, embodying every improvinaent,
was prepared by the joint labours of BerthoUet and hkk son,
A. B. BerthoUet, then a young man of the fairest proilibe; •
Among the other in^provements which BerthoIIet tntmdaqed
IKfit] if Claude^Ltrttis BertholkL^ 99
into the art of dyeing, there is one of so great importaxice,' and •
vvitose investigatioQ at the same time involved such difficulties, ^
ihaiit deserves particular notice. This is his mode of employ-
ing Prussian. blue in the formation of the brightest permanent
Uoes and greens now in use.
The remarkable brilliancy of this substance as a colouring
tuatter, early recommended it to the notice of chemists and
practical, dyers^ all of whom^ however^ . were baffled in th^ir
attempts to discover any means of fixing it in an equal and per<»
manent manner upon cloth. Menon^ Macquer^ and Roland,
aaocessively assayed this task, and each proposed a separate
proeess for performing it ; but in practice tne same ill success
attended the proposals of each. In some, only a very pale
abade of colour was produced ; in others, where the colour was
ttt^ oace deeper and moderately permanent, it was always found
uneqaally distributed over the cloth ; and in a third, the colour,
which at first was bright and equable enough, was at the same
time 80 ' fugitive, from its having been applied in a manner
merely mechanical, that a slight wearing speedily injured it, and
after a few washings it almost entirely disappeared.
The mode in which Berthollet overcame all these difficulties
wea a most ingenious one, and it was the result only of much
research and experiment on his part ; in the course of which be
was aided by the celebrated calico-printer Widmer. It occurred
to Berthollet that, as prussian blue is a compound substance, of
which one ccHistituent by itself has a strong affinity for cloth, it
micht be possible that the other constituent should unite readily
wiuk the first, even on finding it previously combined with the
doth, although the compound body so presented refuses toy
such -union. He, therefore, first treated cloth with oxide of
iron, one constituent of prussian blue, for which thecloth nas a
powerful affinity, and next superinduced upon the whole the acid
• ptanciple, by the application of an alkaline prussiate. The acid
colouring matter, uniting with the oxide of iron, formed the dye,
without at all disengaging the previous combination between
the cloth and the oxide. The prussian blue communicated in
this manner is found to have nearly as strong an affinity for cloth
' > as the oxide of iron has when in separate combination with it ;
andiibus, by the result of this method, a blue colour of the
. gre^iliest brilUancy and permanency was aidded to the art of
dyeing.. '|
< . . rip employing the same substance as an ingredient to txrOiiuce
'af^en,iM« Berthollet's ingenuity was again severely tried^' and
,uiaa^« itjQvercame every difficulty. . To achieve this,th'er6is on©
iK^their isAep^ necessary m the series of affinities, which tite' all
braagfaliJnta -play only by the order in which they iar0 nq^'kci^e to
oi«U<»wr.je2DBJji. other; a process which in the end pr^^duces a eom^
QO Mr. Calqukmrf in the Xifa and Writings %Vm.
ponnA QOVBhitaJ&tBf vefased to every other ay«tem, Qretmi^^
(lolour which the dyer invariably produces by the mixture rf
blue and yellow; but the prussian blue has! no ajginitjfj^r cloth,
and when this obstacle is overcome^ it has no effinity for tha
yellow colouring matter; neither has the yellow any direct affi*
nity for the cloth ; yet there must be a combination of th6se
colours with each other and with the cloth,OT there can be no use mada
of Prussian blue in dyeing green. To eflTect this, the three con**
stituents of the green colour were applied separately. First, thft
ploth was treated with oxide of iron, for which it has a great
affinity s the ne:i^t step was to add to this a yellow dyestuff^
with which also the OKide has a tendency to combine ; and^
lastly, there was superinduced above all the prussic colouring
matter. The result w^s, that thQ oxide of iron, once combioea
with the cloth, retained united to itself the yellow and the etcid
qohuring matters, forming as the product a beautiful and lasting
green. This process is now in universal practice among dyers
and calico-printers ; and however great the eictent of ite use^ the
pleasure of seeing it universally diffused was here also the soIq
return that ever was made to the author for his perseverance an<i
ingenuity. Men, like BerthoUet, sometimes confer benefits too
great to be remunerated by any other than the rich reward oS
their country's gratitude •
We have now arrived at one of the most important and
instructive periods in the history of nations, the era of the
Freiftch revolution. Jt is true, that in tracing out the life of
Berthdlet, we have heard nothing of those distractions which
had agitated the government of the country for years previously,-
we have seen nothing of its financial distress, of its frequent
changes of ministry, of the assumption of supreme power by
little more than one house only oi the States General, of the
violence offered to the King's family, of their restraint, imprison-*
ment, and trial ; nor need we look upon the fearful sight of that
sun of royalty, which had so long been the vital principle of
France, sinking, as it seemed, for ever, in an ocean of blood. It
is unnecessary to give an account of these events, for important
as they were, they dragged not forth BerthoUet from the bosom
of science, where he continued to prosecute his uninterrupted
researches. He was not, however, destined, even as a chemist
and man of science, long to remain unoccupied by, or unmingled
with, the busy ferment of the politics of the day.
The circumstances that followed the erection of the revolu-
tionary government are of a kin.d not soon to be forgotten. It'
will be remembered that France was then> by common consent,
put under the ban of every other civilised nation. To aid her, or
tG hold intercourse with her, was aUke forbidden under t^'
severest penalties; while ultimate success was held to be
l^SB.} af Chui^ImU B^iholkt 91 :
secure, to those who thought to tame the i>ationil spirit by with-
heading every mean^ of defence.
Nor were these expectations of the States who laid FrancQ
uoder their b^n hy any loeans ilUgrounded. For that conntKy^
naturally rich, while $he produced abundance of gr'4ia at aa
easy rate, and her wines returned her a large and certain
revenue, that was reaped without difficulty, had nevertheless
allowed herself to &1L far behind several neighbouring kingdoms
in many of the most useful arts. She had of course accustomed
htrself to rely on the intervention of commerce for procuring tft
her fioaoy of those articles of comfort, which soon became th«
necessaries of civilised life. When, therefore, she was oonsi«
dered a proscribed nation ; when her former princes at Coblents
with lier refugees, aided by the Hpuse of Austria with her allies*
lo<)ki»d Iker in on the side of Europe, and the fleets of Britain
swept, every sea, and blockaded every port, France was obliged
to recoil upon her own resources. And on turning homeward
ibr that which was now denied her from abroad, she feund
resources capable in time of high improvement, but tbe^
demand was ibr immediate assistance, and the salvation of the
state depended upon its being immediately furrdsked. Arts
were not here ready to be improved on the mstant;^^the very
foundation of arts was wanting. Manufactures, the soul of
resource, were scarcely known, or if known, were nowheve
found to exist among this hitherto agricultural and commereial
community. In so awful a crisis, the eager nation called uppa
her men of science to oom^ forth from their seclusion and
retreats, to impart their knowledge, and become the instructon^
of a willing people. And the call was answered. Then those
individuals who knew nought, save the theory of an art, found
eveiy where pupils to whom a hint sufficed, and new arts sprung
up 9t once, and flourished at the invocation of science. Formal?
processes were improved and abridged ; new resources were
discovered ; new manufactures were invented ; asod at the
moment when it seemed that France must fall a defenceless
Erey to her aggressors, she arose armed to the combat. At
rst, it is true, ere these changes were fully developed,, her
foes made some impression upon her, for the attack was sudden
indeed ; but even when a hostile army was for a short time
within forty leagues of the capital^ not a man relaxed for one
moment from his exertions ; — not a citizen thought of deserting
his country. And full soon, to the astonishment of the world,
France displayed her new-found resources, her foes perished
round her impenetrable frontier, and she in her turn becoming^
the assailant, tamed her continental enemies, and dictated to
thesa their terms of submission in the heart of their ownoon-
queiedcopitals^
92' Mr. ColquhmnoH the Life and Writings {Fbb**
Of all these changes, of which science was the original source,"
Bcrthollet, and his illustrious friend Monge, were the heart and
soul. At the same time^ it is but justice to add, that they had
many illustrious associates, who, like them, unacquainted ^h'
any thing but science and theory, became like them the active
instructors of their countrymen in every art. It followed ais a
natural consequence of their zeal and of the importance of theif
services, that no private body of men enjoyed more of the public
confidence than the chemists of France. From the aid they had
lent to an administration fluctuating amid the struggles of party,*
and young in the art of governing, they naturally and of necessity
became possessed of no inconsiderable political influence.* Atid*
never was any truFt discharged with more faithfulness, ability,*
and moderation. It was at this period that most of' the great'
and liberal institutions of which France is now so proud, were
organised.
The state of desperate exigency from which Berthollet and
his associates were enabled to raise France, can with difficulty
be now fully appreciated: let us take one single instance in
illustration of it. Although so warlike a country, she had been
in the habit of importing all her saltpetre. When this necessary
article was denied her, and an instant invasion impended, the
appalling demand of gunpowder, to the amount of twenty
millions of pounds, was made as essential to her defence. In
this crisis, a committee of the most eminent chemists was applied
to, and the country soon received as the result of their investi-
gations, the delightful intelligence, that an inexhaustible supply
of saltpetre, easily accessible, lay within the bosom of their
native soil. " In five days," one of the committee boldly-
affirmed, "in five days after the saltpetre shall have been
extracted from the' earth, gunpowder manufactured from it shaU
charge your cannon :'' and his words were verified to the letter !
It was thei^that the whole face of the country seemed for a
time coveriQ with manufactories of this substance. The citizens
emulated each other in amassing and lixiviating the proper soil.
Berthollet and the chemists rivalled each other in hastening
from department to department, to teach the best mode of
extracting the salt ; and such improvements were thus intro-
duced, that very soon processes were completed in France in a
few hours, which then cost other nations the labour of a month.
The result of the whole was an abundant supply of gunpowder
for the French camps and fleets, while their arsenals and maga-
zines were stored with ammunition ; and the extraction of salt-
petre from the soil continues at this day a permanent source of
productive employment of the national capital and industry, y
Another scarcely less important benefit was at this time con-
ferred on France by her men of science, which seems too'tat(ch
1^2$.} qf Claude^Louis BerthoUet. 98
CAOneot^ witb t)iis subject and with our cheslist^ to be onutled
m^we^ There /was aa urgent demand for cannon, musquets,
Bflbres, See. to provide and equip one million of men, who were
suger to take the fields but wanted arms. The ordinary manu-
fiicturer was unable to meet a demand so extensive; and
besides, the fabrication of steel, and even of the finer kinds of
qoBUQon.iron, was unknown to him. Here again the French
{idviosoj^ers came forward. A committee was appointed, of
^Kbich BerthoUet and MoDge were the leading members, remark-
a)bie alike for their talents and for their unwearied exertions ;
.yflluable improvements were introduced into the smelting and
IMQiification of iron ; a profound investigation was instituted and
completed of the processes by which that metal may be con-
¥j^arted into steel ; and the immediate result was, that the people
became instructed ; the nation's wants were supplied for the
time, and extensive permanent establishments of that difficult
^goanufacture were formed in various parts of the country.
It was not only, however, by their talents, nor yet by their
ingenuity, that BerthoUet and his friends were enabled .to aid
aim to enlighten their country. Occasions presented themselves
in. which their integrity, and that rare quality of civil courage,
were not less conspicuous. It was this, indeed, which greatly
contributed to give them at first the peifect public esteen^ and
confidence ,which they long enjoyea. During the reign : of
ilerror, a short time before the ninth Thermidor, when the system
was a favourite one of raising up pretended plots to give pretei^ts
lor fresh ravages of the guillotine, a hasty notice wa^ given in
ja certain sitting of the committee of public safety, that a con*
spiracy had just been discovered to destroy the soldiers, by
poisoning the brandy which was ready to be served out to them
jiju»t previous to an engagement. It was said that the sick in
the hospitals who had tasted this brandy all perished in conse-
quence of it. Immediately, orders to arrest all those implicated
in suspicion, or rather those previously marked for execution,
were issued, and numbers in chains awaited their doom. To
BerthoUet it was referred to analyse this liquor; he was at the same
time made fully aware that Robespierre would have a conspiracy,
and all. knew that opposition to the will of that monster was
gi^nerally death. Having finished his analysis, BerthoUet drew
up his results in. a Report, which he accompanied with a written
ejipWsLtion of his views, and he there stated in the plainest
J^guag^ the simple truth^ that there was nothing very detri-
j|ient4d mingled with the brandy, but that it was merely diluted
fby. water hplding small particles of slate in suspension— an
ingrediept which filtration would speedUy render innoxious.
Jjf^.jj^^port deranged the plans pf the Committee of PubUc
j|(p^ty, ,yfhfi accordingly ^ent for the author to convince him of
M Mr. Colfukaim 6n th$ Li/a mid Writifigs fVtH i
tb« laMciiracv of fata analysis, and td pcl^snade bim fo tilter its
»findt8« Fiuding that he remained unshaken in his opinion^
** Hotr, Sir ! '^ eicelaimed Robespierre, *^ darest thou affirm tbat
muddy brandy to be free from poison ? " BerthoIIet immediately
filtrated a glass of it^ and in his presence drank it off. /' Thou
art daribg^ Sir, to drink that liquor/' said again the ferociouA
President of the Committee) '' I dared much more/' replied
BerthoIIet, '^ when I signed •- my name to that Report." This
was indeed to take the hungry bon by the beard, and it iS pro«-
bable that a revolationary tribunal would soon have rewarded
bis integrity, were it not that the same shield which defended the
flliyMoian of Louis XI, protected also the life of our chemist.
The knowledge of each was necessary to the existence of the
tyrants whom they had the misfortune to serre*
During the early years of the revolution,, we find EerthoUet
smployed by his country in many important public situations.
In 1792, he was named one of the Commissioners of the Mint,
into the processes of which he introduced considerable improve*
Sient { in 1794, he was appointed a member of the Commission
of Agriculture and the Arts ; and in the course of the Same year
he was chosen Professor of Chemistiy at the Polytecnnic
fiohool, and also in the Normal School. In these situations,
however, it must be confessed that his mode of communicating
his views was not adapted to the level of a general audience. H«
was too apt to presuppose a degree of knowledge or talent ift
those listening to him> which it is vain to expect in any public
audience; and of course the Professor dwelt too little upoil
elementary explanation and detail. A teacher should suit hie
dtecourse at least to the ordinary average of mind which he is
lulled upon to instruct, and if he commence in a strain toohigh^
his hearers are not carried along with him as he unfolds his
yiews. It is on this account that men of the greatest geiiius
have frequently been the least successful instructors, and it is
certain that the faults just mentioned accompanied the lectui'ea
of M, BerthoUet.
The same year is remarkable in the life of BerthoUet and iti
the history of science, the intimate connexion between which we
htiVe often already had occasion to remark, by the establishment
of the celebrated Annales de Chimie, a work to which, from die
first, he has been a principal contributor. This is a journal
which, ever since its formation^ has continued so distinguished
for the number of its original and important memoirs, that it has
J ret no rival amid all the hundred scientific periodicals now pub- '
ishing in Europe. To supply such memoirs as these was not
indeed the ostensible purpose of its institution, but, as the Intn>>
doctioiv informs us, to communicate to the chemists of France
4he progress of the scieiice throughout Europe. It is extremely
itM^ ^ Cku4e^Jj>uubetth}lkti f6
ttrob^ble t6o» that it WHfei ibtetided t6 be apow^rf)il indtfiittieht ift
diffusing and establishing the principles otthe m^derti system t^f
ehemiBtfV. The original authors ^ere Lavoisier, BetthoUet>
Monee, Pourcroy, Guyton de Morveau, Dietrich, Hassen{hit2>
and Adet.
In 1795, at the organizatton of the Institute, which iiO#
embraces every man of any talent or celebrity ill Fratide, M€
find M« BerthoUet taking the most active lead, tmd the redoifdi
of that Institute afford abundant evidence of the petsevemtic^
and assiduity With which he laboured for its interests. Of th6
committees, to which, as is the custom, all ori^nal memoirs are
in the first place referred, we find BerthoUet oftener than 6lm6^
every other person^ a member, and his signature to the Report 6P
each work stands generally first.
But indeed the zeal of M. BerthoUet in the interests of sdietiee,
and hia anitiety to diffuse widely the truest prindples by means
6f the press, seem to have been wholly unremitting ; for we find
him not only connected, as we bate just mentioned, with' the
establishment of journsds for that ena, but even looking int6
foreign nations, whose scientific works he always read, t6 select
those publications among them, the translation of which intd
the French tongue dlight most advance science and benefit hill
country. Accordingly we find him ifi 1788 engaged in the trails
slation of Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston, and supplying it with
tiotes of his own> in the sole view of correcting those errcrtH
which that work without such an antidote mi^ht spread. And
in the same spirit, though from a different motive, we ag^in find
him, so late as 1808, superintending M. Rifiault's translation Of
the third edition of Dr. Thomson's Chemistry, adding his oWii
notes to the whole Of it, and bringing the work under the imnie*
diate notice of his countrymen by prefixing to it an Introduction;
That BerthoUet expected this translation to prove of eminent
service to the chemists of France, is a great compliment to our
countryman, and that he was right in so expecting is well proved
by the same gentleman, M. Riffault, once more translatingi
according to its new arrangement, the fifth edition of the Do6^
tor's work, in 1818.
The translation of each of these works was eminently useful
to science, although they were ushered into the notice of French
philosophers under very different auspices. The first was
accompanied by notes, refuting every one of its doctrines, and
was translated that it might be overthrown : the second was
accompanied by notes and an introduction, elucidating the
system, and supplying whatever seemed defective ; and this work
was translated that it might -become the manual of the French
chemistto Kirwan was « man who had made many chemical
discoveries, some of them of considerable importance, and he
Was besides possessed of the power of arguing most ingeniouslyi
.9!!6 On the Life and Writings of.M. Berthollet. [Fbub.
accompanied, as that quality not unfrequently is/b^ aproneness
in the heat qf argument to advance propositions which were not
altogether rested on the most solid basis. He remained the
most illustrious disciple of the old school, and he published his
Essay with the express view of defending the doctrine of Phlo-
giston, .after he had superinduced upon it several modifications^
.lyhicih seemed to give it a certain adaptation to the progress of
modern science. The refutation of this Essay seemed, there-
fore, to the French chemists to be the destruction of the last
antagonist worthy of their notice. BertlioUet, accordingly, in
conj^unction with Lavoisier, Fourcroy, Morveau, and Monge^
.taking the translation of the Essay, section by section, annexed
to it a refutation in which the principles of the old and new
schools were contrasted, and the latter triumphantly established
on the ruins of the former. Lavoisier's share was the Introduc-
tion and three sections, Berthollet took three sections piore,
Fourcroy took also three, Morveau two, and Monge one. Never
was any refutation more complete ; as indeed Kirwan himself
was among the first to admit.
In respect to the other translation with which Berthollet was
connected, the motives which dictated to him the interest he
;took in the work, were precisely the same^ yet his treatment of
it, as has been already observed, was the very opposite. Nor
jindeed could Berthollet at that time have given to the chemists
of his country a more acceptable and useful present than was
Thomson's System ofChemistry, accompanied by his ownnotes^
and furnished with an Introduction from his own pen. This
work^ by far the most successful of its kind which had then been
attempted, was selected under the circumstances just mentioned
by Berthollet, because (as he states in the Introduction), it is
unrivalled as a Thesaurus of every known fact of importance
connected with chemistry, and as containing the most accurate
account of the history of every known substance. Indeed from
the e^Ktreme regularity and methodical precision characterizing
the work, from the cool discrimination with which every subject
is weighed and treated of according to its relative importance,
and from the accurate historical detail prevailing throughout^
there is at this moment no system of the science of chemistry in
which so complete and extended information on every topic is
to be found organized and detailed as in Thomson^s Chemistry ;
which is evident from its having already reached the sixth large
impression ; and from its having long ago passed into the labo>*
ratory of the Frenchman and the German on the continent of
Europe, and of the Armenian in Asia; while it has been reprinted
for the use of the American student.
iTole amcbtded in our next*}
1 825 J On the Climate of the Antediluvian World. 97
Article II.
On the Climate of the Antefliluvian World, and its Independence
of Solar Irifluence; and on the Formation of Granite^ By Sir
Alexander Crichton, Knight, St. W. FRS. &c.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy .)
GENTLEMEN, Harky- street. Cavendish-square, Jan, 4, 18»5.
.The proofs of the climate of the antediluvian globe having
been for a long period of time independent of solar heat are
numerous, and well known as detached geological facts ; yet
they have not, so far as I know, been brought together and pre-
sented under this very interesting point of view, nor has the
priaoiple been applied to the explanation of such geological
phenomena as it is calculated to elucidate. They have attracted
notice indeed, as characterizing epoch as in the stratification of
the earth, and as exhibiting a succession of events in the great
work of creation, but the light they throw on the climate of the
world in its-first ages, has not arrested that degree of attention
which a subject so interesting seems to demand*
The view which I am going to take of the temperature of the
antediluvian world, of its independence of solar heat, and its
gradual changes, is founded on the most indisputable facts ; and
me conclusions to be drawn from them are so highly important
in themselves, and so intimately connected with tne study of
geology, that the subject appears a fit one for a scientific journal,
where it will probably awaken the attention of many readers, and
lead to further researches. .
In the- following pages it will not be necessary to enter into
very minute details, but to turn, the attention of geologists to
certain great classes of facts as data which will at once be
acknowledged to bear immediately on the subject. Many others
will nataraUy present themselves to every well informed and
reflecting mind.
Among the earliest proofs which geology offers of the ante-
diluvian climate having been independent of solar influence for
a great length of time, are those circumstances which show that
all the surface of the earth, from a very high northern latitude
to a corresponding southern one, was of one uniform tempera-
tore^. and that a very high one, when compared with the tern-
pejatuir^ of the same range of latitude in our days.
I do not allude to the fact of fossil remains of elephants/
rhinoceroees, hyenas, and other animals of warm climates, hav-
iog been found in northern latitudes ; for the migratory disposi-
tion of animals on the one hand, and on the. other the possibility
of their having been transported after death from distant regions^
New Series, vol« ix. m
98 Sir A* Crickion on the [
against which opinion I shall have much to offer aflerv
cause me to exclude them at present as uncertain u^itne
neither do I admit as proofs of a high temperature in the n
em latitudes of the antediluvian world those fossil shells v
are found in the limestone rocks of northern countries
though many of them bear a close analogy to those whicJ
at present found in the hidian and South Pacific Oceans
both Brocchi and Olivi have shown that the shells of the Ie
Ocean are also found in very temperate climates, for insts
in the Mediterranean Sea ; and it is most probable that alJ
shells of the Sub^Appenines were inhabitants of that sea^ s
there is a great resemblance between them and the li
genera. Although these, therefore, are to be rejected as p
tive proofa of a very elevated temperature in northera latitu
at the time that the inhabitants of these shells were alive,
they may be admitted as concomitant proofs of a great equa
of temperature, and that a warm one, over a great port
of our earth such as cannot be explained by solar influence ;
when we reflect that the analogous species of several of tb
(such as the nautilus pompi/ius found at Grignon and Courts
non) are only found in very warm climates, and that a fos
shell analogous to the living trochns agglutitiam which inbab
the seas of South America, has also been found as far north
Hordwell and Barton, in Great Britain ; at Grignon, in Franc
and also in the contemporaneous deposits of many other plac
in Europe, it follows as a most probable supposition, that tl
temperature of those northern latitudes was many degrei
warmer formerly than it is at present. Whoever reflects thi
among the immense number of fossil shells many are remarfcabi
for their extreme thinness, delicacy, and minuteness of partJ
none of which have been injured, but, oa the contrary, are mog
perfectly preserved, will find it impossible tq admit the notioQ Q
their havmg been brought from warmer and distant regions U
the places where they are found by some great and sweeping
catastrophe. Many of them could not have been carried evei
a short distance by an agitated ocean, or the retreat of watera.
without suffering attrition and fracture.
If they are met with composing the mass of entire mounts^ina,
in the interior of continents, and far above the level of the sea,
this only proves either that the strata in which they are found
was raised above the level of the sea after their death, by $ome
subterraneous and extraordinary force, or that the regions in
which they are fpund were abandoned by seas which lormerly
covered the places in which they are now detected.
When we seai'ch deeper in the bowels of the earth than the
strata in which the bones and skeletons of the large terrestrial
quadrupeds of warm climates are found, or sbeUs aoalogous to
tnose <>f t)i8 South Sea, we oerive at a T^ry peculiar «S int^-
istin^ Flora, which must arrest our attention for 3ome ti»6. '
1835.] Climate of the Antedibifi^ian World. 99
; The perfect state in which most of the plants belonging to the
coal formation are found| is calculated to do away all idea of their
having been brought from distant regions by powerful currents^
or by the retreat of waters. Their leaveS| many of which are of
the most slender and delicate structure^ are found fully expanded,
and in their natural position in regard to the rest of the plant,
and laid out^ as it were, with as much care as if in the hortus
siccus of a botanist. The minutest parts do not appear to have
sufibred attrition or injury of any kind. Those persons who
have not had the benefit of consulting extensive collections of
geology may see the proofs of this assertion in the plates of
Knorr, Schlottheim,* Sternbei^,+ Parkington, and Brogniart,t
and iu those belonging to the numerous monographs on fossil
plants, which are to be found in the Transactions of learned
societies.
It is quite impossible to reconcile the many facts of this kind
with the effects of any sudden or violent change of place, or
with a long journey however gentle. Compare the calm deposit
of shells and the appearances of the still calmer death of the
antediluvian vegetable world, with the boulder stones, the gravel,
and the disjointed, dispersed, and fractured osteology of the
diluvian deposits, and it will be allowed that there is not the
slightest analogy between these classes of events.^ The fossil
plants of some of the lowest strata, such as those which belong
to the oldest coal formations, are either of the fern tribe, or they
are arborescent monocotyledonous plants resembling palms, or
as M. Adolphus Brogniart has justly remarked' upon the.autho^
rityof M. DescandoUes, dracenas yuccas and pandanuses.
But it is acknowledged that the living plants which have the
nearest resemblance to these antediluvians, are tropical plants
whioh have not yet been found beyond the 39th or 40th degree
of north latitude. Every coal country in every part of the world
which has hitherto been examined, abounds in the fossil remains
of similar vegetables ; and it may be remarked in the very outset
of this essay, that as certain plants, perhaps I might say all
plants, belong to specific temperatures, or at least depend for
their life and health on heat much more than on soil, and as
most of the remains of plants belonging to the coal formation
appear from their integrity to have been buried where they grew,
we are forced to admit the conclusion, that wherever they are
found, there must have been a warm temperature.
The laws of vegetable life as relating to temperature are posi-
thre, and, therefore, when connected with the mdividuals of the
• Hie petrifactenkunde.
-f Tttiadi exner Geognosti«di — ^botamschen DantlUung der Flora dear Vorwelt.
X Snqr i» C^amifiratian tt J^itributiim de$ Vegotaux Foisiles,
S Qn tfai# PHbjifQl oop9ult B}umenl)«ch*9 S|»«meiv ArpbMQgMB T^iui{(| A^ mi^
fciAttdi^B iostittmoDe Oeologici.
h2
100 5f> A. Crichton on the [Feb.
antediluvian vegettibles, they throw the greatest and surest light
on the subject ot'its climate.
That the similarity of any two Floras depends more on a simi-
larity of temperature than of soil, appears from a multitude of
facts. The Arnica Montanay for instance, is found on the low
marshy lands which border the Baltic, whereas in the south of
Europe it is only found on mountains, whence its specrfic name.
The Betula nana which is found on Mount Jura is met with in
Lapland at the foot of the mountains. The Betula -AlbOf or
common birch of this country, is found in the plains of Scotland
and of Russia, but in Portugal it only grows on the mountains.
When we come to plants of the same genus, but which are not
of the very same species, we find a similar analogy taking place
as demonstrative of the influence of climate ; thus many gentians,
and many of the pine and larch tribes, grow on the mountains
of South America as well as on the Alps, but not in the low
plains, much less the valleys. In many of the high plams of
Columbia, and almost under the equator, apple and willow trees,
and common furze, are found, while in the valleys under the same
parallel are found palms, &c. The plants of the North American
Flora which are most analogous to those of the Flora of Europe,
are found in analogous temperatures.
Although distant regions are often found to possess the same
temperature during a great part of the year, yet a multitude of
circumstances, independently of the three great co-ordinates, la-
titude, longitude, and elevation, may produce varieties of
climate, all of which we are incapable of enumerating, such as
the vicinity to extensive lakes or seas, the height and propin-
quity of mountains, the extent and direction of the land and «ea,
winds, &c. ; and this explains why any two places under the
same parallel and elevation, and which have apparently similar
climates, may yet differ considerably in their effects on vegetable
life, and thus favour the growth of some new species* It is
probably owing to such causes that the plants of the Cape of
Good Hope and those of New Holland are not similar, althcnigh
their cUmates resemble each other in many respects.
Among the fossil remains, however, of the plants which bekyog
to the coal formation, we scarcely find any variety, let the lati-
tude, longitude, or elevation, be what they may ; but supposing
a few species were discovered in any one district which were tkot
common to all, it would only prove the influence of a local cease,
the rest being all alike. Almost all genera and species of ptettts
belonging to that early period of the world, appear to hfeve been
extremely limited ; they are remarkable for their similarity uhfier
whatever parallels they are found. . < » i
Every pliant in the present worid, independently of itA tolttral
dwelling-place, has, as it were, a central spot in^whibff Ht
flourishes best; and considering this spot as the centre of a
1^5.] Climate of the AntetShman World. 101
circle, or rather as a zone, the plant degenerates in proportion
as it approaches the limits of this district. This kind of zone
seems to depend chiefly on the elevation above the sea^ and
consequently on temperature. Some plants descend from the
mountains towards the plains, others creep upwards to a limited
hei^t, and then disappear. But in the ancient world, any
difference which might be supposed to have existed in regard to
the elevation of those places which are called coal basins, did
not produce a variety in the plants of that age, which is another
proof that a cause of beat was then acting on the earth, which
did not resemble the action of the sun in our days.
It has been remarked, that the fossil remains of the vegetable
world which are found connected with the coal formation, are
all of them similar to plants requiring great heat and moisture,
imd many facts in geology induce us to believe^ that at those
early periods of our earth, there was less dry land than at
present. The primitive and transition mountains, together with
the carboniferous limestone, appear to have been the only form-
ations which preceded the lite of those plants which are found
connected witfi coal. The organic remains of the hmestone, on '
which the coal reposes, show that it had long been under water,
and consequently demonstrate both the extent and elevation of
the waters at that period, and, therefore, the waters themselves
would naturally serve as a vehicle for distributing the germs or
seeds of antediluvian plants over the greatest possible extent;
hence another cause of the similarity of the Flora of these early
tiREtes in every part of the world. If washed by currents, or
wafted by winds to distant shores, where they found a similar
climate, they would grow ; but at present the seed vessels of
South American plants, collected sometimes on the coast of
Norway, perish. It seems superfluous to multiply arguments to
pioy^ this position, since every horticulturist who rears exotic
platits, knows well from experience how much of his success
depends on giving them the aegree of heat they require.
Exeepti therefore, we admit that vegetable hfe was under
totally different laws from what it is at present, we must allow
thfltt a much greater uniformity of temperature existed in the
eafly age^ of the world over the whole globe, than is the case in
oar day^. There is in fact no way of accounting for the very
Uttl^ Variety which exists in the antediluvian plants of the period
I',aBQL alluding to, and of their great similarity in every part of the
wodd,( but on the principle of great extent and uniformity of a
lugh temperature, however difficult it may be to reconcile this to
ow. notions of the obliquity of the earth and solar influence.
But there is a difference at present of at least 4P of heat
(meaj^ temperature) between the parallel&in which coal has been
disBpivered* Between these, the diversity in the genera and
8peci^s.of plants at pjcesent is very great, so much so mdeed that
102 Sir A. Crichton on the [Feb.
there is no resemblance between the Moras of the two extreme
points. At the time, however, of the coal formation, the Florid
of these two remote parallels was the same, both as to genera
and species.
If it be allowed that a variety in climate and soil are the two
chief circumstances which occasion the greatest variety in the
vegetable kingdom ; and if it be allowed that the plants of the
Goal formation and of the most ancient strata were all of the
simplest structure, and almost entirely belonging to the acoty-
ledonous and monocotyledonous tribes, we have another proof
of the uniformity of temperature and soil at that period over an
immense extent of the earth. The more complicated vegetables,
those of the dicotyledonous kind, do not appear until a much
later period,* when the cause of the uniformity of temperature
of the ancient world was gradually becoming less and less, and
dying away, and the sun beginning to take an ascendency over
a cause of heat which had until then exerted supreme influence,
and which appears to have belonged solely to the earth itself.
Whatever the temperature may have been which was neces-
sary to support the life of the vegetable kingdom of that early
period of the earth's existence, it must be admitted that that
temperature was the same towards the polar regions as in the
tropical ones, for in both, the genera and species of antediluvian
})lants are similar, and the shells and corals of the mountain
imestone in the most distant parts of the contemporaneous
strata also correspond with each other. In the collection of the
Geological Society of London, there is a specimen of a very
remarkable variety of felicites from the coal formation of Aus-
tralia, about the 29^ south of the equator, and another exactly
resembling it from the coal formation of Newfoundland in the
49^ north of the equator. The fossil shells of Van Dieman's
Land correspond with those of Derbyshire. Upon descending
below the coal formation, proofs of the equality of a high tem-
perature over the whole earth are multiplied ; for upon examin^-
ing the mountain, and more especially the transition limestone,
which comes more immediately in contact with the primitive
rocks, we find madrepores, encrinites, corallites, and all the
varied habitation of sea polyps, the existing analogues of which,
are always found in tropical climates. It is in the Pacific Ocean,
and chiefly in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulph, and the Carribeaa
Sea, that the greatest coral rocks of modern times are found*
But in the ancient world, not only pentacrinites, madrepores^
corallites, and encrinites, are found in the transition and moun-
tain limestone of the coldest regions, but also whole genera of
testacea, the living resemblances to which, with a few excep-
tions, are only to be met with at present in warm climates.
* tn the Wbitiby ccmI whi<^ lies oYer the oolite.
}825»] Climat€ of the Antediluvian World. 103
It is well kDOWQ that the sensible heat of our atmosphere
Taries with the latitude, longitude, and this elevatioii of the place
where the observation is made, and that the temperature on the
surface of the earth corresponds in a great degree with that of
the atmosphere ; but the ancient temperature of the earth
appears to have been equal and permanent in every spot, at least
for a very long period.
Observations made in mines prove that the heat of the earth
increases with the depth. Several well-authenticated facts will
immediately be brought forward to substantiate this position ;
but before doing so, it ttiay be remarked that we have another
series of observations which have not been investigated with all
the attention they merit, leading to the same conclusion, and
which it is highly interesting to examine under this point of
view, — ^I mean the temperature of springs as they rise at different
depths, or under particular strata.
As connected with the present subject of inquiry, springs
exhibit two distinct set of phenomena ; first, the constancy of
their temperature under all varieties of seasons; and, secondly,
the difference of their respective temperatures as they rise from
different depths. Some interesting papers on the constancy of
temperature in a great number of springs, are to be found dis-
persed in the Transactions of learned societies. To such an
extent does the central cause of heat counteract the agency of
the seasons, that mineral springs which rise at no great depth
remain of an almost uniform temperature throughout the year.
The temperature of one near Berlin similarly situated was exa-
mined at different periods by two very accurate observers, Wah-
lenberg and Erman. The former found that the heat of the
source did not vary mere than 0'2o of Reaumur from August to
the month of April following. Erman, in a subsequent series of
observations, did not find it to vary more than 0*05, and he
ascribes the difference of the results to the greater accuracy of
his instruments. — (See the Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Aka^
demie der Wissenschajten von Berlin fur 1819.)
The deeper the sources of tepid and hot springs are, so much
hotter in general is the water which rises from them. The tepid
springs of Matlock and Buxton rise in the immediate vicinity of
amygdaloid and basaltic rocks, and hotter springs seem to come
from still grfeMer depths.* The celebrated and learned Hum-
boldt says, that the hot springs in various parts of South
* Mr Cordier found the temperature of a mineral spring at Cantal, which takes its
me from tke granite, to be a little above the heat of boiling water ( i- 1 00 of the centi-
grade thermometer). But a more astonishing fact is related by Mr. Link, who states,
tbat the heat of the mineral source at Caldas was + 150 of the centigrade thermometer.
The hot batlis of Montiegas at the foot of Sierra dc Estrella, and all the hot springs in
Portagtd ; those of Vals near AubenaSj in the Department of Ardeshe ; those of Weld-
bttid, near Sabburg, are thrown up either by granite or gneiss. —(See Brogniart*i
UihtndfOgy, nd. i. Article, Water.)
104 Sir A . Crichlon on the [Pe b •
America arise from the granitic and primary strata. As to the
hypothesis of their deriving their heat from the chemical decom-
position of sulphurets^ &c. the limited and changeable operation
of such a cause, compared with the permanency and greatness
of the effect, are su£Giciently strong reasons to make us abandon
this explanation.
It is here that I must add a few facts which relate to the heat
of mines. The following are taken from a paper of Robert
Balds, Esq. in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. vi. : —
€
Whitehaven Colliery^ Cumberland.
Average temperature of a spring at the surface 49 Fahr.
Ditto of water at the depth of 480 feet 60
Air at the same depth \ 63
Air at 600 feet 66
Workington Colliery y Cumberland.
A spring at the surface • . . • 48
Water at the depth of 180 feet 50
Ditto at the depth of 504 feet below the level of ocean,
. and under the Irish sea 60
Teem Colliery ^ Durham.
Water at the depth of 444 feet 61
Percy Mine Colliery, Northumberland.
Average temperature of water at the surface 49
Water 900 feet deeper than the level of the sea 68
Difference n 19
J arrow Colliery y Durham.
Average temperature of water at the surface 49
Water at 832 feet , 68
Killingworth Colliery, Northumberland (being the deepest Coal
Mine in Great Britain).
Water at the surface . • . • 49
Air at 790 feet deep 61
Ditto at 900 from the surface, after having traversed
I4. mile from the downcast pit 70
Water at the great depth of 1200 feet 74
Baron Humboldt, whose talents for observation, and whose
accuracy, cannot be doubted, informs us that the mine of Valen-
piana is so warm, that the miners are constantly exposed to a
temperature of 91*4 of Fahrenheit, while the mean tempei^ature
of the external air is 60*8. *
The springs which issue from veins of the same miiie at the
depth of 1638 feet, have a temperature of 98-2, which is 5*4.
1825,] Climate of the AnteShvian World. 105
wanner than the air of levels in which the miners work ; and this
'fact is of itself, when added to Mr. Bald's observations on the
water in mines, sufficient to set at rest, for ever, the supposition
of the heat being owing to the miners, their horses and lights,
&c. The health of a miner requires a constant circulation of air,
which renders the heat of mines more remarkable.
The average temperature of air at the mouth of the mine
of Reyas, near that of Valenciana, was 69*4
Air at the depth of 630 feet 92-7
Mr. Bald very properly remarks, that the heat of coal mines
cannot arise from the decomposition of sulphurets, for these
never suffer decomposition in situ; if they did, the greater part
of the coal mines in the world would have been destroyed by
spontaneous ignition. In the mina Purgatoria, the height of
which above the level of the sea is equal to the Pic of Teneriffe,
the air in the mine was 67*3 Fahrenheit.
From the foregoing observations, it is evident that the eleva-
tion of a mine above the level of the sea does not regulate its
temperature as it does that of the surface. Water at the depth
of 1200 feet under the sea in the Killingworth Colliery, was
stated to be 74° Fahr. ; while the air at 436 feet deep m the
mine of Villapenda, in Mexico, and which is more than 3000
feet above the level of the sea, is 84*9.
When the phenomena of the antediluvian Flora, and the laws
of vegetable life, are considered in connection with all that has
been adduced, we are necessarily led to the same conclusion to
which many celebrated geologists have arrived^ partly from
taking a different road of inquiry, and partly from conjecture ;
namely, that there is a source of heat in the centre of the earth
itself which must be referred to, as the cause of the uniformity
of temperature of the ancient world.
In regard to the first of these suppositions, it is most certain
that when the granitic crust is duly considered in all its analo-
gies, it is much more reasonable to consider it as a crystalliza-
tion arising from fire than as a crystalline deposit from a watery
solution. We have no proof that any fluid, such as water, is
capable of holding such an immense quantity. of the most inso-
luble of all substances in solution, and indeed it is probable that
the waters which were destined to act so remarkable a part on
the surface of our globe were, in the beginning of time, of the
purest kind, having no saline or mineral contents whatever to
deposit. The experiments of Sir James Hall and others have
proved that earthy substances, when fused under great pressure,
are capable of taking on a crystalline texture ; and observation
demonstrates that even when not under great pressure, the ele-
ments of feldspar, mica, amphigene, hornblende, pyroxene, anal-
s
106 \ . . Sir 4^ Crichtan on tlU [F»b.
oitae, and various other bodiesi when fused by the heat of a.
volcano^ unite to form these compounds, most of which appear
as perfect and beautiful crystals in the very substance and cavi-
ties of the fused mass. Lavas, basalts, volcanic pitchstone^
oi*phyries, 8(c. are full of such crystallized bodies^ and throw a
ight by analogy on the formation of granite, inasmuch as they
demonstrate the positive fact, that these crystalline substances,
bearing a close resemblance to the ingredients of this rock, may
be formed by igneous fusion ; and when to this is added the
results of Mr. Micherlich's most ingenious experiments on the
artificial production of pyroxene and mica by fusion, the evidence
becomes almost complete.
In the very substance and cavities of lavas, we meet with
amphigene, harmatome, feldspar, icespar, Thomsonite, arago*
pite, mica, amphibole, and augite, all in a crystallized state, It^
therefore, appears probable, that these crystalline bodies were
formed when the liquid lava allowed their elements to arrange
themselves according to their affinities. To suppose the central
part of the earth a mass of highly ignited liquid matter still
existing in a state of fusion is not conaiste&t with any thing that
yre know ; but as the brilliant discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy
in chemistry have demonstrated beyond the possibility of doubt
that all the earths are metallic oxides, it is not incongruous to
suppose that the nucleus of the earth was in toto, and still is ia
part, in a completely metallic state, and that the granite crust of
the earth was formed by a general and contemporaneous oxida-
tion and consequent ignition of the whole of its surface. This
doctrine would account in a natural manner for the earthy and
alkaline oxides which are found in all the rocks and minerals
which we suppose to be of igneous origin, or, in other words,
for all those substances which have till of late been considered
as distinct earths and alkalies. It accounts not only for the
universality of the granite involucrum^ but also for the similarity
of its composition ; for in fact, the granite is to be considered as
a mass of earthy oxides which were produced by the action uf
air and water, or watery vapours, on the metallic mass. When
we reflect for a moment on the intense heat produced by the
rapid oxidation of a very few grains of potassium or sodium, we
may conceive, if imagination can go so far, the more intense
heat of this globe during the simultaneous conflagration of the
whole of it» surface. What a state of chaos and disorder, from
which was to spring a series of secondary causes^ the agency of
which gave birth to a succession of others, each operating for a
iime, and thus accounting for the whole order of the super-
structure.
. We must suppose the presence of water and atmosphere to
explaia the oxygenation of the metallic mass^ and it is conform-
182SJ Climate of the Antediluvian World, 107
able to reason to admit that the great First Cause which di^tri*-
bated through the immensity of space the primordia of so many
worlds, would employ the simplest, and at the same time the
most effectual means for accomplishing the ultimate purpose and
end.. There is no necessity to imagine an ocean already formed
full of saline parts, which held the earths in solution, and which
it was to deposit by subsequent evaporation. The purer th6
element, the more rapid and effectual would its first action be ;
but then as a necessary result, a crystallized coat being thus
formed, a stop was put to the further conflagration and oxidation
of the metallic nucleus, except in a few spots where rents and
fisaures occurred, which would admit either water or air to the
central mass. The time was now arrived at which the clement-*'
ary water became fully saturated with every kind of soluble
oxide, whether earthy or alkaline. Its impregnation with these
bodied, therefore, was the immediate consequence of its first
action on the metallic mass, imd its subsequent deposits can be
accounted for as a series of natural events.
Before proceeding any further, I think it right to ctate, that
this hypothesis concerning the cause of the central heat, im$
first started, as far as my reading goes, by James Smithson, Esq.
who, in a short introduction to a paper delivered to the Royal
Society on the Analysis of a Saline Substance from Vesuvius)
published in vol. ] 03, part 2, of the Transactions of that Societyi
advanced the opinion as being founded on Sir H. Davy's disc^
veries ; he appears to have beet) satisfied- with muiul)/ throwing
out the idea, and to have totally abandoned its development.
Mr. Smithson's opinion and the grounds for it are so shortly but
correctly expressed, that I request permission to insert them
here.
'' The existence (says Mr. S.) in the skies of planetary bodies
which seem to be actually burning, and the appearances of ort-^
ginal fire discernible on our globe, I have conceived to be
mutually corroborative of each other ; and at the same time when
no answers could be given to the most essential objections to
the hypothesis, the mass of facts in favour of it fully justified, I
thought, the inference, that our habitation is an extinct comet or
sun."
The mighty difficulties which formerly assailed this opinion,
great modern discoveries have dissipated. Acquainted now
that the bases of alkalies and earths are metals eminently oxida-
ble, we are no longer embarrassed either for the pabulum of the
inflammation, or to account for the products of if
*' In the primitive strata, we behold the result of the combus-
tion. In them we see the oxide collected on the surface of the
calcining mass, first melted by the heat, then by its increase
arresting further combination, and extinguishing the fires which
generated it, and, in fine, becoming solid and crystallized
108 On Ike CHmate of the Aidedibtman World. fFes.
over tbe metaUic ball." Mr. Smithson then adds, that he consi-
ders, as I also do, the metallic nucleus which remains enclosed
aa the source of volcanos, and considering the high interest
which attaches itself to their ejections, proceeds to the chemical
analysis of the saline subatHnce which forms the subject of his
paper.
Having done jastice to the opinion of this learned and excel-
lent chemist, I must observe that tbe notion of our planet having
ever been either a comet or sun, is not only an unnecessary
postulate, but a moat improbable conjecture. Eve ^ observation
made on comets strengthens the suspicion, that so farfrom being
burning bodies, they are masses of transparent fluid having very
little density ; and a sun, according, to the received definition,
being the centre of a system, cannot be a fit denominadon for
our aartb.
This doctrine has also been adopted by M. V.Buch. Whether
it BQ^ested itself to his mind as an original idea, I know not;
but as he does not mention its concordance with the discovery
of Sir H. Davy or Mr. Sraithson's hypothesis, I presume it must.
That the opinion of so celebrated, experienced, acute, and sen-
sible a geologist as M. V, Buch, must have great weight with
all who are acquainted with his excellent writings, needs no
comment.— (See his paper on Basaltic Islands in the Abkand-
Ivngen der Kmigliclien Gesellscha/'t der Wissenschaflen von
Berlin, Baud, iii.)
The inferences which Mr. Micherlich draws from his ingenious
and successful attempts to produce crystallized minerals by
heat, lead him to a similar doctrine. He says, " I'he artificial
production of minerals by fusion nuts beyond doubt the idea of
our primitive mountains having been originally in a state of
igneous fiision. This state gives a satisfactory explanation of
the form of the earth, of the increase of temperature at great
depths, of hot springs, and many other phenomena. At that
time, during this high degree of temperature, the waters of the
sea must have formed an elastic fluid around the globe, accord-
ing to tbe experiments of M. Cagnard de la Tour."
1835.} B^teorologkat TaMe %«pf of Btuhey Heath,
Article III.
Meteorological Table kept at Buskey Heath in 1824.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.
(To the Editora of the Annals of Philosophy.)
GENTLEMEN,
The barometer and thermometer were observed at nine
o'clock in the morning, at which hour the temperature of the
external air is nearly the eame aa the mean temperature; see
Columns 3 and 8.
The coldest day was Jan. 14, thermometer 22"; and the
hottest Sept. 2, thermometer 82°.
lUin.
Evap.
Sx'a.
MeHn.
-J.
5
H
i
.
i
I
Months
Barom.'Ther.
Least. GreHt
^1^
fDdlM.."
Inchei.
Inches.
1 1
Jan.. .
t9-6-i9 i 36'a
0-794
1-85
34-1 'i 41-S
S-7
3
0
3
9
II3I0
Feb..
49-331 1 ST-1
■J'734
0-95
35-0 1 43-9
9
3
8
3 8 0
M>rdi
i:9'3l9l 38-ti
1-880
S-07
S5-I 1 45-4
S
a
0
IS
on
April..
S9'.-t86 «-3
9'iie
3-39
38-5 51-4
9
4
0
8
1 7
M-y..
W-JOT
SO-8
3-850
3-09
45-3 ; 57-0
0
E
0
4
3 8
W..
39-438
i5'6
5-074
3-19
49-9 1 8-i-9
1
5
0
6 0 5
July..
89-651
61-6
4-49
55-3
69-7
9
S
0
10 3 7
August
iSAil
60-a
ii'l35
3-Sl
54-7
64-5
5 I
7
3
11 a *
S.T^■■
Z9-J08
57-8
3-fie3
9-69
53-1
64-6
68 S
5
fi
0
19 114
oi...
ao-n9
49-3
3-lUT
l-fi3
45-9
54-a
9
8
0
14 9' 3
0
Nov. . .
29-118
46-4
3-110
1-48
41-6
50-4
17 5 6
.0
Dec...
39-339
40-8
9-785
36-8
45-9
41
3
0 1
0
IS 4 Aj 0
a9-290i' 48-1
3^-933
^
43 7' 54 -a
4H,I
iTS
i
199.89 731 »
June 24, the greatest deEcree of beat was 53°.
Dec. 25, theiinometer 64°.
On the Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy.
By the Rev. 3. B. EmmetU
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
OBNTIiEMEN, Grtal (hMbar«,If(n.U, 1S24.
Iff several papers which have been made public through the
medium of yourjonmal, I have endeavoured to investigate some
of the principles of chemical science, which are chiefly of a
mechanical nature, and to show the agreement of the mechanical
101 Mevl J. B. Emmeti oniht ' "'' [Fam-:
laws of corpuscular action with the Newtonian philosophy. In.
the present communication, more obscure phenomena, m whicfai
the agency of electricity, caloric, and attraction^ are concerned,
come under examination.
The relative magnitudes of the particles of matter, and the
ratio of their forces of attraction, must first be determined. If
the centripetal force of a particle of matter belong to its surface
only, which I have supposed in the former communio«^tion$, the
weight of a particle of matter =;; F x D* {D being the diameter
of th^ particle, F it^ force of attraction}.
Tf^refbre, atomic weight {W} w F x D^. ••..••••.•• • (a)
AlsoF = g (6)
AndD = ^/ ^ (c)
If the centripetal force be competent to the entire particle^ the
following formulsB result :
W = PxD' ....(1)
AlsoF = 5 (2)
AndD^^^ (3)
Under a given volume, the number of particles is as ^; tbo
surface of each psgrticle is as D* ; therefore, the quantity of 8ur»
face contained in a solid of given magnitude is as ^ ; henc^, upon
the first supposition, the weights of equal volumes, or specifiQ
gravity {S} is as ^.
.•.S=r ^ id)
AlsoFs= S.D (e)
F
s*
AndD = | (/)
But upon the second supposition, F = S . . . . (4)
Make (6) = (e).
Then 5 = S.D. -.0 = ^ J (A)
Make (2) = (4),
And5=S..,D^^:^ (5)
In each case, therefore, the diameter of a particle of a solid is
as the cube root of the atomic weight, divided by that of the
specific gravity. This is only an approximation to the truth ;
Ibf the particles have to be supposed similarly situated ; and we
\
1 825.] Mathematical Principles sf Chemical Philosophy. Ill
do not possess means of asoertaiaing their relative positions ;
the corrections to be applied must be furnished by a knowledge
of the laws of chemioal action ; so that this department of
science is similarly situated with several parts of physical astro*
nomy, in which the anomalies can be ascei-tained, and proper
corrections made^ only by means of formulae derived from the
primary laws.
Make (c) =: (/),
Then
^^-|.-.F:=^{S^xW}......(B)
By help of the above formulae, and others which are easily
investigated, many properties of solids maybe ascertained.
These are properties which depend upon that force which
produces the phenomena of gravitation ; and in order to ascer-
tain to what extent this force is concerned in producing chemi-
cal changes, or what relation it bears to those forces which are
conspicuous in producing chemical actions, we must compare
the results of experiment with the conclusions deduced from the
above formulae.
The atomic diameters of the following solids are calculated
from (A).
Atomic fUameter. Atomic weight. According to
Gold 5-039 24-838 Berzelius.
Gold 4-061 *12-9 Brande.
Silver 5-013 *13-3 Davy.
Silver 6-341 26-88 Berzelius.
Copper 4-497 *8-00 Davy.
Copper 3-556 4-00 Wollaston,
Iron 4-448 *6-86 Davy.
Iron 3-530 3-46 WoUastop.
Lead 5-943 24-9 Davy.
Lead 4-848 ...... *12-95 Wollaston.
Tin 4-641 *7-31 Davy.
Tin 5-848 14-7 Berzelius.
Zinc 3-979 *4'4 Davy.
Zinc 4-848 8-0 BerzeUus.
Phosphorus.. 4-217 1-335 Davy.
Phosphorus. . 4-61 1-74 Wollastop.
Sulphur 4-641 2-00 Wollaston.
Carbon 6-979 0-223 Sp, gr.
Carbon 3-634 ...... 1-626 Sp, gr.
In this table^ I have calculated from several sets of atomic
numbers ; for different chemists of equal eminence assign to the
atoms of solids very different weights. 1 have chosen tho
extremes, as it would be but tedious, and not at all satisfactory^
to give the diameters calculated from many numbers differing
112 Rev. J. B. EnunM OH tie [Feb.
only in decimals, without the means of kiiowiag which are the
trae^alues.
Alt chemists agree in the atomic number of carbon, but its
specific gravity is unknown : that of different charcoals is very
various ; I have, therefore, calculated the diameter of the atom
of carbon from the greatest and least gravity of wood charcoalr
The diamond might be substituted, but since it has never been
proved to be the pure carbonaceous element, such substit^on
would be premature.
In the following table, I have calculated the forces of attrac-
tion {F} by formula (e) ; F = D . S. 1 give the numberr^s
they result from the multiplication, &c. of the different tabies
now in use ; when the same can be extended to gaseous and
liquid bodies, oxygen or hydrogen may be made the unit in all
tables.
Atomic weight.
Gold, F =97-2627 24-838
Gold. .'.,..... 78-3773 *12-9
Silver 62-6365 *13-3
• Silver 66-6806 26-88
Copper 39-6736 «8-00
Copper 31-2928 ...... 4-00
Iron 34-6064 *6-85
Iron 27-4634 3-46
Lead . 67-4530 24-9
Lead 65-0248 *12-96
Tin... 33-8793 *7-31
Tin; • 42-6904 14-7
t Zinc. 27-853 *4-4
Zinc 33-936 8-00
Phosphorus . . . 7-464 ...... 1-335
Phosphorus... 8-1597 1-74
Sulphur 9-2366 2-00
Carbon 1-656 0-223Sp.gr.
Carbon 1-546 l-616Sp.gr.
On the second supposition ; i. e. that the density remaining.
the same, the weight of a particle of matter is as the cube of its
(tiameter, F will be proportional to the specific gravity of each
solid*
In these tables, the numbers marked with an asterisk are from >
the same tables as those of the gases and compounds in ^
Table 4. .
Ffom this table,, the most inflammable solids apf^ar to Jiav« ^
the least force, or the least tendency to the. earth. The ordtf^^
(tekipg the numbers marked with the asterisk, and whieh^teeid^' :^
gwenUly very consistent), U carbon, phosphorus, siik^«ir| »sk^ i
% jj->^*-
l^.J Mathematical Principles of Chemical Philosophy. .1 13
tioi iron, copper, silver, lead, gold, which appearft: the pi;eca8e
order of i»Bammability, except with regard to lead, which should
^preoede'sil^r.
The attraction for oxygen follows the same order; carbon
decomposes the phosphoric and sulphuric acids^ and all the
metallic oxides ; zinc precipitates all the metals below it in a
metaUio state ; tin and iron precipitate copper and the metals
lielow it; copper precipitates silver and ^old. Also the adher-
ence of oxygen to the bases is the same ; heat alone decomposes
the oxides of gold and silver; but the oxygen is generally sepa-
rated with greater difficulty, as the metal is more remote from
g^d in the table.
Also those bodies which are capable 4)f combining chemically
are attracted to the opposite poles of the galvanic battery; this
is supposed to arise from an electric energy belonging to every
particle of matter, and combination is explamed upon the princi*
pies of electri6al attraction and repulsion (whether such electrical
energies exist cannot, perhaps^ be proved at present ; however,
the term, electric energy, may be used with propriety, until one
• can be devised which. is free n'om hypothetical views ; at present
by electric energy, I mesui simply to denote the fact^ that the
particles of bodies have determinate tendencies to the poles of
the galvanic series, which differ in intensity in the bodie^s which
tend to the same pole). Oxygen always tends to. the positive
Cole, and appears to have the highest negeitive energy of all
Down bodies. If then we refer the inflammable bodies to
oxygen, the most highly inflammable will differ, most in their
ele^ric eieergy from it ; i. e. the most inflammable bodies have
the highest positive energy, or are most vigorously attra^cted by
the negative pole. It appears from the table, that those bodies
which have the smallest force of gravitation {F} are most
remote from oxygen in their electric state, or are the most highly
positive : the order will be as follows, each substance being more
highly positive than those, which follow it ; 1. Carbon ; 2. Phos-
phorus; 3. Sulphur; 4. Zinc; 5. Tin ; 6. Iron; 7. Copper;
8. Silver ; 9. Lead ; 10. Gold. In this list, the errors are not
gaeater Uian might be expected; for we cannot assume any
table of atomic numbers to be critically correct; besides, for
want of better data, the particles of all solids must be supposed
• to be similarly situated ; but I have demonstrated in a.fcM'mer
paper, that the order of arrangement, whilst the particle^ remain
m contact, may produce a: change of.one-fourth .of the entire
Tolome, tiierefore one-fourth jof. the specific gravij^y ; however,
-«i|Mse.iiU'the me^s are fusible, the viariation cannot amouAt to
iMmkf this quantity in ^any ease. . The results, howler, are
ftattneatly^ ^xaeit> to:shdw, thatt the most io^ammahle or. most
hi^if posi^ve substances, have the lea.st tendency to the earth.
Or if theseeond suppositioai be made, the same results nearly ;
Ni(w Series, vol. ix. \
114 Mfv. J. B, Hmmeti on tht , [J^xb.
ifimtbe specific, gravity of zinc is 7; tin 7-3; inon 7'3&$<c^0p»
yifif^r silver 10*5; le«cl H-3;.gdd \m. WitiKi«gsur4tQ,$M&m,
3opho«phora8, and sulphnr, perhaps tbere may be 6(dinfi doubt ;
■ ,. however^ ihey appear to be more highly posittve dian the
idetals ; for (PhiL Trans. 1807) Sir U. Davy baa proved tbat
iwhtn a polished metallic plate is separated from contact with
'Snlphnf^ the sulphur is positive, and the metal negative. Pbea-
fkoms entirely precipitates most, if not ail the metals from their
•add solutions. Charcoal precipitates many by the assistance
•ef light. From these circumstances, these bodies appear to
' Jpoeeeas a higher positive energy than the laetals have. Should
these data be proved to be correct, the following deductions
may be supposed to be rendered highly probable : —
/ 1 . The most inflammable solids have the least tendency to
. Alb eartb, or the least density.
.. 3. Those solids which have the greatest attraction for oxygen,
. Iwve the least tendency to the earth, or the least density.
3i. The most inflammable solids,, or those which have the least
^tendency to the earth, are the most highly electro-positive.
Inflammability arises from the greatness of the attraction of a
. ftubatauce ibrox]^gen (supposing we latter the supporter of com-
iirbuation), and this force is proportional to the dinerence of their
•-.tdkelrical energies; and the latter bears an evident relation, to
\ itfie force of gravitation. Some philosophers suppose the parti-
;Metes of every body to possess an invariable electrical state, to
jiwkich chemical attraction is ascribed ; all corpuscular attraction
.\hm been ascribed to it: if this be the case, no solid can be
iisimple; for bodies equally electrified with the same power aeem
to iiepel, and certainly do not attract each other; every simple
txor elementary body must be gaseous ; the cohesion of solidsiind
^adbesion of liquids, on thisnypothesis, must be owing to tbe
attraction existing between the diflerent intensities of dissim^ar
^*|mf tides; therefore all solids and liquids must be comi>o|inds,
K : which certainly has not been proved ; nor can it be di^proif^ibtii^
;. . the present state of science. Should this hypothesis be - piH^d
> ^eterecty wonld it not appear that electrical energy and attrs^ion
of'^ravitation are the same power? That the united energiMrof
t> vike pattieles of terrestrial matter constitute its attraction^ jSM»d
Ifaat the mo&t highly positive bodies (which appear to.haveilbe
least tendency to the earth) approach most nearly tQ }t9 luean
.rmieoi^j? Sifouid this hypothesis be proved to be corvesQ^ A^m
the niMifest connexion between the powers, which has been
IKiinteil out, these queries appear as if tbey would be answered
*>p tbe isdirmative. In the explaiiiatton of the phenoDoena, how-
ev^r^ dMre is no absofarte necessity to assume the existence of
electric energies ; for eleetricity miqr be regttcded as a foreign
^ent ;rrtre may suppose, and upon very good ^unds, that it acts
only OS a decomposing powef^! and that those bodies which have
•>(R2S.] Mathenuttkai Ffiuc^e^ afChemail Philosophy, ■■ lib
'Ik^^r^iitost^tMdeney to the earth, havd the grfealMl. tendency
M^^&Gf^'f^dsilJve'pdie of thi gdvanic battery, aod the 'ooiitri^.
lli'^ki €Me, Uh^ attmotion- of gravitation stay be die 8Qi|ejfof ce
-whiefa produces cbemical attraction^ as well as cohesion/ ^^es^iU
* larj attraction, adhesion of fluids, &b. ; and that when tfee^alr
'Vttme power is applied in effecting decomposition, bodies |ios^
«Msing the greatest force of gravity attach themselves tb the
j^sitive, and those having t)ie l^t to the negative pole. Uffon
#118 hypothesis, electricity iA not an agent in producing attrac-
tkm ; out, like caloric, its action is regulated by the attraotidii of
gravitalioa according to scMoie determinate law, acting pric^uiily
ct» a power opposed to attraction, Althpogh highly imporUint,
it is impossible to decide between these hypotheses, in the pve-
•ent state of chemical science : the principal reason is, that we
are totally ignorant of that which we denominate the electric
ftttd ; whether it is a fluid or power $u% generiSf or ambdification
of others, is unknown ; it has the power of attraction^ perhafi^ of
TepnlsioD, and when accumulated, it either produces,^ conveys,
or excites heat ; electric phenomena may be produced separate
litHn chemic&l action, as is the case in a large electric eoiumn,
or-galvaAic battery, charged with pure water y bat whenever it
produces chemical changes, heat is excited, and deQqmposition
goes forward in the battery; yet electricity excited by tbledo^
UKAi electricsd machine hais the |)iower or decompositiob^^ibnd
eiteites heat. These facts render it very doubtful whether «^ha;t
tirie denominate the electric fluid is the principal agent inpixncifiic-
ini^ chemical changes ; however all phenomena may be eqiifl^ly
CTplained, and all investigations carried forward without' j^aying
tecourse to any hypothetical views, by making observed ikots
' the badis of future research, viz. that the most infiandiiKiab^
liolkls have the least tendency to the earth (F), and the strbng-
' "esrt determination to the negative pole of the galvanic series^
'- 'III cases of eimple combustion, it has been observed gepe-
^'Mi^', that those bodies which have the lighest atoms, i. e. in
' >ii9itch die ratio of the oxygen to the bascf is the greatest^ revdlve
"' 4he^ greatest quantity of heat during combustion f Uie analogy
"riM^ tie clearly traced ; but if the forces of altzactioQ (F) ^b^
*''ie0aipared> %hose bases, whose force is the least, usually erolve
teoilt heat : the following tstble exhibits some c^es :«-^ - : ':■■■^*
^M^i.Whett hydrogen is combined with oxygen^ .' ^ . •
'^ilMb <£htygto : Baee^ : : 7'5 : 1*0 « . « . F« base u^j^own.
.1 h! >. r Pc^tassiam i: 7-& : 37*5 *... .0^66il
-•Noti ,cnao).u)^r^4jjtitk)a"^ •.: :: ^7'fi ]t • $f7i i „. . \,'Ai •.. siGNJai? i.oi.'
10 9ou^itc.'^> yjilt^m ■:' ••:: '7'^6'-t "'®i«Opi\^* .o-. . •■}' .j,3it> icvjv>:
^iosUl&d* .:'M ;''>Meteury . .:•:• 7.-6-.: i-90-i&' .Mil i' ■;•<*-■' ? >1^6>>>.;',i;--
^t^ia is only an' apprbxitnation/ah' atiato^ ^iillKMb
after lead to important resl^frV ^ tlie'^ilfomly 4ftei£
depends^miion.uie. quantities of heat contained in the bodies,
ana the quantity remaining in the' compoand, which will gene*
rally be greater when it is a gas or liquid^ than a tiqaid ot solid.
The anion of bases with chlorine^ iodine^ sulphQr> and some
ethers, present analogous phenomena of combustion^ and the
tome analogy may be clearly thiced.
Since the atomic diameteri^ of potassium and of eaition are
uncertain, their force is doubtful ; the former certainly is capa-
ble of existing in a state of inuch greater density than it pos-
sesses in its metallic state, as the great density of pure- potash
demonstrates : the real density of carbon is also unknown ; it
certainly is much greater than id generally supposed ; for when
the lightest charcoal in fine powder, or lamp-black, is perfectly
mixed with water, and boileq so as to expel all the air containea
in the interstices, it rapidly sinks in the liquid, even if a consi-
derable quantity of gum, or saline matter, be contained ; yet
chemists state its gravity to be about 0*223. Beddes, the
method by which the specific gravity of porous solids is usually
fbnnd introduces very great errors ; for by reason of capillary
action, the mercury employed will never enter the pores and
interstices of porous solids ; besides the capillary interstices of
till light porous solids are filled with air in a considerable state
of condensation, which keeps the mercury at a considerable
distance from contact with the solid ; even water does not readily
enter. 'When the specific gravity of a light porous solid has to
be takep, it should be immersed in water, or any snititble liquid
except mercury, and either boiled or exposed to a vacuum for
some time, by which means it will be freed from air : the error
introduded by allowing the sur to remain, makes the gravity of
^ charccral, in reality heavier than water, only •223.
- In all analytical researches, chemical tables should- be com-
puted for weights and magnitudes proportional to those of the
particles of bodies ; for in combination and decomponrition, the
quantities are proportional to the atomic weights ; afi ultimate
atom possesses all the properties which belong to a body, and
the capsucity fcrheat is as the capacity of one particle muitipUed
into the numier of particles ; therefore the capacity c^an atom
of any body is the^ real representative of the capacity' of that
^ubstahce; the expansion or a body being caused l]^ the separar-
tion of its ^varticles, the separation which takes place between
two adj^cent-paitieies is the true ratio of the expansii^. The
PH^ . -piaj be extended to all other tables. In the following
i}g I Mire^^ computed the atomic c«q)acit7es of a ntranbfeir of
iRubstaxiees. The atomic capadty = capacity of a giv^iRSSffSt,
,;<^^^pinic weight. The former nnmbcirs are taken fromTS^^f^
IflW^ Jlfa^toriA^iWPitii^ipbs^^i^ liT
Carbonate of lime .... 1*7
QhiiMia^ PhtloftQphy^ tbe atomic woi^bte bofn
Hydrogen. •»..«>/. .. 2*86 * \. :f^
^,Tr • Oicygen. •.•••«•«.«.. 4*75 ;>^
V': Garbooieacid.. «. ..«. 0*414 . ^ "
?. Aaoeous vapour 1*75
Water 113
. io« 102 ■' :-:^
•.:- Lime ; 1*06
Hydrate of lime ..... . M6
Litharge. 0764
Red lead 0*849
Caibonate of lead l'I12
Vitrified oxide of lead. 0*68 "^"
Qiude of tin 0-822
. Oxide of zinc 0*74
♦ Brown oxide of copper. 2*27
Oxide of antimony . . • . i*817
Red oxide of iron 1-66 Z*'
Gold 1:2416 24-83 i
CWd 0-646 *l2-9 f
Silver..... 1064 *13-3
Silver... 2-15 26-88 ''
Mercury ...1-00 ~ . ''^'^^
Copper. 0-88 *80Q ""'
Copper 0-44 400
Iron . 0-89 *6r85
Iron 0-448 3-46
,.nr. Lead... 0-996 24-9
m\ - J-ead 0-618 *l2-96
t^r Tin... 0-5117 *7:31
f.r>7 Tin 1-029 14-7
•;»f4, Zinc . 0-44 ^ . . *4-4
li-
ft
■ \
^- -
' '\ ■
!»■.: Zinc... .0-8 .......... so"'" ''
rfi'.-:.j. • ■.Sttlphur. 0-38 ........ %'^
ijJ '■
1 < > » ^<
vCarboQ 0-1.97
-tTTt^tt"-'--. llicjkel . .•••.....••. 0-37
r^ -^-: ;. Aftttmony ........... 0*36
niT ^i^miiib ..*..... 4*.. 0*36
iii |lB*Wi^bie, the asterisk denotes the/ato.^ji<b/numbef|i|
^" — ^ ^«i the. table whence, the atom? of the otter liubttsnicS
3J-i; VA\ \x^' y\mi.
The table represents the ratios of the reat eapaeities of t5c)diea
t
I
f<nfli«at;:«Qd ififeknew the; ratios of Ihe? abaaMo y latitifiif
heat c^ntfliQed ia'Bodsea|::^a7dioajbl/iMtBMe
real qiHxntit3r evolved dariw combustion wad obemiGal ohanges;;^
however. idi the heat evolved or absorbed depends primarilyupoD
ciiupascitv, the table furnishes approximations wbi<^. probably do
not differ much from the truth, and leads to several iaq)ortanti
conclusions. An example or two will show its application.
Atomic capacity of carbon. = 0*197
+ capacity of two atoms of oxygen. . . = 9*600
9-697
— $itomic capacity, carbonic acid ........ 0'414
mm^m^K
^« I *■ ■ f
.*. caloric evolved by the combustion of one
atom of carbon , na 9*283
^
Atomic capacity of hydrogen == 2*86
+ atomic capacity oi oxygen. = 4*75
— atomic capacity of aqueous vapour. . = 1*76
I .
i«i I ■
r -
.'. caloric evolved by the combustion of one
atpm of hydrogen = 5*86 *
Atomic capacity of carbonic acid =s 0'4i4
'+ atomic capacity of lime sx 1-06
r: . 1-474
.?'■ -^ atomic capacity of carbonate of lime = 1'700
:^ - 0'2S26
Oi*0'226 of caloric are absorbed*
From the table, the most inflammable bodies appear to h^ivp
the smallest capacities, and may therefore be supposed to cofi*,
tain the smallest quantity of caloric : thus oxygen lias tbfi:
greatest, capacity : the capacity of hydrogen is large, when com-
pftfed with that of the metals ; since, however, it is biglily ela£^
t^ its capacity must be much greater than it would berif
hydrogen were reduced to the solid state. Qold, sHyer^aQjl
meijettry, have a larger capacity than copper; copper tHan iijo^
tiffi, or asioc ; these larger than that of sulphur or carbon,,.: Bfei^
those bodies which possess the highest electro-negative energyi.
or^ftire^ attracted most powerfully by the positive pole^p OtV^ w^ck
in^ the greatest tendency to the earth, have die gi^atfj^^
attraction. for ccdoric. These facts may be applied in Wosibltfa-^
tion without reference to any hypothetical views. In compbiuids
ctmllAtmgtOisfgemf ibe atomic cmpadtir is fisnally gi»ater tllaii
tiM of'At Iwm; for inalaiice, the oxides ef tin, ie^dy oopptr^tl
bc^ have a greater capacity tKan the metals thems^vea pd«^r
sees; the increase is not in proportion to the quantity of osygaiivt
the reason is, that oxygen does not exist in the same state ff ::
deaaity in all solid oxides.
If fTi = wei&cht of base 1 • ^ j
^ -^1 . r > m a con^nound.
n = weight of oxygen/ ^
a = sp. gr. base.
b = sp. gr. oxygen as it exists in the compound.
c = sp, gr. compound.
* =* (m^^n)!a!lm.c ^ ^f' S^' of the oxygen required.
Calculating according to this formula^ the sp. gr. of oxygen in
glass of aotimony is 2*21 ; in phosphoric acid 6*1 ?; in oxide of
arsenic 1*4; in red lead 3*2; m black oxide of manganese 3*1 or
2*7 ; in red copper ore 1*47 ; in iron mica 1*36. Now the most
highly electro^negative bodies^ or those solids which have the
greatest tendency to the earth, have the greatest attraction for
caloric, and the least for oxygen : therefore their capacities for
heat are -the greatest, and the oxygen is retained with th^ least
force; therefore in the most highly electro-negative pombusti«
bles, the oxygen retains more caloric than in the electro-poaii
tive, is most easily disengaged, and their oxides act powpffuUy
as supporters of combustion. Thus the oxides of gold, silver,
mercury, peroxides of lead and manganese, easily inflame pboa*
phorus, oxygenate sulphur, and produce other effects which
prove that the oxysen retains very much caloric, and it is so
easily disengaged, that the three first are reduced by beat alonOi
and the other two, by the same treatment, part with one atom of
oxygen ; while the oxides of iron, tin, zinc, and particularly of
potassium, calcium, hydrogen, and other highly electro-posiH<va
inflammables, produce no euch effects, and are reduced with
diBctiltv, requiring the assistance of other inflammables iaaddir
tion to hes^. When we are possessed of accurate table» ol tlN^
elftctiical powers of all the bodies which are supposed to IHI^
simple, and of the primary compounds of the capacities forjbiMlp
more accurate than any at present existing, and of the-ll^
npedific gravities, we may expect to arrive at conclosji^ils h%hlf<^
important to science, and which will establish cliei3(iicaI''pbU4^
•d^hy :apana mathematical basis : at present we c9»Boi^:m.^iM^
iitore than the deveiopement of some of the prima>>]i^'lQ:x^t^
action. • . • ^ ' '; *^^'- '^^^
The atomic expansions of sohds are iti' the order of hha^r^ttmi^
9%ties; ijney are exhibited in the following table: the atdvoni
effpsjision sss expansion of equal lengt^H^ x atomic diatnil^ti'i^
■.IC'.*J
■ Iron ....:.:.....:.:..... ..•.'.■. . . 0-SB34 ' '""
■ Gold ...;... 0-6685 ■■ '
Copper ; 0-7644
Silver 1-0427
Tin M600
Zinc 1-234
Lead 1-389
In thiis tablei the atomic diameters are those marked vvidi the
asterisk in Tabl^ 1. The order corresponds nvith that of theifer
fusibilities as nearly as can be expected ; for finding the expus-
sion 6f ^e nretals is tin operation of the greatest delicacy^ add
one in which a small error may be committed by the most skilfhl
experixhenter : besides^ the atomic diameter = 4 / — wtign^
and in the calcnlations^ until all the primary laws are. fully dme*
loped^ we have to suppose the particles of all solids to -be. simi-
larly situated/ which certainly is not the case^ and in solids, tbe
efror may amount to one-fourth the gravity ; but since the metals
are ail fusible, and with the exception of few at a moderate tend*
pevature, compared with the total scale of heat which' can. .be
produced, the error will not 'be so great. If the table be estendwi
to silex aiid other highly infusible substances, the general law is
venr apparent.
Upon the same principles many other properties of -bodies
ttay be investigated and ohenomena explained ; for example, it
a heated body be coated with different substances, the Ia^4r
btftug '«o thin as to produce no sensible effect by its conduotiiig
rwer, the radiating power wiU be inversdy as F ; forthe.calidcic
ifetained by the force of the surface only, and this power bss
be^n shown to be greatest in the. most mghly electro^negatvvie
bodies, or those which have the.^eatest tendency to theemih ;
imd to this^ power that of radiation is inversely proportiQi»| :
this accords very, well with experiment ; a heated dean xnedalUftc
tvirface has a radiating power of 12; covered .with a tibin ocMit
of ^ue, a bijghly positive body, it is 80 ; coated with lenf -
black 100. Tiie reflecting powers of poUshed metals appear; ila
depend upon the density or the calonc contained in tl»ei»,.'i» ^.
to Khe capacity (or rather the specific heat,* if it wer6kaoiPva)fof
eqoal volumes. The capacities of equal volumes are, iraii>itQ0,
brass *d7, ^Iver *S4, tin *51, lead *45, which niuiibei9r}de»]itet
gt^^atl^^differ from their powers of reflecting heat.
The conducting powera of solids for heat depend primarily
upon the attraction and the capacity for heat ; this power is
nearly as the forice F x capacity of equal volumes, if equal
lengths be used; by computation the powers are,, gold 75,
silvw 43» CQPP^if 38^ iron 34^ lead 24, zinc 23, tin 17, carbon
about '39 ; but in order to compute correctly the conducting
power of bodies, their radiating power must be exp^imentally
ascertained; because it enters into the calculation., The law
according to wliich caloric is conducted is easily di^termined ;
it is this : — If a solid rod be heated at one end, and distances
be taken in arithmetical profession, the excess of temperature
above that of the surroundmg medium will decrease at those
distances in geometrical progression.
The resalts of these investigations I consider as approxitna-
itions whereby the ^neral laws of chemical action are developed
•■disntil these shdl be correctly known, the connections wmo|t
tiie nuvbers require cannot be made. By dectric tKmsy:,:i.
mean no more than the fact, that bodies have definite tendcincAi^
to ^e pofed of the galvanic series. If the particles of all bodies
posses definite electrical states, the relation of the foYc6 of
-^fffavitaliioQ to electrical energy is clear ; but this wcfoid giive
•rise to results which are inconsi&tent with the known: principles
0f l^ilosophy ; for it would follow that no solid caa be simpld,
which may be the case; but since such hypothesis is tomly
VDSL pported by any evidence whatever, it cannot be adxititted :
tdso two masses of the same* matter would be incapable of
attracting each other^ the contrary of which is fully proved by
the experiments of Mr. Cavendish, and more decisive evidenoe
cannot be desired : besides, if two bodies, A and B, bodtfoai*
ttve^ attract a negative body, C, the force of A being greater
than that of B ; A and B will also attract each other, and the
faroe' will be proportional to die difference of their electric cStato^ ;
wheieaain aM cases the force is proportional to the qnaiit^M^f
matter : these phenomena militate against the hypomesis^oCtl^
existence of electric energies. But if we suppose such «>jpe|i^
-4ion.to exist between gravitation and electncity, that 4bp^
bodies which have the greatest tendency to t^ etorth af^iMKlt
fowerfcMj attracted by/ the positive pole, all the phenomena
't&tiat of perfectly easy solution, and by electric energy nothing
OKire'will be meant than the relative tendencies of bodies totthe
polee of tlie battery^ which is the sense in which I have used tbe
teno-; and upon this hypothesis, chemical attraction^ as w^H-tfs
cdiesicm, capillary attraction, adhesion, and gra;vtitati«njt «^
de]^ecid4ipon^ and be determined by the quantity of matleii!,^.io
«4n€Ai/there is evidence, that the phenomena o^eledirte w^ii/^
'^najnibeTediaced. I remain, Gentlemen, youm^iSccuvr^J '
J. B* :£2tf^MMVT»n
.,-^T
i'\
- 'X v'.
^(t.uf
p
Major i^dnMh on mok 1
I Account of some Tumuli near the Folk of Niagara.
By Major A. F. Macintosh.
(To the Editors of the Antia/s of Philosophy/.)
GENTLEMEN,
About three miles from the falls of Niagara, near the h
of Sir P. Maitland, there is a ridge of rising ground, m
oommauds an extensive view of Lake Ontario and the suiroui
ing country, which is for the most part Jii this vicinity covei
with wood.
On the most elevated part of this ridge, which is now c
Mount Dorchester, about two years ago, a large oak 1
meELSuring at the base five feel in circumference, was bloifl
down, and an opening made in the soil by the roots of the 1
being torn from the earth, which exposed to view a quantity 6
human bones. The person who discovered that the accideHi
had happened caused an escavation of about ten feet in diamettf
to be made, and found a deep stratum of human bones regular^
disposed, and forming a vast number of perfect skeletona. Th
wrist bones of many of the skeletons had a species of armlef
upon them ; the head of a tomahawk, several Indian
beads, and other ornaments, were also found interred am
the skeletons ; and the conjecture suggested by the discoret
is, that the remains in question are those of some of the abor
ginal inhabitants of the country who had fallen in some sangi
nary conflict on this spot, and found their graves upon the S
of battle.
The most interesting part of the discovery, however, connal
in the circumstance of many large conch shells, some of "
bored so as to be used as a rude kind of musical instrut
having been found disposed under the heads of sev^al c
skeletons. Several fragments of the shells were also tuM
near the upper parts of the bodies, and seem to have been * ^ --
upon the shoulders and arms, either as armour, or for the por-i-'^
pose of ornament, as they are perforated with holes, wnicb';
probably were intended to put fastenings into to secure tfaeia'
upon the person. I was assured that these shells were 4
a species which is only found on the western coast of AinsriL
and on the shores of the neighbouring islands within the tropie
On seeing the shells, I immediately recollected that iit tht
Museum at New York, there is a dress which belonged to t|i]
son of the King of Owhehee, "which was brought to EuroM
originally by one of Cap). C'jok's vessels, and that upon *IB
iidmc drcas there is a conch shell of the same species of tbe'l
IKagttiQi pnes^ which forms a very conspicuous ornament. Does
not an investigation of this subject promise to throw some light
on the history of the original pdpidatieA of the American cotttt-«
nents, and the islands of the Pacific?
The spot where these remains were found bears every appear-
ance of having been an Indian encampment. The ^ound on
thetside of the Lake^ which is distant about seven miles, seems
to have been rendered steep by artificial means ; and Mr. Ror-
bach, who first discovered the bones, says, that when the ground
18^ freed fiom the leaver of treeiity Which are every where strewed
ofei it in great thickness, that holes resembling the marks t)f
pickets may be seen surrounding a space of several acres. We
should hence infer, that those wamors who fought with the
tomahaw)^, and who used shells as musical instruments, and as
defensive armour, were not ignorant of the art of war, so far as
the eoBstnxotion of an extensive encampment defended by
works possessing some pretensions to regular fortification,
Where the first excavation was made, there can be Itl^tle
dovibl that a tumulus had originally been constructed over.the
beises/ as within a short distance of the first opening, four hea^a
lesismbling tum^uli have been opened, and found to contain bon^s
aiadl t^maments of the kind which I have described.
. The people in the neighbourhood have carried away many of
theekulls, particularly the entire ones. I, however, succeeded^
with the assistance of Mr. Rorbach, in collecting some of tibe
meet perfect of the remains> and took measures to insure^ their -
f^jfc^ng Ci»ope in safety, intending them for a scientific fii^d,'
from w^ose knowledge on such subjects, it may be hoped; tlrat,
inteiesting results are to be looked for, should heybe
aflforded the opportunity of examining these reUcs of an andent!
aa^ehseure period.
S'rOm the side of the hill rises a fountain of the nM)sttranspdr-i
eisfc -water, in quantities sufficient to turn the wheel of a taaitt
whieh IS situated at a short distance ; this is the inva;«
riable attendant of such tumuli, whether they occur in Britam,'
Seaadin&via, or in Asia; and I could not help regretting that
the lumult of Niagara had not been inspected by some of those
UlenMTV characters who have exhibited so much learning, ami
bfougnt 4o light so much interesting and curious knowledge in [
Aeir treatises upon the barrows and tumuli of Europe, Asia, and
Afiiefifc^ e» undoubtedly those at Niagara, when taken togethcpp, jk
wkhihe remain^of a similar character, which Baron HiimfaofiDli£
deaeribes as existing in Mexico, might be the means of thrpwin^ >
light upon a period of the history of the world, where records^
en^j^y fail u»^ and which seem% buried in the darkn^S of the
iftok rmnoteTantiquity.
124 M. ^SstzeHufonMimrit Add. ' [Bb*^
* £ist of' the Artick$ sent to Englahdip Mttjiyr^Ma^AkiK^.
\.» J- *- ,
Ajdbdl, iLSul three diigh b<Hiee«
A bfass kettle. • "-^
A sheet of metal. - ■- -d.
Several strings of coloured glass beads. ::^:v
Some strings oi beads, apparently made of shells and bmif^^. li-v.
. The head of a pipe . ,t f ♦.
A conch shell entire. : .£•,
Several pieces of the same kind of s^ell shaped into. iH^nai^j
splits*
Article VI.
•».?i»t|
On Fluoric Acid,afid its most remarkable ComhinatimtSs * • u
By Jac. Berzelias.
(Con^inMe({^(mt vol. viii. p. 457.)
• ' • * ■
Silicated Fluate of Potash. — When this salt is precipitate4 ^
from a weak acid, the liquid does not immediately, b^ooppf^
turbid, but the salt which exists diffused through it .in ye^A
minute particles, communicates to it the property of reflectiog;.
the prismatic colours: by degrees these suDside and form a.
transparent layer, which still exhibits a siuiilarplay of colours »,
While moist, this salt preseptjs the appearance of a gelatinpiu^,
mass, but is converted into a fine^, soft, white powder by dfisic*
cation. It is very difficultly soluble in water, but not^so .mittc^>
80. that it can in every case be employed adyants^eousfy ia,.
making a quantitative determination of potash. It is rojthei;^
more soluble in boiling than in cold water, and if a saturated!
solution be evaporated, the salt may be obtained in small ,ci|iB?tn
tab, which are sometimes rhombs, and sometimes regular bue^
sided prisms. The crystals are anhydrous. In a low red.h^jili..
it melts, and if the temperature be augmented, it boils andgj^veur
off fluate. of siUca, but a very high temperature is necessary; to
produce complete decomposition. In the open air^ fluate q(
silica is disengaged before the salt begins to undergo fusio^j
Ifihe i^tion be performed in an open platinum cruciblei ps^rtj^
cttlaily^^ if the heat of a spirit lamp be employed, a porljpa4f;'tl]^.
fluate is decomposed at the instant of its disengagemf^tct^^fUi^;
cimumaiabient vapour of water, and the neutral fluatiBv^luifih
reittaitMi atthe conclusioli of the decomppsitioQ^^is ifpi^ tok4i|iAi
miied wit^ silica. Hence, when I wished tora^cei^l^il^ifliii^
SM^t .cjf the residual salt, I alwayj placed the platii^mm ccuc^il^^.
cqgj»irting the sihcated flUate wi&in two otherfi, aiid,heatg4»fli^
iniajTieiuifimal fire : in these experiments, the interioiofijtt^fjjiiriii^
i . J
or oqfiiB^tMiiiriiciMtf and ev^n of the second, m^M ujc^nly
eoated ^ckly mth silica.
This salt is not altered by a sohniott of pbtenix (w <ȣteaafaata(fee
of potash in the ordinary temperatures, out if the imxturebe
boiled, carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and the whole of- the
flak passes into solution. In a boiling temperature, the bqpiid
may<%e' Concentrated without any deposition ensuing. These
erocts, howeirer, are not the result of mere solution; for the
salt is decomposed^ and the silica gelatinizes in proportfton as
fte'fii|uid cools. ' Gay*Lu8sac and Tfaenard have stated, tili»t a
siihmt consisting, of sihca^ potash, and fluoric acid, may>\fae '
formed hy treating the ordinary silicated fluate with caustic
IMitash ; bat the precipitate obtained in this manner is nothing
else<4han a mixture of silica with the undecomposed salt.
Silicated Fluate of Soda. — This salt, whose existence has beeii
denied by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, is almost identical, both ip
lis general appearance and in its chemical characters, with the
silicated fluate of potash. It is, however, heavier, and forms
larger granules, on which account it subsides more rapicHy xa
ife 'li<{iHd from which it is precipitated; and I have never
oMerved it, when in this state, reflecting the prismatic cdbar^.
If tes a geilatinous appearance while moist, but is converted inl&
a^Hne mealy powd^ by desiccation. It is much more sohifaie
is water than the salt of potash : it is aliBO more soliiUe in ho&h
ing &att in cold water, and its solubility is not increased Iqf the
presence of sn excess of acid. When a saturated soiulion pi
is evaporated in a moderate heat, it shoots in. ssHill*'
_ crystals, which appear to be regular six^^sided prismi^
with- transversely truncated exta;emities. The crjnitals contain
BiS^<^»raiically combined waW. This salt is acted upon byheafe
iil%^ififnitar manner with thepeceding, only it retains its ^oesii^
ofifeiid'with much less obstmacy. The introduction of (some
bit9' of carbonate of ammonia into the crucible facilitates the
diiirpaftion of ^e last portions of this excess, but in this case
l^^^nML salt which remains is always mixed with mhea.
^-^Sitk&tedftuaie of lithia is almost insoluble in water*- Its seloN
blKtj^is augmented by an excess of acid, and it may beobtaiiied
bj^'rats means in small transparent crystals, which aire^oooa^
s^stMffl^ six-sided prisms, but which have evidently a rhomdboid
lilp'dteir basis. When heated, it melts, and obstinately retains:
iM^floate Of silica. ' -^>^ i
^SUkatBi Fluate of Ammonia. — ^This salt may be fyraof^kiMhB^^
iMaUi <«^ by saturating the Uquid acid with an»tn^niay hiiMln»
dpiandiMiu attetided with difficulty, because the allukifi, asnim
mks^'V^ry dilute, has the property of decomposing the ftiiate«£^
Aiit^^nbe dfy^^y it may be easily pt'ejMived Sjie dj«t^li^BpIau
iiliireu#^^iie^feiticated fluate of potash or sodK mth^ui^mumc^'
niac. Thiis obtained, it constitiit^ps an uncrystalline mass, but
i it *
I
1S6 M. BerMeliiit tm BuorH Acid. ^ {Tiirw
ir fl^te dkmxAff^ itt vMtar, and the s<diilaoii txmtediUsA W^i^%ti^
neotift eyaporation, it shoota in large treiitpafeiit oryaCate/ Tlie
ifnmMSPf farm '<^ita ^ryatal is tbe rmmboidy and, like the prttded-
ang salts, it haa a strong tendency to asanme the form of a eb^vt
Mt«sided prism. This sak is very soluble in water* Ignited^ tt
Jeerepitatea slightly, and subtimes unaltered ; and a ^ass rcfleit
VMj be employed for this experiment without undergoing ceMo-
sidn. Ammonia decomposes the aqueous solution of thi^ sMt,
•but if die filtered Uquid (which still retains aome silica in soW
tion) be evaporated, a certain quantity of the alkali is voladfized,
and a portioii of the double salt is regenerated, in consequeiice
ef the siliea being xedisaolved by the disengaged acid. - •
filay«'Lu8sac and J. Davy have shown that the gaseous flclftte
>of sihca and ammoniacal gas occasion mutual coi»ieasatieb,
when mixed in the proportion of two volumes of the fenuef to
one volume of the latter. The product is a white putverakfkit
ai^ which may be subliaaed unaltered, so long as it is kept free
fipsm moisture. Whes put into water, it is decomposec, ^d
Ihar«ilicae?«perate8 in a gelattnous state, according to J. Davy ;
•^^■^ proof that it had been chemically combined with the other
jaigiudients •£ the salt. This compound appears, therefore/ to
eonsbt of an atom of anhydrous fiuate of ammonia and an atdi[i
of anhydrous ailioate of ammonm; and it probably belonga to
^ elsBa of salts styled ftuosiiicates.
: i Sweated ftuate of'batytesin best obtained by mixing a solution
of muriate of barytes with the liquid acid : after a few mom^ts
it pceoii^tateB in minute cryatals, and the liquid contains disen-
gaged muriatic acid. It is so little soluble in water that neatly
we whole of the barytes may be in this manner precipitated^ and
lis solution is not sensibly promoted by the excess of muri^ic
mM. Its crystals are prisms, with very long acuminations. Jt
cttvtainft no water of crystallization. When heated, it is eii^ly
^deconpoaed, and there remains neutral fiuate of barytes.
smarted fmate of lime may even be obtained by digestinj^ a
mixture of pulverised fluor spar and silica in muriatic acid; mtt
tike most certain method of preparing it is to add carbonal^'^f
Ume to the liquid acid so long as it continues to dissolve. Ilifis
-salt is insoluble in water, unless when assisted by^n excess of
«eld^ and it crystaUizes as this excess evaporates. The ory^ls,
wbicb are well characterized, appear to be four^sid^- prisibs
with obUquely truncated terminations. When digest^d'te^l^,
»tilii( salt is partially decomposed ; fluate of lime and dtlM^^g
fMisipitated, while the liqaid silicated fluoric acid '^ilsH'lii^n
'this manner disengaged, retains the remainder bfth^'>}8tflBe>HUt
in solution. luioV
SUtkniedJlmfe ofstrontian is easily soluble ihState^)' 4(^^tmn-
•in^iaa hxoess of acid, and may4)e obtained in Urge l:^tati^by
> evaporation These crystals are short four-sided shgbily 6bl%ie
, U86.| .,M^Bers»Um m Fimrm A^d. ^ 127
.^pviiai|Ni»«iB4 »^M^^rA twQ^ded. aotimimtiim vliiQh'ioBti^ iqokm the
.i}|>pa8He Q^tttet mgles of tlw fmax^ Thejr contoia iwate of
^«i^a»la]liBaiioO) and beeome eoamiel wUte and omqoe irii^n
fiMated* Water dccompoaes tbk salt, but to a much Ms ej^tmit
I t)ian the preceding. The difi&^rence between tbe propertM of
^llie saltfi of bar^tes and stroBttan fumisbea an easy and exact
-yroceas, both ior distinguiahing these two earths from one
'ftBOther, and far separating them when in a state of mixtwrt.
.for this purpose^ a solution of the earths in muriatic or acetic
acid is to be mixed with liquid silicated fluoric acid^ aiid.die
iimoiiot of the barytes is to be determined from the weight of the
precipitated double salt. A very small quantity of sotehm^
. racid precipitates the barytes whicn remains in. solution mthout
.]^i^|tiiig upon the strQutian, and by eTapQmtiag the filtered liquid
jtQ ^ness, and decomposing the residue by sulplnmc.acidy liie
;/leitter earth may be obtained in the state of sulpnate* • <
. Silicated Fluate of Magnesia, — ^A transparent, yefiowiah,
: ^ommy looking mass, easily soluble in water*
Silicated Fluate ofAhmma^ — A clear colourlesfijeUy, wUeiiy
when dried, splits mto fragments, and appears yellowish^ but
«tiU retains its transparency* It dissolves slowly but complalify
ktsrater.
Siticaied finale of gludna is r«adsly soluble in water^ and is
converted by evaporation into a colourless ^yt^up, which finally
. l^ecomes. white and opaque. Its taste iaastringent, withontuiy
admixture of sweetness.
Sikcated fluate ofyttria is insi^uble in water, but dissolves in
^4m excess of acid,
Silicated flMote of zirconia dissolves very easily in water, and
aiiay be obtained by evaporation in v^hite crystals, which hsHiGe
I the. lustre of mother*of^pearL The solution becomes c^MMfae
/When boiled, but the greater part of the salt continues dkwolved.
Silicated fluate ^axideqfzinc is obtained by disscdvittg atBC
/id* the liquid acid. It is extremely soluble in water^^ and is
4Bp9sited from a concentrated solution in crystals which, ave
geiierally equiangular three*sided prisms. The crystals are Mt
aitiered oy exposure to the air. » ;
•. , .. ^ilicaiedfluate qfoxidule of manganese is very soluUe in-vuMtr,
fOfid crystallizes on cooling from a concentrated solution, in Iwig
.i^iaii regular six-sided prisms. Sometimes it is obtained ^IV
spojptanpous evaporation in very short six-sided pri^qofiift^ wkiisa
-j^VK^ioQtty. indicate the rhomboid as their basis, ^ The crjfiHiUs
^ijb|ar^ia.J49t perc^tibte tinge of amethyst red* It is cm/emUgfA
;j]l^.g^^tipn into the simple fluate wittu^ui losing its-crysta8faa»
;fa|^(|ir0pared by dissolving iron filings in the Uqii^ eivtd^ais
;;ipilk^w^dl to.^eva^ in a capsule of metallic iton, itshoofts in
128 M. Beneiius on Fkt&ric Acid. t [Fkk.
Uttkh gre6D coloured regular six-sided prisms ; but i the liqindis-
conyerted.iDto a dry mass so soon after it begins to ^crystallize,
tha<^ unless we operate upon laige quantities, it is djmcult to
obtain the salt in perfect crystals. A second crystaUization
renders the salt paler xioloured and more regularly formed. I
have remarked that all the coloured salts belonging to this. class
have a deeper colour than usual when crystallized from a solu-
tion containing an excess of acid; but this difference in.appear-
atice does not seem to be accompanied by a coirespoiiding
difference in their composition.
Siticated Fiuate of* Oxide 'of Iron. — A semitransparent^ pale
flesh ccdoured mass. It dissolves in water, and the scriutioD is
faintly coloured.
Siticated Jhuiie of oxide of cobalt and of oxide of nickel are
easily soluble in water, and crystallize in forms which are
exactly simitar to those of the salts of manganese and iron.- The
crystals are rhomboids, but pass into regular six»sided prisms^
whenever they are in a situation to elongate themselves^ The
salt of cobalt is red ; that of nickel green.
SUicated ftuate of oxide of copper is easily soluble in water,
and shoots by spontaneous evaporation in transparent blue
€M)loured crystals, which are more determinately rhomboidal than
^e preceding, biit which have still a decided tendency to
'become six-^-sided prisms. The crystals effloresce externally
and become opaque when exposed to the air, and their colour at
the same time changes to a light blue.
The remarkable coincidence between the crystalline forms of
the greater number of the salts formed by the preceding isomor-
pbons metallic oxides, led me to suspect that they might all
< contain a similar number of atoms of water of crystallization. I
examined, therefore, the salts of oxidule of manganese and. of
. the oxides of zinc, cobalt^ nickel, and copper, and found that
they all contain a quantity of water of crystaUization whose oxy-
gen is seven times that of the base. The fatiscerated salt of
oxide of copper still retains a quantity of water whose oxygenic
five times that of the oxide of copper.
SUicated fiuate of oxidule of copper has a red colour, and
. closely resembles the corresponding sipaple fluate both in exter-
' md appearance, and in the decomposition which it sustains
through the combined action of air and moisture; In a high
teti^erature it mehs, and loses its fiuate of silica. .
SiHeated Fiuate of Oxide of Lead. — A transparent gummy-
:lookinc mass, soluble in water, and- possessing the peeidiar
tasteof the salts of lead. ^
SUicated fiuate of oxide of cadmium is extremely soluble in
water, and crystallizes in loiig coloiirless prisms, whioh contain
; iv^iear of crystallization.
SUicated fiuate of oxidule of tiny like the preceding, is very
1625.] >ilf; BeftxeHus* m Mmric Acid. <129
'aoiuMe 4ii wMer^^ andci^i^allizes in long prisms ; bet itkpttF-
'^iaUv ^oxidized, and decomposed during evaporation; and the
oinde 'tbn3L& formed precipitates in the state of a silicate.
SiHcated Fluate of Oxidule of Chromium.-^ A. green cokmred
nncrystallizable transparent mass, which deliquesces to a liquid
"irhen' exposed to the air.
'K:' ' Siiicatedjiuate of oxide of antimony is easily soluble in water
•jumtaining.an excess of acid. . By slow evaporation it crystal-
,)(iited in pnsms, which, after being dried, rapidly fall to powder.
SiHcated fluate of oxidule of mercury may be prepared by
uda^esting newly prepared and still moist oxidule in* the liquid
'(aisnl. It is by this means converted into a pale straw yellow
coloured powder. The liquid, particularly when it contains an
*. excess of acid, retains a portion of the salt in solution, which it
deposits in small crystals when evaporated. The solution of
.this salt has a weak metallic taste, and is copiously precipitated
by muriatic acid.
V SiHcated jiuate of oxide^ of mercury is soluble only in an excess
of acid, and crystallizes by evaporation in small yellovi^ish
coloured or almost colourless needles. When put into water,
4lii8 salt. is partly converted into a yellow coloured insoluble sub-
;Balt, while the remaining portion is held in solution by the dis-
engaged acid. When ignited, gaseous fluate of silica is in the
first place expelled, and the nuate which remains undeigoes
decomposition in the manner already described. The yellow
insoluble subsalt is. blackened by ammonia; but its colour is
again rendered lighter by the addition of water.
. SiliccUred Jiuate of oxide of silver is a very deliquescent salt,
. which may. be, obtained in white grannlar crystals from a solu-
tion concentrated to the consistence of a syrup. A small quan-
tity, of ammonia precipitates from the solution a light yellow
'c0loni?ed subsalt, whicn, when added in excess, it redissolves,
and leaves, a silicate of oxide of silver.
'i SHicated Fluate of Oocide of Piatinum. — A yellowish brown
'Cokmred , salt, very soluble. in water. When evaporated to a
tenacious syrup, and ih this state digested in water, it leaves a
•farowa coloured subsalt .undissolved.
, Fluosilicates. — I shalKhereafter discuss the different points of
iiiew..under which both the foregoing series of compounds, and
those which still remain to be described, may be regarded. «At
present I shall merely add, that however.much we may at first
t€ehdi^p&&ed to do so, the siUca cannot in these compounds be
eonsidjared to act as an acid but as a base, and consequently
that the name of silicate when applied to them implies an idtea
i^wUdi their nature does not authorise. The mineral kingdom,
■dMiweveiryiamishes us with examples of.compounds>in whioh a
fluate is actually associated v/ith a silicate^ and for whicli theve-
"fere^he appeUaticMi of fiuosilicate would be sufficiently s^pto-
New Series, vol. ix. k
IM itfr Set%tUtu fm Flume Acid. [Fsft*
priate. Thuis the t6pa% consists of an atom of subfluate of
fllumitia combinidd tvith nine atoms of silicate of alumina ; and
pycnitCy of an atom of the neutral fiuate combined with nine
ittoms of the silicate.
During the decomposition of the silicated fluates by the caus-
tic alkalies^ particularly by ammonia, it is possible that other
fluosiliciates may be produced, in which the relative proportions
of the fluate and silicate m^y vary with the different circum^
stances under which the compounds are formed. I have not
investigated this subject so minutely as it deserves, and indeed
t have confined myself to the decomposition of the silicated
fluate of litiie by ammonia, as being that of which an accurate
khowled^e iis at present most interesting, because the precip-
pitates which result from this decomposition occasionally make
their appearance during the analysis of minerals. A mixture of
finely pulverized fiuor spar and of ignited silica in the state in
which it is obtained from the decomposition of the fluate of silica,
\vas digested with muriatic acid in a closely stopped glass vessel,
frOD^ which no vapours of fluate of silica could escape. At the
end of 48 hours, the clear liquid was mixed with ammonia, acid
the precipitate was washed and ignited. Decomposed by sul-
phuric acid, this precipitate gave off gaseous fluate of silica^
which was received in carbonate of soda, and left 136 per cent.
<^f sulphate of lime. The alkaline solution was evaporated to
dryness in a moderate heat ; and the residue, being digested ift
water, left 22*11 per cent, of silica. The remaining liquid wae
saturated with acetic acid, exposed to the air for 24 hours^ iA
order to ensure the dissipation of the carbonic acid, mixed with
ammonia, and precipitate/! in a stoppered vessel with muriate of
lime. The fluate ot lime thus obtained weighed, after ignition^
78 per cent. The precipitate was composed, thercibre, of
i^eutral fluate of lime and of silica in .the proportions requisite to
form with fluoric acid the liquid silicated fluoric acid. Whethet
the silica actually existed in a state of chemical union is donbt-
Ail, but it appears to be rendered probable by the fact^ that th«
heutral alkstline fluates are capable of dissolving silica in a t«d
heat without undergoing decomposition.
Another porti<>n of the same solution in muriatic acid was
mixe^} with muriate of lime, and decomposed by ammonia. The
precipitate, analyzed in the same manner as the preceding,
yielded 150 per cent, of sulphate of hme = 62*25 per cent, of
feme, 19 per cent, of silica, and 66*67 per cent, of fluate of lime
«it 18*04 of fluoric acid. It appears, therefore, to have been
composed of an atom of bisilicate and three atoms of fluate of
lime. The precipitate formed by ammonia in a solution of apo-
phyllite in cold nitric Or muriatic acid, and which many cbemiets
miVe mistaken ^or alumina, possesses an exactly eimilat ^onpo-
ii%i<^. If the mineral be dissolved with the asBtstanoe ef Iiei4,
1825.] Col. Beaufoy^s A^rmomieal Observations* 131
sillcated flaonc acid is volatilized ; neither do we obtain the
Gompound by evaporating the acid solution to dryness, because
when a solution of fluor spar and silica in an excess of muriatie
acid is evaporated, there remains nothing except muriate of lime.
The double silicated salts of those bases from which ammonia
separates a portion of their fluoric acid would probably give
precipitates with that alkali, in which a different relation would
exist between the proportions of the silicate and fluate.
iTohe continued,)
Article VII.
Asirotuomieal Observations, 1824 and 1825.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.
Bushey Heath, near Stanmore.
510 37/ 44.3// ^orth. Longitude West in tune T 80«93". ^
*i
Dec 16. Immemon of Jupiter's first CIQh C 25'' Mean Time «t Budiejr.
sBtdlite 2^0 01 46 Mean Time «t Qmnwidh*
18211.
Jan. 4. Immersion of Jupiter's third U2 37 01 Mean Time at Buflhej.
satellite ^12 88 22 Mean Time at Greenwich.
Jan. 8. Immersion of Jupiter's first 5 10 09 16 Mean Time at Bushey.
satellite jlO 10 37 Mean Time at Gmenwich.
Jan. 11. Immersion of Jupiter's third (16 35 19 Mean Time at Bushey.
satellite ^16 36 40 Mean Time at Oreenwidi.
Occultation by the Mo^n.
Dec. 31. Immersion of | Pisces 6^ 26' 46" Sideiiainne.
Francis BaUy^ Esq. having favoured me with the new method
of determining the longitudie by the culmination ofthe moon and
stars ; together with a list of stars applicable to the purpose fof
the year 1825, the following observations were made at Bushey
Heath : —
Tr«D9it orer the Middle WiieinSiderial lime.
IGcmini 6k 68' 46-46*
Jan. 4. «? Moon's First Limb , .7 Ol^OS'lS 4f
Gemini 7 U 4015
{^
Article VIII.
On a peculiar Class of Combinations. By 0r. F. Wohltf.^
With the intention of preparing cyanuret of silver by thci
leeiprocal decomposition of cyanuret of mercury and nif^te of
• AwiakB dat Fhysft.
k2
132 Dr.Wohlerona [Feb.
oxide of silver^ I mixed pretty concentrated solutions of the two
compounds : contrary to my expectation^ no precipitate fell ; but
after a few minutes there was deposited a number of small white
crystals, whose quantity greatly exceeded that of the cyanuret
of mercury which I had employed. They were repeatedly
washed with water, and dried.
When these crystals are heated in a temperature above 212^,
they fuse in the first place into a transparent liquid ; by and
bye they boil up and detonate vehemently, with a crackling
noise, and a purplish red coloured flame, closely resembling that
which accompanies the combustion of cyanogen. The residue
consists of cyanuret of silver, and, by continued ignition in the
open air, is converted into metallic silver. If the experiment
be performed in a glass tube, a quantity of mercury is also sub-
limed. Muriatic acid, poured upon the crystals, instantly disen-
gages hydrocyanic acid, and after the whole of the latter has
been expelled by the application of heat, there is given off a
strqpg odour of chlorine : the liquid, evaporated to dryness,
leaves a mixture of the chlorides of silver and mercury. If a
solution of the crystals be precipitated by muriate of barytes,
and if the filtered liquid be evaporated, there is obtained a saline
mass, containing abundance of octohedral crystals of nitrate of
barytes. From the saline mass alcohol extracts cyanuret of
mercury. Consequently this crystallized substance is a com-
pound of cyanuret of mercury and nitrate of oxide of silver.
This compound is very difficultly soluble in cold, but rather
copiously in hot water, and as the solution cools, it crystallizes
in large transparent prisms, having the form of saltpetre. It
may be obtained in large crystals suso by mixing hot solutions
of the cyanuret of mercury and nitrate of silver; the crystals
appearing as the liquid cools. Alcohol appears to dissolve it
in nearly the same proportions as water. In boiling hot nitric
acid it is soluble without decomposition. Alkalies precipitate
from its aqueous solution cyanuret of silver, which appears to
be mixed with subnitrate of oxide of mercury. Repeated solu-
tions in pure water produce a similar decomposition ; but only
to a very inconsiderable extent.
When these crystals are heated in a temperature rather below
212°, they give off water, and become white coloured and
opaque, without losing their original form. 100 parts, thus
treated, lost 7*6 parts otwater.
To determine the quantity of silver, 1 gramme of the crystals
was treated with an excess of muriatic acid, and the mixture
was cautiously evaporated to dryness. The corrosive sublimate
being now expelled from the dry mass by ignition, there remained
0"32 gramme of fused chloride of silver. This is equivalent to
0*2688 gramme of oxide of silver, and consequently indicates
37'96 per cent, of nitrate of oxide of silver. The quantity of
182&] peculiar Class of Ccfmbinaiions. . 133
cyanuret of mercury was ascertained by dissolving 0*67 gramme
of the crystals in hot water, and precipitating the silver by cyanic
acid. The filtered liquid was then evaporated to dryness, in
order to expel the excess of cyanic acid, and the disengaged
nitric acid. 0*36 gramme of pure cyanuret of mercury remained
= 53*74 per cent.
Hence 100 parts of this compound consist of
Nitrate of oxide of silver 37*96 1 atom
Cyanuret of mercury 63*74 2
Water 7*60 8*
99*30
Here therefore we have a compound destitute of oxygen, and
analogous to the metallic sulphurets and chlorides, associated in
determinate proportions with another compound, which belongs
in the strictest sense of the word to the class of salts. As we
know that many bodies exert sometimes an electro-positive and
at other times an electro-negative action, and that many com-
pounds, which, by themselves, appear of an indifferent nature,
may assume either of these characters with reference to certain
other substances, it follows, that the compound here examined
must, in this point of view, be regarded as a saline combination,
in which the nitrate of oxide of silver acts as the acid, and the
cyanuret of mercury as the base. The existence of water of
crystallization in the compound, which neither of its ingredients
in a separate state possesses, affords an additional argument for
ranking it in the class of salts. Berzelius, when he formed the
white crystalline compound of prussian blue and sulphuric acid,
was the first person wno discovered the existence of this class of
combinations.
I now attempted to form other compounds, in which the
nitrate of oxide of silver would act as an acid when united with
metallic cyanurets.
Newly precipitated and washed cyanuret of silver was boiled
in a solution of nitrate of silver : it dissolved slowly, but com-
pletely. As soon as the temperature fell a few degrees .below
the boiling point, there was deposited a large quantity of long
white shining needles, so that the liquid became converted
almost into a magma. They were transferred upon blotting
paper and dried. This compound cannot be washed, for the
affinities by which it is maintained are so feeble, that when
placed in contact with water, it is instantly resolved into pulve-
rulent cyanuret of silver, and the soluble nitrate. Hence in its
preparation it is necessary to employ a pretty concentrated
• Or 4 atomi of water, Mbpting Dr. Thomson'i numbers.— £d.
134 Mr. Ofay on iome Species ofShelh [F&t .
solution of nitrate of silver. When heated^ this, compound
fasesi th^n detonates with considerable ener^, and leavea
ojanuret of silver, which probably contains a minimum of cys^
noeen< It contains no water, n its constitution be analogous
tiriui that of Uie foregoing salt, it ought to be composed of
Nitrate of oxide of silver 1 atom 38'79
Cyanuret of silver 2 61'21
100-00
It ought, therefore, to contain 7076 per cent, of metallic
silver. This was confirmed by an expenment iu which 0*43
8ramme of the salt, decomposed by muriatic acid, yielded me
•387 gramme of fused chloride of silver, equivalent to 69*74
per cent of metallic silver.
I made many attempts, but without success, to form analo-
gous compounds by boihng other metallic cyanurets in a solution
of nitrate of silver. Cyanuret of nickel, treated in this manner,
instantly gave cyanuret of silver, and nitrate of oxide of nickel :
a similar decomposition took place with cyanuret of zinc. Prus-
sian blue occasioned the evolution of nitrous gas, and there was
obtained a solution of nitrate of oxide of iron, and a precipitate
consisting of a mixture of oxide of iron and cyanuret of silver.
Cyanuret of lead yielded a solution of nitrate and subnitrate of
lead, and a black coloured precipitate, which the application of
nitric acid proved to consist of metallic silver and wnite cyanu-
ret of silver. Cyanuret of copper, boiled in a solution of nitrate
of silver, gave a precipitate consisting entirely of metallic silver.
Cyanuret of palladium, similarly treated, sustained no alteration.
Article IX.
A hut and Description of some Species of Sheik not taken Notice
of by Lamarck* By John Edward Gray, Esq. MOS.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
GJENTLEMEN, British Museuniy Jan. 10, 1825.
In the following list I have referred several species^ which
have not been taken notice of by Lamarck, to his genera, and
have described some new ones that are contained in the collec-
tion in the British Museum, where most of the species are exbi*
' with the names, here adopted, attached.
Your obedient servant,
J« £« Gray.
im.) mi Uikm Naiw qfl^ Luxmgl^ )S#
1. M0LLI3»CA CONCHXFEIIA.
AspEBGii^LUM Javan^m, Lam. disQo subperforatOi tubvli
fimbriae distinctis crassis, Mar^inif 1. 1, f, 7.
A. Listeri, disco cQaf(?rti8sime pi^rforato, tubulin fimbria eon-
fertis tenuibus^ List, t, 648^ f. 3. A. vaginiferuna, Xam. f I
think that all the species of this genus will be fopnd to have ft
foliaceous mouth to their tube when they are perfect.
Mi^a Binghami, Spb»nia Binghami> Turton.
An ATI N A. The shells of this genus always have a loose piece
in their hinge which is very much developed in A, Narvegica,
but is dictinctly to be found in A^ Pratenuis and 4» Mj^alis,
Anatina globosa. Mya globosa^ Wood, t. 24, £, 4—6.
An. Nicobarica, Mya Nipobarioa, Gmelin.
An. preetenuis, Mya preetenuis, Montague, t. 1, f« 2.
An. distorta. Myadistorta, Montague, t. l,{. 1.
An, convexa. Mya convexa. Wood, 1. 18, f. 1.
An. Norwegica. Mya Norwegica, Chemn. x. 1647, 164$«
Amphidesma corbuloides, Lam. Hist. 492.
An. mtmbranacea. Mya membranacea, Dillwyn, 48.
LuTSARiA vitrea. Mactra vitrea, Qkemn. xi. f. 1969, 1900.
L.Jragilis. Mactra fragilis, Chemn. vi. f. 235.
Mactba Campechensis. List. 304, f. 141,
M. squamosa. Solen squamosus, Montague.
EntciNA. Lam. Several of Lamarck's Crassat^lla agree
with the character of this genus ; therefore I have removed them
as far as I have any grounds. The recent species of liamarck is
a Cutherea.
£ry. denticulata. Testa elongato-cuneata, dentibus lateralibu$
serrulatis.
JEry. striata. Crassatella striata, Lam. 483.
JEry.. subangulata. Crassatella cuneata, Lam. 483 ?
jEry. glabrata, Crassatella glabrata, Lam> 482.
£ry. ovata. Testa ovato-elongata, cardine in medio te sje
JEry. Australis. Mya Novae Zealandise, Chemn. vi. f, 19, 20.
Ungulina. The only species of this genus that I have seen
appear to be too nearly allied to Amphidesma to be, kept dis*
tmct
Amphipesma decussatum. Tellina decussata. Wood, t. 43,
f.2,3.
Amph. cordiforme. Tellina cordiformis, Chemn. . xi. f. 19,
41, 42.
Amph. variabile. Tellina obliqua. Wood, t. 41, f. 4, 6.
Amph.f nitens. Mya nitens, Montagm.
CoftBULA labiatu. JVIya labiata, Maionj, Lin, Tram>
Panpoba glaciali9. Testa semicircularis^ cardine submedioi
margine dorssdi recto.
136 Mr. Gray on some Species of Sheik [Feb.
LiTHOPHAGiE. The whole of the genera of this family appear
to have very great affinity to the Cardita, Cypricardiie, &c. and
should be placed nearer to them in a natural arrangement as
well as the latter genera themselves ; but these genera appear to
be the most defective part of Lamarck's arrangement.
Peteicola costata, Lam. Syst. Venus Lapicida, Chemn. x.
f. 1666, 1666.
Pet. divergens. Venus divergens, Gmelin.
Pet. nivea. Mytilus niveus, Chemn. viii. t. 82, f. 734,
Pet. suborbicularis. Mya suborbicularis, Montague.
Pet. hideritata. Mya bidentata, Montague.
Pet. rubra. Cardium rubrum, Montague.
Venerupis monstrosa. Venus monstrosa, Chemn. vii. f. 42.
Ven. decussata. Mya decussata, Montague.
Tellina tenera. Macroma tenera. Leach.
LuciNA Children^. Testa suborbiculata inequivalvis alba
subantiquata; tenuissime radiata substriata : long. 3unc. Brazil,
Humphreys.noh. Zool. Jour. i. 221.
Luc. gtbha. Tellina divaricata var. Chemn. vi. f. 130.
Luc.globosa. Venus globosa, CAewiw. vii. f. 430, 431.
Luc. scabra. Tellina scabra, Chemn. xi. f 1943, 1944.
Luc. divaricata. var.? Tellina dentata. Wood, t. 46, f. 6.
Tellenides? triangularis. Tellina triangularis, Chemn. vi.
t. 10, f. 85.
Don AX veneroidea. Venus donaci formis, Chemn. xi. f. 1983,
1984.
Don. scalpellum. Testa elongata, complanata, tenuis purpu-
reo radiata, polita, tenuissime radiato-striata ; antice valde elon-
gata rotundata, lutea; postice oblique truncata, biangulata,
purpurea, margine minute denticulato.
(jRAssiNA borealis. Venus borealis, Cfiemn. vii. f, 412 — 414.
Cyrena! depressa. Lam.?
Crass, triangularis. Mactra triangularis, Montague.
Crass, minutissima, Mactra minutissima, Montague j An var.
prioris?
Crass, minima. Venus minima, MofitaguCy t. 3, f. 3.
Crass, subcordata. Venus subcordata, Montague^ t. 3, f. 1.
Crass, sulcata. Venus sulcata, Montague, Lam. 427.
Crass. Montagui. Venus compressa, Montague, t. 26, f. 1 .
Crass. Scotica. Venus Scotica> Maton, Lin. Trans, t. 2, f. 3.,
Lam. 455.
Crass. Banksii. Nicania Banksii, Leach.
Crass, striata. Nicania striata. Leach.
Cyrena cyprinoides. Testa cprdato-trigona, gibba, olivacea,
concentrice sulcata; cardine incrassata, dentibus lateralibus
Isevibus, anteriori conico caeteris approximate. Japan, long.
15-16, unc.
182&«3 not taken Notice of by Lamarck. 137
Cyr. CkildreruK. Testa orbiculato-cordata, Isevis olivacea
antice disianter irregulariter concentrice costata, intus parpureo
aurantia; dentibus lateralibus serrulatis. Encyc. Method, t. 301,
f. 1, long. 2 unc. Lamarck has referred this figure to Cypnna
Islandica, but the teeth are evidently serrulated^ 8cc.
Cyr. limosa. Tellina limosa^ Maton, Lin. Trans, x. t. 24,
f.8— 10.
Cythekea {b)albida. Venus albida, GmeUn^L%8t.21^fi^\QQ.
Cyth, (a) crassa. Testa cordato-triangulata^ ^ibba^ crassa,
polita, lutea^ latere postico purpureo livido, lunula lanceolato-
cordata rnagn^; dentibus valde incrassatis. long. 18*10, unc.
Madras, Humphreys, Mus Cracherode.
Cyth{a)pin^uis. Testa cordato-triangulata solida, politalutea
lurioa; umbonibus biradiatis; latere postico lunul&que purpu-
reo-livida; intus cameo-albidis, punctis fuscis omatis. long.
13-18 unc. Bombay, Humphreys, Mus. Cracherode.
/3 minor subradiata striata, margine tumido.
Cyth. (a) scripta. Donax scripta, Lin. Lam. !
Cyth. (a) Sotanderii. Testa ovata gibba, Isevi polita albida
purpureo variegata ; umbonibus stellatis ; intus albida ; margin^
crenato ; latere postico maculis purpureis natato. long. 13-18.
" Venus hyans Soland. MSS." Humphreys. Like the former,
but much more gibbous, and in the different teeth none of these
three species have any affinity to Donax, with which Lamarck
placed them.
Cyth (a) meroe. Venus meroe, Lin. Donax ! meroe. Lam.
Venus donaciformis, Gmelin.
Cyth. {b) cardoides Erycina cardoides. Lam.
Cyth. (6) exilis. Venus exilis, Chemn. vi. t. 34, f. 362, 363.
(^th. Id) Histrio. Venus exoleta variegata, Chemn. vii. f. 407.
Venus aurisiaca. Testa ovato-trigona, polita subconcentrice
striata, paUide fusca, obscure trizonata; latere postico elongato;
lunula scutulaque lanceolatis, purpureo variegatis : intus auran-
tiaca, -long. 9-10 unc. Mus Cracnerode.
Ven ? papyracea. Testa ovata gibba papyracea tenui pellu-
cida alba subantiquata ; umbonibus concentrice sulcatis ; mar-
gine cardinaU antice impresso. An novum genus ? An Litho-
phagae ? Testa peculiaris.
Ven. rotundata. Tellina rotundata, Montague, t. 2, f. 3.
Venericardia megastropha. Testa obhque cordata crassa
albida, rufo variegata, costis convexis rugosis ; margine cardi-
nal! crassissimo. long. unc. New Holland? E. dono.Dom. Bennet.
(See figure on next page.)
CFs»*
. Caedium semisulcatitm. Testa transversa, ovata lutea rostit
Tel albida, co&t&to-Etriata, Gubspinoaa; latere antico ooDferte
Btriato ; po&tico producto, aperto, distanter costato ; nargine
dentato. long. 7-10 unc. C. butlato similis.
Card, crenalum. Testa cordata, alba, umbonibus carinatis,
costis 22 coavexis, anticia minoribus, lunula profuDdisaimft
jOallosa iati-usa.
Arca trigona. Testa subcordata trigooa turgida, aDeulata;
latere antico piano, long. 1 unc. peculiar for having the lorm of
Hippopus maculatus.
NucuLA Montasui. Area rostrata, Mont. Sup. t. 27, f. 7.
Nuc. miauta. Area minuta, MuUer.
Nuc. tenuis. Arca tenuis, Montague.
Nuc. glacia/is. Lenbulus glacialis, .Leach.
V« 10 ponderoia. Mya crassa, Wood, t. 20,21.
Un. Modulosa. Mya nodulosa. Wood, t. 22, f. 1 — *.
Un. plumbea. Chama plumbea, Chemn. xi. t. 203, f. 1991,
1092. N. B. Chama is certainly the best Linnean genus for the
freshwater bivalves with irregular teeth.
Hyri A intermedia. Testa ovato-sub quad rata, virido-nigra Isvis,
antice rotundata, postice sinuata; umbonibus prominentibus.
loDg. 26-8 unc. Inter H. avicularem et H, elongatam.
Huria Matoni. Mya variabilis, Maton, Lin. Trans, x. t. 24,
f.4l7. ...
Amodonta must be retained instead of A«o(^n, a change
first proposed by Dr. Leacli in this work, as the latter has been
UBed for a genus of reptiles. If it must be altered, moaodonta,
jwd several others, will also require it.
Anodontajiuviatilis. Af ya fluviatilis, Dillw.3]6, Litt, t. 167.
f. 12.
Anodonta Adaiaonii. Mytilus dubius, Gmel. Adams, t, 17,
1 18.
Babbala plicatat Dipsaa plicatiUt Leaek, Zaol, Mite.
182&] not taicm Notice of bjf LamarOc. 130
Modiola eastanea. Testa convexa, subcylindrica^ casUnea
pellucida, concentrice striata. List, 1. 1065, f. 9, Rumph. U 46,
Mod. Brasiliensis, My tilus modiolus Brasiliensis, Chemn. zi.
f. 2018, 2019. Mytilus latus jun, Dillv). !
Mytilus dilatatus. Testa trigona postice rotundata, com-
piessa, umbonibus acutis incurvatibas-7-Mediterraaean«
Myt ? Volgensis. Mytilus fluvis. Volga Chemn. Myt. poly*
morphus, Gmeliri, perhaps will form a genus distinct from
Mytilus, and peculiar for its freshwater habitation ; and like
shells of that station, the animal can live for a long time out of
water. I have kept one for three weeks, when it was still
healthy. It is found in the Commercial Docks, where it most
likely nas been introduced with timber from the Volga.
Crbnatula. This genus maybe divided into two sectiond,
which may perhaps hereafter be considered as genera by the
same character as separates Mytilus from Modiola, § 1. Testa
quadrata umbonibus anterioribtis, which includes the species or
rather varieties mentioned by Lamarck. § 2. Testa ovata ttmbo^
fUbus sub anterioribus (Dalacia) containing the following :
Cre. folium. Testa albida radiata compressa; latere antiea
rotundato, postico alata, Brande's Journal, xv. t.2, f. 81. iigura
pulcherrima. Vulsella folium. Humph. Mus Cracherode«
Lima gi^antea. Testa crasna, ponderosa, subauriculata albi-
do-ro8ea, > irregulariter radiata costata striata; intus alba, rufo
ttaculata. lat. 16-4, long. 18-4, unc.
Um. excavata. Ostrea excavata, G^melin.
OsTREA prismatica. Testa elongata lamellosa; intus vio*
lacea, albido macerata iridescens ; impressione muscularis rouU
formi translucente ; umbonibus truncatis; valv& superiorit
planulata. long. 2, lat. 6, unc.
Anomta rosea. Tellina senigmatica, Chemn. x. t. 199, f.
1949, 1950. Mus. Tankerville.
DisciNA. This genus is certainly distinct from Orbicula,
which appears to be the same as Crania.
Dis. lavis. Orbicula ! Isevis, Sow.
2. MoLLuscA Pteropoda.
Lamarck, Cuvier, and Peron, appear to have reversed these
animals and the heteropes, and called their belly their back, for
they certainly, like the gasteropodes, swim with their belly
upwards, and consequently the latter have their shell placed on
their mantle as in the fasteropodes ; to this order should be
referred the genus Janthttia.
3. MoLLuscA Gasteropoda.
Pleurgbranchus Montagui. Bull4 Plumula, Montague*
PleUf argeniew* Bulla membranaceai Montague^
140
Mr. Levy oti a new Mineral.
[Feb.
Siphonaria angulata. Testa convexo conica, angulata radiato-
costata; intus fusca. long. 15-10 unc.
Parmofhorus elegam. Etnarginula breviusculas, Sow.
Gen,L2j certainly not Parmophorus breviusculus of Blain villa,
as that shell is in the Museum^ and is only slightly antiquated.
Inter Parmophoros et Emanginulas.
Emarginula cristate. Testa convexo-conica, antice costa.
media cristata ornata.
{To be continued.)
Article X.
An Account of a new MineraL By M. Levy, MA. in the
University of Paris.
(To Mr. Children.)
DEAR SIR,
Through your kindness and that of Mr. James Sowerby, I
have been enabled to examine some well-defined single crystals
of a substance found at Snowdou, which had been classed by
some with rutile, by others with sphene^ but which certainly
differs from both, its forms being derivable from a right rhombic
prism, whilst the primitive form of rutile is a square prism, and
that of sphene an oblique rhombic prism. The forms of this
substance I have observed are represented by figs. 2, 3^ and 4,
and although I have not drawn the inferior summit^ some of the
planes which belong to it occur in some of the crystals. They
are flattened parallel to the planes A', and some are more than
half an inch in breadth and length. They cleave easily in a
direction parallel to the plane g\ but the face of cleavage is
rather dull. All the natural planes are sufficiently brilliant to 1>es
Fig. 2.
1825J
' Jfr. Levy on anew MineraL
141
measured by the reflecting goDiometer, with the exception of the
plane h^y which is strongly striated longitudinally. Some of
the crystals are opaque, and of a pale red colour ; others are
translucent and transparent, and of a deep orange red colour,
somewhat like the cinnamon stone. Fig. 4 represents a beau-
Fig. &
^/s
9
tiful crystal of this colour placed on a group of rock crystal in the
collection of Mr. James Sowerby.
Upon a group of rock crystals from Dauphiny, in the collec-
tion of Mr. Turner, I observed with lamellar crichtonite some
flat very brilliant brown transluceni crystals, the form of which
is represented by fig. 5, and which belong to the same species
as those above described ; they present, however, new modifica-
1
tions which are the planes designated by />, et, and e ; but all
the other planes my^h\ g\ and es, measure exactly the same
angles as those marked with the same letters in the crystals
from Snowdon.
I have taken for the lateral faces of the primitive form the
planes marked m, which are inclined to one another at an angle
equal to 100'^, and by assuming also that the planes marked e»,
the incidence of which upon m is
equal to 134°, is the result of a de-
crement by three rows in breadth on
the lateral angles e of the primitive, I
have found that one side of the base
was to the height nearly in the ratio
of 30 to 1 1 . A right rhombic prism^
fig. 1, of 100°, and of such dimen-
sions, may therefore, be considered as the primitive form of this
substance. The other planes are marked with the signs corre-
sponding to the decrements of which they are supposed to be
oerived, and the incidences calculated from these laws agree
within very narrow limits with the observation. The ' faces
Fig. 1-
142 Mr. lAvy tm a new MineraL (Pb m •
marked i are the result of an intermediary decrement, the tAjgn
of whieh is (6S 6 ig ).
m,m = 100^ 0'
m,e3 = 134 0
m,e^ = 120 4
m.e s;; 124 45
fn,e^ « 121 68
niye^ = 124 31
m,b^ « 126 0
p,m.,., = 90 0
p,es = 132 38
!>,«• = 128 48
p,e = 141 41
• I-
p,6. = 143 2
p,e r= 118 12
p,b^ = 144 0
p,a' = 150 56
», a* = 164 28
p,i = 147 30
es,e9 = 135 46
e ,e = 160 0
el, e^« = 164 21
b^,e = 162 68
f„e* = 166 29
£.,t « 166 0
639^3 = 101 37
e ,e = 109 21
9 9
fT,«. = 112 3
»,f = 14& 35
Tlris sTJbstance I propose to call Brookite, in lionoiir of Mt.
Broke.
%
We hope to give the characters of this mineral before the
^pipe, and its chemical analysis, in onr next. — C. and P.
1825.] Praceedingi of Fhihsopldcal Societies, 14S
Article XI.
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.
Dec. 23. — ^Two papers by the Rev. Baden Powell, MA* FRS.
were read, supplement&ry to a former communication oh
Radiant Heat; and the Society adjourned to
Jan. 13, 1825 ; when John Bell, Esq. and William Scoresby,
Jna. Esq* were admitted Fellows of the Society ; and A Descripp
lion of a Floating Collimator, by Capt. H. Kater, FRS. was
read.
This instrument is destined to supply the place of a level or
plumb line in astronomical observations, and to furnish a ready
and perfectly exact metliod of determining the position of the
horizontal or zenith point on the limb of a circle or zenith sector*
Its principle is the mvariability with respect to the horizon of
the position assumed by any body of invariable figure and weighit
floating on a fluid. It consists of a rectangular box containing
mercury, on which is floated a mass of cast iron, about twelve
inches long, four broad, and half an inch thicks having two short
uprights, or Y's, of equal height, cast in one piece with the rest^
On these is firmly attached a small telescope furnished with
cross wires, or, what is better, crossed portions of the fint
balance spring of a watch, set flat-ways, and adjusted very
exactly in the sidereal focus of its object glass. The float is
browned with nitric acid to prevent the adhesion of the mercury^
and is prevented from moving laterally by two smoothly polished
iron pins, projecting from its sides in the middle of its lengthy
wfaicn play freely in vertical grooves of polished iron in the sides
of the box. When this instrument is used, it is placed at a
short distance from the circle whose horizontal point is to be
ascertained on either side (suppose the north) of its centra; and
the telescopes of the circle and of the collimator are so adjusted
as to look mutually at each other's cross wires (in the manner
lately practised by Messrs. Gauss and Bessel), first of eU
coarsely by trial, applying the eye to the eye-glasses of the two
instruments alternately ; and finally by illuminating the CTom
wires of the collimator with a lanthom and oiled paper, taking care
to exclude false light by a black screen having an apeituve eqwi
to that of the collimator, and making the coincidence m tlie
manner of an astronomical observation, by the fine motion of tke
eircle. The microscopes on the limb are then read ofi^ and iSkam
Che apparent zenith distance of the coUimating point (interseo
tion 01 the wires) is found. The collimator is then tntasfiKied
144 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Feb'.
to the other (south) side of the circle, and a correspondinpr
observation made, without reversing the circle, bat merely by the
motion of the telescope on the limo. The difference of the two
zenith distances so read off is double the error of the zenith or
horizontal point of the graduation, and their semi-sum is the
true zenith distance of the coUimating point, or the co-inclina-
tion of the axis of the coUimating telescope to the horizon.
. By the experiments detailed in Capt. Rater's paper, it appears
that the error to be feared in the determination of the horizontal
point by this instrument can rarely amount to half a second if a
mean of four or five observations be taken. In a hundred and
fifty-one single trials, two only gave an error of two seconds, and
one of these was made with a wooden float. In upwards of a
hundred and twenty of these observations, the error was not one
second.
For further details we must refer to the original communication.
Jan, 20. — Capt. F. W. Beechy, RN. was admitted a Fellow of
the Society, and the following paper was read : —
. On the Construction of the barometer ; by J. F. Daniel!,
Esq. FRS.
. In a former communication to the Royal Society on the Con-
struction of the Barometer, the author had inferred from some
experiments therein detailed, that the capillary depression of the
mercury in barometer-tubes was decreased one-half by boiling ;
and the first object of the present paper was to describe some
new experiments that he had made on this subject, the results
of whicn confirmed his former deductions. In these the depres-
sion of the mercury in tubes of from ^ to -5-%. of an inch internal
diameter was measured to the , ^^^ part of an inch, by a par-
ticular apparatus constructed for the purpose, and described in
the paper ; and their results very nearly agreed with those given
in Dr. Young's tables, calculated from the experiments of Xord
Charles Cavendish: on repeating the experiments after boiling
mercury in the tubes, Mr. Daniell found the amount of the
depression to be one-half of what it was before ; as he had for-
merly concluded.
Mr. Daniell proceeded to detail some facts relating to the
gradual deterioration of barometers by the insinuation of air
between the mercury and the tube, and to describe the means
he had devised for obviating this defect in the instrument.
He had been informed that the mercury in the barometer con-
structed under his superintendence, and set up in the apart-
raients of the Royal Society, by the direction of the Meteorolo-
gical Committee, exhibited a peculiar speckled appearance; '
and on examination he found a number of minute bubbles of
air between the glass and the mercury, increasing in size
Towards the top.
lass;] Uoyal Society. H&
In seeking for a method of removing this source of inac*
curacy, it occurred to Mr. Daniell that ^ises were better
confined over water than over mercury, on account of the
water making a perfect contact with the glass of the jars in
which they were contained, which was not the case with the
mercury; and Mr. Faraday furnished him .with a case in point,
in which a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen confined in bottles
over water, and in the dark, for about a twelvemonth, weire
found unaltered either in nature or in quantity; whilst bottles
into which the same mixture had been passed, and confined over
mercury, under the same circumstances, were found to contain
nothing but common air. . Mr. D. thence inferred, that if the
tube consisted of some substance which the mercury would
wet (if he might be allowed the expression), the insinuation of
air would be prevented. In the experiments he made when:
constructing a new pyrometer, he had found that platinum
immersed in mercury acquired a complete surface of that metal;
and now in keeping a strip of platinum foil in mercury for some
time, he found that its tenacity was unimpaired. A tube of
platinum, of about an inch in length, was accordingly welded to
the open end of a barometer-tube, with which the mercury form*
ix^ a perfect contact, would effectually prevent, it might be pre«
samed, the insinuation of the air : the instrument was then
filled, and finished as usual. A mere ring of platinum also,
which would be much less expensive, would be equally efi^cacious,
as the smallest surface of perfect contact must be sufficient. As
a considerable time, however, must elapse before the success of
tius method could be shown by the barometer itself, the author
had instituted an experiment in which the effect would be sooner
apparent ; — he had confined a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen
over mercury in two jars, one of them having a ring of platinum
at its lower extremity. He had not been able to disco-
ver* in registers of barometrical observations any distinct evi-
dence of the gradual deterioration of barometers from the cause
he had thus endeavoured to obviate ; the observers, however,
having frequently found it necessary, for some reason, eithtr to
re-boil the mercury in the tube, or to change their instrument
altogether.
ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.
This Society held its first meeting after the summer recess, ou
Friday the 12th of November; the President, H. T. Colebrooke^
Esq. in the chair. Several new members were elected, and
others proposed, and a great number of valuable presents, espe-
cially from foreign astronomers, were announced.
Two communications were read from Sir Thomas Brisbane,
Governor of New South Wales. The first of these contained an
account of some observations made at Paramatta, by Sir Tho*
New Series, vol. ix, l -
140 Proeeedinp. of PiiUiophkal Societies. ][fjiik.
iDti» likid Mr. Duiild]p, on tWinferior CoBpuietiaii tf Vtnns .with
the Sun, in Ootober, 1B234
Sir Thomas's second eonunnnioation, wbioh it dated 17th
Apnl» 1824, oonteinst firsts a record of repetitione on the San>
with Reichenbaoh's circle, for the Sammer Sektice, 1833/ they
eJ^tend from Deo. 10, 1823, to Jan. 2, 1824, but henre notyet
been euhjeoted to the necesaary reductiona for a definite retvlt :
secondly* a aeries of observations on several stars, made at T?wm*
matta with the Mural circle/ from Nov. 20, 1833, to Feb. 19,
1884. Twenty of the stars observed are among those whose
places are giiren annnaMy in the Nautical Almanac, and ase
usuaHy denominated Greenwich stars.
A letter was also read from Baton Zach to Francis Baily, Esq.
FRS. dated Qenoa, July 21, 1824, announcing the discovery of
a telescopic comet, by M. Pons, on the 24th of Uiat months It
was in the head of Serpentaritts^ without tail or coma :*^a simple
nebulosity.
Mr. Hersohel submitted to the inspection of the^membera
presetity a new double image micrometer, by Prof. Aoiici, of
Modenat
^ Mr. Donkin laid on the table, ^ the inspection of the mem-
bers, an instrument made by M. Fatten (a pupil of Bregimt, at
Paris), for determining the fractional part of a second of: timtf
in astronomical observations;
Priz^ Questions proposed by the Astronomical Society of London.
This Society has just proposed the following prize questions^
to the consideration of astronomers and mathematicians, vis.
1. The silver medal to any person who shall contrive, and
have executed an instrument, by which the relative tnagHitudd
of the stars may be measured or determ^ined ; and of whieh the
utility for this object shall be sufficiently established, by nui^e-*
reus observations, and comparisons of known stars.
2. The gold medal for approved formulae, for determining the
tme^lace of either of the four newly discovered planets, Oereis^
Juno, Vesta, and Pallas ; within such limits as the Council mtity
think sufficiently cforrect for the present state of astrondmyj
such formulse in each case to be accompanied with comparisons
of the observed places at various periods. ; -
8. The gdd medal for a new mode of developing the di^ren-
tial equation for expressing the problem of the three bodies, %y
which a smullet number of ttbles shall be required in ordet" 'to
compute the moon's place to the same degree of accuracy^ ks-by^
any existing tables, and with greater facility.
To be entitled to competition for the prizes, all answers til the
llrst question must be received before the 1st of February, 1896;
to the second, befbie the 1st of February, 1887; andto' tfle
*hird, before the 1st of Februarys 1828.
. Bn^M^^Aittim maetiiig^ ^f the Swiity Ibis eveiitag, tli#
^Ui^ation of th« secood part of their Memoirs was sunoMced.
A fMbfMT^ dr^wik up by vu Gregory, was pead, containing a
dflscnption of a box of rods> naoiftd the Mhabdologktd Abacus,
pgBBtnted to the Sooioty by tbo family of the late Henry Good^^
ti^ii^ £eq!» of BlaGkheath. It appe^n that these rods vrere
iMMtetf Bf Mr. Goodwya for. the pui^pose of faoilitating the
•smltipiieatoon of Jong numbers of frequent ocettrrence: th^
were probably suggested by Napier's Rods^ and are, for the
purposes \yhich the inventor had in view, a great improvement
ejpoQ them. The rods, which are square prisms, contain on each
side, successively, the proposed number in a mukiplicand, and
ita'serenid multiples up to nine times ; and these- in the several
seriee of fcode are repeated sufficiently often to serve for as
sxteseive multiplications as are likely to occur. Thus if the
fourfacefi of one rod oontoin. respectively, once^ twioe, three
times, and four times a proposed multiplicand ; another rod will
eidiibit in like manner two, three, four, and five times the same;
a third l^od, three, four, five, and six times the same ; and so on
to nine; and in several cases, more rods. The numbers are
anmnged uniformly upon eq|i]al and equidistant compartments ;
while at a small constant distance to the left of each produet
stands the number two, three, four, five^ &c. which it represents.
Hence, in performing a multiplication, the operator has only
to select from the several faces of the rods the distinct products
which belong to the respective digits in the multiplier, to place
them in due order above each other, to add them up while they
eo sdkand> and write down their sum» which is evidently the entire
prodn^t required, and obtained without the labour of multiplying
rjEfi# each separate product, or even of writing those products
, 49W^» For still greater convenience the rods may be arranged
fipoi^ a board with two parallel projections placed aslant at such
a^. angle as of necessity produces the right arrangement. There
are blank rods to place in those lines which accord with a cypher
.^ the multiplier ; and the arrangement may easily be carried on
j&oiQ. the bottom product upwards, by means of the indicating
d^te,
A letter was read from Capt. Ross, a Member of this Society,
} living all account of observations made on the occultation of
upiter by the moon on the oth^of April last ; transmitting also
aaaeoount of observations upon the same occultation by Mr.
.Stainage, qt* Aberdeen, wiUi one of his own 26 feet reflecting
telespopos. Mn R. observed the wtmersion. On the approach
<tf Jupiter's satellites to the rnoon^ a diminution of their light
was perceptible. Qn cpuiing into contact with the moon's dark
]pipAll^ thpy.did not disappear instantly, like fixed stars, but
I^Htied'. aA. in4entation or notch in the limb, as if they were
]|olMid4dd i^ i^ but we^e at the same time sejiarated from it by
a.&ae Uoe of tight. This indentation continued visible until
l2
14a Proceedingti^:PkilMfhkalSoci€He$. [?m||i
aboufc halfiheiv diametera were immersedy vfhen It disappetto^d^
All the satellites presented this phaeaomeaon;- but the fourth aQd{ '
third with the greatest distiactness, Oa Jupiter's approach^ my.
differeace of his light or shape was perceptible^ bat aftev the
coatact had takea place, he appeared to exnilMt ao deficieoey-of
disc, but preseated a complete figure, as if placed between the .
mooa aaa the earth, this appearaace coatiauing for a few
secoads. Whea the plaaet was almost entirely immersed, his
retiriqg limb appeared as though it were coasiderably eloagated,
or formed a segmeat of a much larger circle thaa had beea pre* .
viousiv preseated. The positioa of Mr. Ramage's telescope did •
aot allow him to observe the emersioa*
Capt.Ross was prevented by the state of the weathecfrooir
seeiag the immersion, but was fortuaate eaough to observe tbm
emersion, seeiag first a coasiderable eloneatim, which grtuluatty
dimiaished as more of the planet appeared from behiad the moom
Part of a letter, was read from Mr. R. Comfield, a Meaaber 'Of
this Society^ in refereace to the sameoccultatioa. He observed -^
it at Northamptoa with a good Newtoaiaa reflector. • Mr. Cool-
field, and two other coatemporaaeous observers, with ge^
iastrumeats, noticed that whea Jupiter had about half disap*-
peared, there was. exhibited aa adhesioa or protuberance oa edch-
side of the plaaet, which, as Jupiter suak behiad the mooa, be-
came larger aad larger, so that just before the entire disappear-
aace of the planet, it exhibited a considerable elongation deviaf-
iag greatly from a circular curve of the same diameter as tbe
plaaet.
Phseaomena, somewhat analogous, especially ia refereodeto* .
the indentations and adhesions, were noticed by severed astro-
nomers who observed the transit of Venus in 1769. See the>
account bv Capt. Cook, Mr. Charles Green, Mr. Charles Maso^n,^ ■
M. Pingre, &c, ia the Phil. Trans, for 1770 and 1771, which jare^ .
here adverted to, because the consideration of kindred ph»a<v .
meaa may assist ia the explicatioa of the whole.
Jan. 14, .1825. — At the meetiag this evening, Mr. Baily laid
on the table for the inspection of the members, two micrometers,
which have been recently invented and constructed by M.-
Frauenhofer of Munich. ,,.,.•*
These micrometers are formed by means of very fine liaet, eut
on glass with a diamond point in^a peculiar manner, and plac^>>^
ia tne focus of the telescope* One of these micrometers ootisisto i
of x^oncentric circular lines drawa at unequal distaaoesfrooi eaoh /'
other ; and the other consists of straight liaes uxissingi e(^h v
other at a given ang^e. The m^de of catting diese /lines. hte
furnished M. Frauenhofer with a method of illuminatins'tbemyr))
which (at the same time that it renders the Iines»-yiaibleHf»v€8 ..
the other part of the field of. the telescppe ii>44i!luiess^::M^tb%t^>
the traasits of the smallest stars may bei<>bsarved by «ieajEi8fO& ^
thei»e micrometei-s; the liaes appeariag like so many silifer
tbtaaif'fiiflpetided in tbe heaivcnfifi. A s^ort ftccouht of the cir-
cuififitanoes which led M. Fratienhofer to this happy invention •
wttBf road. •
^b i^ngraving of Prauenhofer's achromatic telescope at Dorpat
of 14r feet feeus and 9 inches aperture, was also submitted to the
inspeetton of the members by Mr. Herschel.
'A 'communication was read froto Capt. Ross^ dated Stranraer,
A tfg. 7,^*1824, in which he transmits a diagram exhibiting his
ob^im^n of the occultation of Herschel's planefby the moon,
on the preceding^ day, with Ratnage's 26 feet telescope, and a
power of 6U0. 1?he planet appeared to have entered about one-
third of its diameter on the dark part of the moon bef6re it dis-
apfieared,' and its light began to diminish* before it touched the
lunar disc. • On the contrary at its emersion, it appeared onte-
fourth'^ its own diameter distant from the moon's western limb.
The-wholetiraeof the occultation waft P 7" 44*fl».
'Afte? this the reading was commenced of a paper by Mr. H.
AtkitMon, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, " On Astronomical and
oth^r Refhictions ; with a connected Inquiry into the Law of
TMfrperalure in different Latitudes and Altitiides.'* As the
reading of this paper will be resumed at a subsequent meeting,
an'abetpact of the whole may with propriety be deferred.
. , GEOLaOlOAL SOCIETY.
Der.S.— -A notice was read, " On some Fossils found in the
Island of Madeira ;" by the late T. E. Bowdich, Esq.
In this notice, the author describes a formation of branched
cylindrifcal tubes encased with agglutinated sand, which occur
iirgreat abundance near Fanical, 16 miles from Funchal, in the
Ismid of Madeira. Mr. Bowdich is inclined to refer these to a
vegetable origin. They are accompanied by shells, some deci-
d^ly terrestnal, and others which appear to belong to a marine
genus. In conclusion, some account is given of the general
features and structute of the neighbouring district.
IAa extract of a paper was then read, entitled, *' An Inquiry
intone Chemical Composition of those Minerals which belong
tolbbe genus Tourmaline ;" by Dr. C. G. Gmelin, Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Tubingen, and For. Mem. OS.
:PrQf.' ©melin, in this memoir, details at length, the various
adalvftfes of minerals of the Tourmaline family, which have been
miuie i)^ former chemists. He then describes the methods
whiohlm adopted in his own experiments, atid adds the results
wHiob ha obtained irom them.
-THe^Mithor divides the different species of Tourmaline into the
foliirfdtig"si3Ction8 : 1. Tourmalines which contain lithion ;
2.^o«rtSeriiiieswhioh contain potash Or soda, or both the^e alka-
liMtl0gi0lhferr'wi«hoiatiitht0n, and without a corisiderdble quantity
ofi^nifl|pMHdf$ 8<r Tourmiaiines whieh cbntain a considerable
160, Sdetaifie Nc(He^$^Chmkhy. [FbbJ
quautity of mftgnefMa together vHh some polafthj or potftsh end'
soda.
It appears, he says, in conclusion, that when we compare the
anal]^ses of the different species of Tourmalines, the most eaaen-
tial ingredients are, boracio aoid^ silica, ud alumina, whoaa
relative quantities do not vary much. It appears further, dmt
any alkaline substance, though in no considerable quantity, may
be likewise an essential ingredient. The different nature oif
these alkaline substances may be employed by the chemist, as
we have used it, to divide these minerals into different seotiens*
But it will appear to be quite useless to attempt to give minertil*
ogical formulas for the chemical composition of these minemls,
when it is considered ; fir^t, that we can by no means rely upon
the correctness of any statement regarding the quantity of oxy-
gen in boracic acid ; secondly, that the quantity of alkaline
bases, whose oxyg^^i would be unity, is so small, that it eaftinot
b^ determined (with sufficient accuracy) without great esroris m
the computation of the relative quantity of oxygen in the other
ingredients; thirdly, that in one species no account couU be
given of a considerable loss of weight. He has, however, csd-
culated the quantities of oxygen in every species, with the intsn-
tion of comparing the snm of the oxygen contained in the bsses
with the sum of that contained in the acids, viz. boracic acid
and silica. The result of this calculation is then fully stated. •
Article XIL
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.
Chemistry,
1 • 4mli^i9 of the Bohtm Sulphurous.
This mushroomy according to Peschier'a anaiyaisy is oiMn*
posed of the following ingredients :—
Water,
Fungin,
Albumen,
An uncrystallizable sacohariue matter-^mu$brpom sugar,
A fatty substance soluble in alcohol,
An animal matter,
A peculiar alk^tline principle,
Oxalate of potash.
An uncombmed acid of a peculiar nature^ and
A colouring matter.
The uncombined acid aad the colouring matter wart aoMUe
both in water aad in alcohol — (Trommsdorfi's Neuea Jottrml
der Pbarmacie,) ' .
189&] SeieiO^ Noiio$9-^Chemutry, ISl
i,iJompound of Muriate and Hydrosutphuret of Oxidule of
Antimony.
SvlplHUffiited hydro|aa throws dowa from a solution of the
muriate of oxidule of antimony a lively pomegranate yellow
ooleuied precipitate^ which has been hitherto regarded as a pure
kydrosulphuret of oxidule of antimony : it is^ however, a combi-
natieii of this salt witli the neutral muriate of oxidule of ahti-
9O0y; The latter salt may be expelled by heat, and sulphuret
of antimony remains behind ; the same decomposition may bo
eflleeted by exposing the precipitate for some time in a close
▼esse) to the light of the sun.— (L. Gmelin. Handbuch der theo-
lettsehen Ghemie.)
*.' '
.3. Composition of White Precipitate.
V - We copy the following from a note, at the conclusion of Mr.
Bmndfi's' paper, entitled <^ Facts towards the Chemical History
-«fMerCursr:''
i HaFing inferred from various experiments that the " white
^cipitate *' was a compound of one proportional of peroxide of
•mercury, and one of muriate of ammonia, Mr. Hennel verified
this t>pinion as follows: A solution of one proportional of corro-
sixFe sublimate (=272) was mixed with a quantity of solution
of as^nonia, containing two proportionals (17 x 2 = 34) of that
alkali ; a neutral mixture resulted, white precipitate was formed^
and one proportional of muriate of ammonia (ammonia 17 -)-
muriatic acid 37 = 54 of muriate of ammonia) was found in
solution. In this case, the two proportionals of chlorine in the
sublimate (36 x 2 = 72) were converted at the expense of
2 proportionals of water, into 2 of muriatic acid, which^ uniting
with the ammonia, formed 2 , of njuriate of ammonia. The
2 proportionals of the oxygen from the water (equivalent to th^
2 of hydrogen transferred to the chlorine) united to th^ 1 pro-
|Knrtional or mercury in the sublimate, to form 1 of peroxide of
mercury, which fell in combination with 1 of muriate of^mmonia
to constitute white precipitate ; while the other proportionsd of
muriate remained^ as above stated, in solution. The equivalent
number, therefore, of white precipitate, is 270, and it QOQsi^ts of
1* pfbportional of peroxide of tiaercury. .. = 216 .... 80
1 ____ muriate of ammonia • • . . :±: 54 • ... 20
270 100
Having thus synthetically est^^blisbed the compositipii of
white precipitate, the followmg analytical experiment was made
iU/^Hi^ rt^.S70g|'^insw^re dissolved. in hydrocyanic acid, and
smphuratted" hydrogen was passed through the solution till it
occasioned no further change; the precipitate was then coU
152 Scf099tific Voticu^ehem^ry.^ V^tM^
lecte^> weighed, aad dried ; it weighed very oaarly 233 gWM^
beiiig the equivalent of bisiilphuret of mercury. Tbe-mtered
liquor, on evaporation to dryness, left o4 grains, or l.pfffiip<N>
tippal of muriMe of .ammonia, — (Journal of ^^eience,)
' ' 4. Boron, its Preparation, S^c.
. Tfhe readiest method of obtaining boron without lo&ing.too
much potassium is to heat the potassium with fiuo-borate of
potash.* Boron and siUcium resemble each other in tbeif pro-
perties^ nearly as sulphur and silicium, or as phosphorus and
^rsenic. I have produced sulphuret of boron, a white and paU
Verulent substance, which dissolves in water, yielding sulphur-
etted hydrogen gas. , Boron burns in chlorine. The chlonde of
boron is a permanent gas which is decomposed in moist air,
producing a dense vapour ; and in water giving muriatic and
boracic acids. It condenses one and a half time its volume of
ammoniacal gas. Berzelitis, Bib. [7riit;,—-(Journal of Science.)
5. Action of Alum on Vegetable Blue Colours.
^'it is. commonly stated in chemical works, that a solution of
ajuioa has the property of reddening vegetable colours. With the
Exception of litmus, where the effect is very decicled,2ind of tinc-
ture of cabbage, where the effect is triflingf a contrary effect is
experienced.; the solution has turned the colours (which were
fenerally obtained from the blue petals of flowers) green, H. B^
/eA:«o/i.— (Journal of Science.)
• • •
r 6. Preparation of Lit hia.
M. BerzeUus says, that the most economical way of preparing
lithia is to mix the triphane, or spodumene, in powder, with
^fce its weight of pulverised fluor spar, and with sulphuric
acid; then to heat the mixture until the fluoric acid with the
silica is volatilized, and afterwards to separate the sulphate by
solution. Bib. Univ. — (Journal of Science.)
^.'Oie^ SnlphO'iodide of Antimony. By MM. Henry and Garot.
^^ When very dry iodine and sulphuret of antimony are inixed
in* '^ual parts, and sublimed in dry vessels by the moderated
h^it of a sand-bath, red vapours appear, which condense on the
t[j)per and cooler parts of the vessels, whilst a greenish grey
mixtilre of protoxide of antimony with a Httle iodide and suir
phurbt remains. ;
' The cohdensed volatile substance appears in brilliant translu-
cid* plates, resembling fern-leaves in form, of an intense poppy
red^dotour r if the vessels in which the sublimation has been
idiae ar^ lar^^^ the crystals appear as prismatic prisms., Whet^
lMikt<^,- ihey- readily fuse, and by careful management may be
icfMOle^^ stibKtned ; but when highly hcfated, iodide and sid-
pkuf^^ure set free, sulphurous acid is formed, and a mixture Of
oitrnMny and oxide produced. The crystals have a sharp disa-
greeable taste : light has no action on them. When put into
alcohol or ether, iodine is dissolved, and a yellow sulphuret of
antimony deposited. When put into water, hydriodic acid, pro-
toxide of antimony, and sulphur, are formed. The action of the
acids is such as might be expected, decomposition of the sub-
stance being always produced.
Upon analysis, this substance gave as its elements, antimony
23*2, iodine 67*9, sulphur 8*9, which nearly corresponds with
one propprtibnal of each substance. The authors have called it
a sulpho-iodide of antimony. Jour, de Pkarm. — (Journal of
Science-.)
- * Mineralogy.
8. Yenite found in the United States.
Dr. Torrey states, that a mineral has been found at Rhode
Island, which, from its characters, he considers as yenite. It
is in small crystals imbedded in an aggregate of quartz and
epidote. The crystals vary in size ; the largest found was an
inch and a quarter long, one quarter of an inch broad, and two
line^ thick. The terminations were wanting. The form is
neaHy rectan^lar ; the surface striated and shining, with a
semi-tnetallic lustre. Cross fmcture somewhat resinous. It is
imperfectly foliated in the direction of the longer diagonal of the
Erism. It scratches glass slightly. It is opaque, and of a
lackish brown colour. The powder has thecolour of the mass.
Specific gravity 3*6.
Before the blowpipe, it melts with great ease into a black
opaque glass, strongly attracted by the magnet. -• (Annals of
Lyceum of Natural History, New York.)
9. Localities of rare Minerals,
. Chrome ore, Uiechromate of iron, has been discovered bjr.Sir
Humphry Davy in small granular masses, disseminated in a
greenish-white marble from Buchanan, in Stirlingshire, pre*
served in Mr. Allan's cabinet. Of the Cronstedtite, of Stein*
maon, a mineral hitherto confined to Przibram, the same collec-
tion contains specimens from Wheal Maudlin, in Cornwall*
The cronstedtite from the latter locality presents generally
thinner individuals than the Bohemian one, but is, like this,
accompanied by sparry iron and hexahedral iron pyrites,
Ai^'dther product of Wheal Maudlin has .lately attracted the
attei^on of mineralogists. The collections of Mr. Allan, Mr.
^.ashieigh, of Menabuly, and Mr. Williams,.ofScorrier, contain
pseudomorphous crystals of wolfram, in the shape of tungstat^
of lime. . They present the fonn^ well known in thatroecies, of
an isosceles four-sided pyramid, bevelled on ibe solid angles
IA4 Stkm^Jfytie^^'^^agftetiMm. [f»i
owti^uoui to the ba«Q/ sometimes of tte size of three or fow
lioes m every direction. They are generally eqgaged in blendfii
which is deavable in large Umipae, and are composed ia tbtt
iutiii^ of a delicate tissue of minute crystals, beiWf ea wtiioli
^umerous^ cavities are cQUspicuous> lined with these crystsJai
So«ietiQ¥^ also the large ]>seudomorphous. crystals are qiaitt
diseogagedf and accompanied by arsenical pyrites^ cbloritSt
quart'^j 9i,Q* The colour of the streak is almost of the samd
ooloMT ij^ the pseudomornhous crystals, and the blende i^ wbiob
tb^i Mfk imbeddedi."-(Edinbuigb Journal of Sqi^nce.)
10. English Ijocality of Metallic Lead.
This substance has lately been found in situ in the neigh*
bourhood of Alston. It uccurs in small globular masses^ in^bi^d->
ded in galena and a slaggy substance^ accompanied with red
litharge, crystals of blende and quartz. The vein in which it is
fbuod is in limestone, and of the thickness of an inch, widening
out .to two or three ^ it goes down. The whole rnsus witfiia
the vein is considerably decomposed, and the ore is .fgnQdiflL
iuc(9h§renjt pieces^ some of which are about the i^m of a wi^QuW
Mismy of them have a very slaggy appearance, both e^teroally
and mter^alfy, while others are pure galena, diitinctly cleavf^
hie, ajid coated with a white mealy sulphate of lead, produced
by decomposition. A more particular notice of thia mineral
Fill probably soon be given.-^Edin. Jour, of SoieweO
Magnetism.
U. Gay'fjMssac an the mutual Action of two Magnetic P^rfi^l^
in different Bodies.
Tliia very interesting experiment was undertaken by M« Gay-
LBsaae at the request of Af . Poisson, for the purpose of asoaiv
taining whether or not the mutual action of two magnetic partt*
des depended on the matter of each of the bodies, which was
ftmnd to be the case.
iv A- magnetieal needle, eight inches long» was found to make
%m honeontal vibrations near the direction of the mtgaetie
meridian in 131 seconds. A prismatic bar of soft iron, about
eMit inohea long, three«fourths of an inch wide, and ona*^
eighteeitth ofaa inch thick, in a vertical direction, wasnow fixed^ait
ittie>distance of two inches below the needle, and in the plane of
Ae magnetic meridian. The oseillationft of the needle became
miN'elnqiiMitt, being about 10 in 66 seeands, and w&aa after 10
k»^8econds«
'^•A^simHar and equal bar of pure nickel was now sobstitated ia
{d^bbe jof the iron bar, and the needle made at first 10 osoilhH
tkaipin .78 seconds, and sooa after 10 in 77 seconda, . Whed
theJier of nickel was removed, the needle made 10 oseiUalioiMi
ki ISfrseoomls^by due nctloii of ^tiie earth akioe* M. B^imui^
Memoir <m Jliiig9i#/t«m.«^(Edin, Jour, of Science.)
IMft.) Seimt^lMeei^SttieelUemiu, lili
.»».■■••• 1/1 til • • •* >■
Misceliane6us. * '
>
12. Hydfophalriitt.* >
<
• - -'1 /
' Bl-rCdpello, of Rome, in a memoir read befbre thfe Acftd^my
del Liftcei, affirms that the hydrophobic poison, after it^ *flr«t
tranisinifiSioQv loses the power of conveying the disease. Tlrid
observation-, alrtudy made by Bader, is confirmed by repeated
experiments made by Dr. Capello. A lap-dog and cat ^etB
both inoculated with the saliva of a dog who died of inociflAted
hydrophobia; they both remained free from disease ; and'ltoee
years afterwards the lap-dog was again inoculated from a dog
who became rabid spontaneously : he then took the disease and
died. ' .
An ox was bitten by a dog attacked with rabies; he betam6
hydrophobic, and bit many other animals : all remained free:
ftbm the affection. The dog that bit the ox also bit a ©hifd^'
who died abont four months after, with all the s)rmptbms 6v
hydrophobia : with the saliva of this child a dog also was inocu-'
latd3, out the disease was not transmitted. ' '
*' A 'dog which had been bitten by another dog became hydro-;
^fitdtnc on the fifty-iirst day, broke the chain with which he was
flfst^ned, and escaped into the street, where he bit niany per^
sons; *nd the dogs of two persons (who are named), and BfiaHy
disappeared among the rums of the villa of Quintiliui Vftrus :
not one of the persons or dogs so bitten had the slightest symp-
tom of hydrophobia. Med, Jour, — (Journal of Science.)
. • .^ 13- Ten^eratwe of the Maximum Density oj Water. ^
An elaborate memoir by Prof. H'allostrom, on the specific
g^svky of water at different temperatures, and on the tempefa-
tnfe of its maximum density,, has appeared, in the Swi^diiUi
'JVtanoactifmB for 1823. It is divided into two parts: Th^.iirtt;
eeiitains a critical discussion of the results, and the metbadi^
employed by preceding experimenters : the second, a detail oS
am extensive cOuxse of experiments, instituted by himself, vi^ith
aTfew»to the more accurate determination of this impoitaiit hut
diffidqlt inqmry. The method of experimwting wbtob fho?
regardiBdsaa the mdst accurate, and whieh he there fovei adopter
iVAJi Jio^^taroertain the weight of a hollow glass globe^ vtery lit<jie
hoavi^t^bab water, and about 2^ inches in diameter, in water cjf
eTiftcy 4$gtl^e of tempemture between 0° and 33i5^ eeiit< : iTha
enirofaf ^fliog from a dilatation .or conitraction of the . dkusi^ ' Mie
weight of the SLtmosphere^ &q, were all calculated^ Ma t^cocttn
spondinig^eOifeetion made. The result was, ;ihat wattcitltiins
iltf'grealest density at a temperature of 4:108^ oenilir (30'3j94f}
Fahi^^ ; and:the^/mi^5 of uncertainty, oeeasiooad by tile jnq^-^
sibili^l o^aacibrttMiingi the dikUatioa of gkaa /Withi porfecifaeoif*
mo^ ^e eMamttIm to be O'i^SP (0*438P Fdir«> On otfasi^ sM^ of
this Dumber« . ' .• .. . . \l »* \t.MV- / •
156
Sdentifie NaUces^^MiHelkmeom*
|Tii.
The two foDomng tables exhibit the vesults of his experratents
on the sp. sr. of water in all temperatures between (r and 32^
cent. In the firsts the. sp. gr. at 0^ ; in the second, the sp. gr.
at 4*1^ is taken as the unit.
Temp.
Sp. Gr.
Temp.
Sp. Gr.
Temp.
Sip» Gtm
Cent.
Cent
Cent
Qo
1-0000000
lOo
0-9998906
2lo
0-9083648
I
1 -0000*6(1
11
0 9998112
22
0^981569
2
1 0000799
12
0-9997196
23
0-9979379
S
1-000)004
IS
0-9996160
24
0-9977077
4
1-00010817
14
0-9995005
25
0-9974666
41
1-00010824
15
0-9993731
26
0-9972146
5
1000 103^
16
0-9992340
27
0-9969518
6
1-0000856
17
0*9990832
28
0*9966783
7
1-0000655
18
0-9989207
29
0-9963941
8
1-0000199
19
. 0-9987468
SO
0-9960993
9
0*9999579
SO
0-9985615
"
Temp.
Sp. Gr.
Temp.
Sp. Gr.
Temp.
SplOr.
*
Cent.
Cent.
Cent.
• ■ - .
00
0-9998918
100
0-9907825
2JO
0*9982&70
1
0*9999382
11
0-9997030
22
0*99Sa489
2
0-9999717
12
0-9996117
23
0*9978300
S
0*9999920
13
0*9995080
24
0-9976000
4
0-9999995
14
0-9993922
25
0-997358T
4-1
I -0000000
15
0-9992647
26
0-9971070
6
0-9999950
16
0*9991260
27
0*9968439
6
0-9999772
17
0-9989752
28
0*9965704
7
0-9999472
18
0*9988125
29
0-0962864
8
0-9999044
19
0*9986387
30
0*9959917
9
0-9998497
20
0-9984534
■ *
"The uncertainty which still exists respecting the temperatoce..
df the maximum density of water may, perliaps, be best illustrate^
by a table of the results which he orings successively uader
review.
Ob'Berver.
Calculator.
Observer.
Calculator.
■'.
. ■ • '
Cent.
Ccoc
J)e Luc
Biot.
3-42°
Charles.
Biot.
3-Mo
Ekstrand.
3-60
Paucker.
3*88
Paucker.
1*76
Lefevre-Gineau.
Lefevr^-Gniesu.
4**4'
Hallstrom.
1*76
Hillstrom.
Halktrom.
4^3S
Dalum.
Dalton.
2-22
Bischof.
Bischof.
4*06
Biot.
4-35
Rumford.
Rumford.
4-3S
tQUpin.
Young.
3-89
— .'
S-41
Biot.
389
TraDes.
TraUes.
4m
£jtcjwein.
2-59
Hope.
Hope. -
s*w
-
Walbeck.
0*44
_M
3*8d
• **' '
Htibtrfim.
3*82
-. :■
4-ris
^.y^d^midi, ,
Myteiwm*
1t»V
SkstEKfiA.
Isksfennd.
MD
Hallstrom.
8*63 \
\^*^
ixm
Schffi^ Nttk4i'^Mb6elkm9ou84
m^
e4>raiBrgnciqijg his iiivestigaticn^Prof^iHvdekefHiiBfid'iii
tl|& ficatplaoethe-^Uatii^Oii of tke glass which ^he tm^k^ytA' in
the concse of his «xperinieiite. • His results, fisrticultiiy intte
two extremes of temperature, differ coosidetabfy fri^m ^ose-^f
La?oisier and General Roy ; on which account we consider it
worth while to insert them here.
Temperature.
Expansion.
l*emperature.
KxpsHRion. .
Cent.
Cent:
oo
0000000
60©
0*000496
6 000658
10
0000030
70
so
0-000081
80
0-0008«9
90
0*000153
tfO
0-00 10«7
40
0000245
100
0K)01246
50
0*000S6t
14. Prof. Oersted on a Method of accelerating the Distillation of
Liquids.
In Gehlen's Journal fur Chemie und Physik, i. 277—289^ I
have related a few experiments which demonstrate that the .dis-
engagement of gas in a fluid, resulting from chemical deemnlpo-* -
sitioiiy never takes place except in contact with some solid body.
This principle may without doubt be applied to the diseng!age« -
ment of vapours. If a metallic wire be suspended in a boilmg
fluids it -instantly becomes covered with bubbles of vapour.
Hence it might be concluded that a large number of metallic
wires, introduced into a fluid which we wish to distil, would
accelerate the formation of vapours. To prove this opinion, I
introduced 10' pounds of brass wire, of one-fifth of a line in
diameter, loosely rolled up, into a distillatory vessel containing
20 measures (about 10 pmts) of brandy: the result was, tbi^t
g^e^fhefeTsures of brandy distilled over with a heat, which>.
wiAotit the wire, was capable of sendipg over only four iHea-^
sQr^sl ' ■ ■ " . .*
An expedient similar to this has been long in common use in
England. When a steam-boiler has become encrusted with so
much earthy matter that the contained water ceases to bpilwiih'
rapidity, J t .'is customary to throw in a quantity of ti^ residue
obtained from malt by extracting its soluble portion, and which
consists chiefly of small grains or fibres. Her^ the disjengage-
me^iof,,Yf|Bpi^r is piomoted'by. the large number of. thin and
sockI particlesi — (Tidskrift for Naturvidenskabeme.) .
n<
-U'l^
ittpf. Oersted's information respecting the, latter; methQik>of
profooting the g^ieration o^- vaipouf, 'Was probably derived from
a pfLpev by Mri«Bald, in the Edia. ]^hil. Jouro. vol. ii. p* 340.
Tq^ inaterialjvhich the engine-keef>ers of .^cortltind are in the-
conal^t practice 'O^ employM^to pft>dace diis eflfect, is iiot>^aii'
M. Ofllttfd «tatM» the exhausted portion of malt ; dthough tfiere
t^ems nO reasou to doubt that it^ and indeed any light auMtanoe^
ID a state of ikiiQute diyisiop^ would prove of nearly equal efi-f
caoy. *' The substance employed/' says Mr. Bald, ^* is knowtt
by the name of comings, being the radicles of barley produced
in the process of malting^ ^bioh are eeparatpd before the malt
is sent to market. About a bushel of these is thrown into the
boiler ; and when the steam is again raised^ an immediate effect
is visible ; for there is iiot only a plentiful supply of steam to
produce the full working speed of the engine, but an excess of
it gcun^ waste at the salety valve. This singular effect will con-
tinue jfor several days."
i*WM4baiaBMMM<^iWi**.Ki^>*-aai^>M*a
NEW PATENTS. . •
. J. Apsdeiiy Leeds, bricklayer, for his improvemant in the modes of
|iroducing an artificial stone.^-Oct. 21, 1824.
O. Ddiad« St. Atine^fitreeti Westminster, engineer, for improveoiettte
«a llnB^xdngttishing machinery .-^Oct. 21.
6«Si Harris^ Caroline*plaee, Knightobridge,ibr his maphitte ibr Ih^^
Mrpose of giving the most effectual a*d extensive publicity by day and
by night to all proclamations, notji0es> legal advertisements, and which
will henceforward render unnecessary the defacement of walls and
houses by bill^^stlcking, placarding, and chalkiog. — Oct. 21.
J. Lingford, Nottingham, lace-machine manufacturer, for certain
improvements upon machines now in use for the purpose of making
that kind of lace commonly kn6wn by the name of bobbin-net, Bucking-
himi lace-net. — Nov. J .
Hev. J. Somerville, Edinburgh, for the prevention of all accidental
discharge of fowling-pieces or other fire-arms. — Nov. 4i
J. Crosldy^ Cottage^lane, City-road, for better ensuring the egress of
smoke and rarefied air in certain situations. — ^Nov. 4*
T. R* Guppy, Bristol, for certain improvements in mastipg vessels.-^*^
N^v* 4*
J. Heady Banbury, Oxfordshire, hosier, for improvements, in ma-
diinery for making cords or plait for boot and stay laces.— Nov. 4.
W. Church, Birmingham, for improvements on augers and bits for
boring, and in the apparatus for making the same. — Nov. 4.
W. Busk, Broad-street, for improvements in propelling ships, boats,
6f Other vessels, or floating bodies. — Nov. 4.
J. White and T. Sowerby, both of Bishop Wearmouth, Durham,
merchants, for their improved air furnaces for the purpose of melting
oriusing metallic substances. — Nov. 6.
J. Moore> Broad Weir, Bristol, for improvements uponsteam-engines,
or fiteam'^engine apparatus. — Nov«-^
. Tk^. CartmelU Doncaster, guu'-maker, for an improved cocjk to bo
applied to the lock of any. gun, pistol, fire^rms^ or Ofdaance^ior the
iwrpoie of firing the same by percussion,—- Nov. 6*
U9BI]
Mr, Hnwai* MitUordb^ual JtiiiirnaL
\m
Articue XIV.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.
>i. ■ ■ .
Barometer.
TflfiRMOMETEII.
1884.
Wind.
Max.
Alio.
Max.
Min.
Bvap.
fiMI.
i2thMon.
Dec. 1
W
2978
29-47
43
30
_
e
8 W
2978
29*63
45
32
'».
45
3
N W
«97«
2965
36
30
—
06
4
N E
2975
2972
38
31
—
56
5
N
3002
2975
40
. 27
m^
6
S W
3000
2972
44
31
—
18
7
w
30*03
2972
42
35
—
r
8
w
30-03
29'87
46
32
—
t6
9
w
30-10
29*87
43
28
—
20
10
N W
30-28
30-10
42
24
—
11
s w
30'42
30*28
42
38
—
0«
12
s w
30-54
30-4-2
46
38
*^M^
13
N W
30-59
30-54
48
42
-^
t
14
w
30-60
30-26
48
41
-84
01
15
s w
30-26
30-08
48
38
—
05
16
w
30-18
30-08
44
35
t
"
17
N W
30-31
30-18
42
S7
— ■
06
18
s
30-31
30-23
47
42
• ,
1»
w
30-23
29-60
52
45
i^mmm
m^
20
s w
29-63
29-60
5^
33
—
04
di
8 W
29^62
29-13
52
45
■^k^K
10
S9
8 W
29-95
29*02
50
26
**-
15
23
N W
3011
29-62
52
31
— .-
85
24
s w
2975
29-62
50
39
•45
«0'
25
w
30-04
997^
54
32
— ■
26
w
3G-10
30-04
48
35
^^
_
27
s w
30-04
29-96
52
42
*-^
• -^
28
s w
30-27
29-96
54
32
— .
50
29
N
30-31
30-27
54
31
-*«
06
30
w
30-37
5r0 31
53
44
_
•^
3i
w
30-33
30-25
54-
42
•4i
66
30'60
29-02
54
24
1-24
3M0
-^ !
The observations in each line of the table apply to a period of twenty-fbiit hour^
IPEg^niiiiig at 9 A. M. on the day indicated in the first odimm* A dash denotes that
ik0 IMIH iftfltttftadid ia the next foUovlni^MMilrTateu
160: Ur. HokHu^d^s Maearohfflcai Jaurmi: [Feb. 1S25;
REUARKS.
TwfUftk Monikf^i, Fine. 9. Fine morning t very rainy night. 3. Cloudy s
niny ni|^t. 4. R«iny* 5. Overcast. 6. Hoar frost : fin» day. 7, 8. Fine.
9. line day: rainy night. 10. Fine. 11. Drizzling. IS. Fine. 13. Gloomy.
14. Very dark morning: gloomy day: drizzling evening. 15. Cloudy and fine:
nin at night. 16. Fine. 17, 18. Drizzling. 19. Cloudy. • 90. Squally.
81. Stonny. 92. Squally: an extraordinary rise of the barometer in the night.
93. Vfliy fine. 24. Runy momil^, with high wind : squally day. 2^. Rainy mom-
ifig: fiat ^ftnnoon. 26. Fine. 27. Fine. 28. Rainy. 29. Very fine day.
80. dandy. 31. Dzizading.
RESULTS.
Wmda: N,2; NE, 1; S, 1; SW, U ; W, II; NW,5.
BtfiQineter: Mean height
For the month ,,., 30*002
For the lunar period, ending the 13th 29*S
For 13 dtyi, ending the 12th (moon north) 29'91 1
For 14 <Uys, ending the 26th (moon south). 29*908
Theimometer: Mean height
For the month « 41*2580
Forihelunar period, ending the ISth 42']55
For 29 days, the sun in Sagittarius... 41*259
»
Kttfcm&oHL .* 1*24 in.
Rain 3*10
LOonOoriff Siraf/brd^ Firtt Afmithy 25, 1825. L. HOWARD.
ANNAXS
ov
PHILOSOPHY.
MARCH, 1825
I , * ■■ »
* i.
Article I.
# ^^ %
Ow <A^ Li^ a«d Writings of Claude^LomsBerthoUet. \
By Mr. Hugh Colquhoun,
{Concluded from p. 96.)
After seeing the important services which the distinguished
friends BerthoHet and Monge rendered to France in the eariv
years of her revolutionary warfare, the public confidence which
the men ofv science then generally acquired, and the political
weight which in a manner devolved upon them, nothing seems
more natural than that men like these friends, who were as
remarkable for their taste as for their talent, should be>deputed
bythe Directory in 1796, on the occasion of that brilliant and
wonderful campaign of Bonaparte which completely sufaj^r^aled
Italy, to proceed to that land, and select those works of science
aaii^vrt; with which the Louvre ivas to be fitted and adorned.
While eiimged in the prosecution of that duty; they, became
acquainted with the victorious general. To. know 8U(di men was
to esteem them : and IS^apoleon had penetration enough to feel
how important their . firiendsfaip mignt ultimately prove. He,
therefore, cultivated their acquaintance, and was ni^ppy.afltert ;
wards to possess them, with nearly a hundred . other philoso-
phers; as his companions in the next expedition wbiohhe under*
took. In this instance, he no doubt expected that his conquests^
and their reise^Lrches, while they both redounded to the honour
of their country, would also equally tend to surround the Com-
mander-in-Chief with an eclat which might favour the develop*; .
ment of his schemes of future greatness. This expedition was
the invasion of Egypt. . v , : '
This attempt, which had long been regarded with a favourable
eye by the French cabinet, as likely to furnish, afler a few brilliant
yet easy victories, a soil which should become colonized! by and
tribtttaf^ tpJ^rauce, and which promised to produce iip<(^S98Mr».:.y
com,' andc6flree,^.in abondsfioe, to XIatb m^
ietoionsj>f JKfilittAy wi^ at length inJTmjm}^^
-* *• vol.. I3?:, * M
162 Mr» Colquhoun on the Life atid Writings [March,
€k^ coxmnand of Napoleooi or as he was at that time styled, the
General of the Army of Iti|ly« Intei^s^ng as the result of the
expedition was to the political affairs of Europe, it was not less
so to the scientific world. M^iw of the roost illustrious names
in France, in every department of philosophy, Berthollet, Monge,
Andreossy, Denon, Malus, Descostils, Levavasseiir, Fourier, &c.
accompanied the |r{ny ^o th^t coufitry whid^ bad been the cradle
of so many useful arts and of as much knowledge, and with
them the Ught of science once more shone on the splendid
remains of ancient Egypt. la ordef the more effectually to
co-operate in the cause of knowledge, these gentlemen formed
themselves into a society named the '^ Institute of Egypt,"
which was constituted on precisely the same plan with tnat of
the National Institute at Faris. Their first meeting was oa
6 Fructidp?, sixth year of the Republic (1798), apd fiftpir that
they continued to a^$emble at stated intervals : on each occa«
sion, memoirs were read by the respective members, of which,
the climate, the inhabitants, and the natural and artificial pro-
ducts Qf the country thfiy had just entered, together with its
antiquities, formed important subjects. After their return to
France, there was pubUshed in 1800 a highly interesting voluni^
of Menioirs of thq Institute of Egypt, — a work to which the
names ^bove quoted were the chief contributors.
It is by no means one of the least interesting portions of th«
history of our chemist, that in which he bepiime mtimatej with th^
most extraordinary character of modern times, and in, which he
is found to be the principal agent in assembling that distinguiabtd
eompany of savans who afterwards formed themselves into the
Bgyptian Institute. Napoleon, during his occasional intercourse
with Berthollet in Italy, had been alike captivated b; pio great a
aimpUcity of manners, joined to such force and depth of think-c
in^, as l\e soon perceived to characterise the chemist. When,.
therefore, h^ soon after returned to Paris, where be enjoyed ^
few months of comparativfi leiaurei amid the casesses and admin
ration of all ranks in the state, he resolved to employ the ttipe
ef which he had then the disposal, in studying fihemistry \mder
berthollet. It was now thai this illustrious pupil imparted to tke
philosopher his purposed expedition to Egypt, of which ne,
whisper was to be spread abroad until the blow was ready to.
fa^l, and begged him, ^t the same time, not merely to accompany
the army himself, but to ohoose such men of talent and exp«b*
rience as he conceived fitted to find there an ei^play/ment worthy,
of the cottntry which tb^y visited|, and of Ibai whidi sei^t thtm
forth. Foe «QrthoUet to invite men to undertake a haxardoiwb
expeditions the nature and destination of which he was not pei^
qiit|ed |o unfold to them;^ was latker a diffiouU and deUeatei taak>
whioh .however he eiinoiestl^ undeitaok. AU that he . dared sayi
ta thos^ whom he engaged io the «iitei|>me, mm sunpl^^ vx tW
> >
W25.5 of dmide-Louh Bertholkt. *^ 16$
ettiphatie words of Cuvier, Je serai avec w>m: and neter wa«
tb^re a more perfect proof of esteem and affectioa given, by the
HniTeTsal assent of men of science, to any individual, than those
tfitingoUrhed associates now freely accorded to flcrthollet^ in
pted^hg themselves to encounter those dangers of which they
Jtnew nothing, but that he was to share them. But for the
existence of such a man as BerthoIIet, who possessed ^t oncQ
AeeBtire confidence of theOeneral, and the perfect esteem an<f
legarrf of men of science, it must have prove© wholly impo^sibl^
to unke on this occasion the advancement of knowledge with
the progress of the French arms.
One cS* the most important essays fiimlshed by BerthoHot to the
Institute of Egypt, resulted from an investigation into the nature
of certain phenomena presented by the Ifatron Lakes in the
neighbourhood of Cairo, situated on the border^ of the Desart.
ana giving name to the Valley of the Six Lakes. Th^ beds of
tib^e bodies of water appear to be generally composed of catea-
reout rock, and the water itself is more or less brackish, in con«
sequence of the presence of a saline matter almost entirely
cens^in^ of common salt. These lakes, although extensivCj^
are generally shallow; and although annuaJly filled to overflow-
ing, they are rapidly dried upagam to a large extent, in conse-i
Sienco of the high temperature and remarkable drynea^s of the
imate. As the water retires, it deposits over the whole surftce^
of the country an inexhaustible supply of a hard, compact, saline
concretion, consisting of a mixture of carbonate and muriate of
soda. This substanqe contains so much of the former of thes^
salts, that it is extremely valuable for every purpose to whiclii
Aat alkali can be separately applied. Accordingly, inunense
Stantfties of it are annually ooUected under the superintendence
government, and it is not only distributed over me country in
eAtavans, but was at one time exported in great (Quantities tg^
France, England, Italy, and other parts of Europe. The origin
of tfeis carbonate of soda was a question of much interest. But
oaete the resolution of which was s^ttepded with no small di^-«
Txie water in its original state contains little else than n^utiate
oT^oda: during evaporation, a quantity of this salt disappea^rs^
^4 IS replaced by carbonate of soda., What is the pause of this
chati£e? It shouM seen\ that it. mu$t be the result q(^ d^om^
positjott ofpftrt ofthe dissolved muriate of sofda; yet what is t^e
fluaBmer in x^ich this decomposition is effected "f
• It was to attempt the solution of this interesting problem that
BiertJioHet accompanied Andr6ossy, in the survey which that
oflfeer was taking of the Natron L^kes and of the adjacent
edc(ptry. Upon examining carefully the bed of the Lakes', ijatile
liooe that some light might thereby' be thrown on the o|i[ject of
triSar res^ttrpfai M. Berthollet madef the important observatioa tfiit
164 Mr. Cqlquhoun on ihe Life and Writit^s [Marcit,
It consisted chiefly of the carbonate of lime, and this/led him at
Ottceto the true source of the carbonate of soda.. He immediately
conjectured, and was soon after enabled; most luminously to
demonstrate, that this salt originates in a double decomposition^
which takes place to a. partial , extent between the carbonate of
lime and the muriate of soda : it does not occur when at the
ordinary temperatures water impregnated with common salt
filters tnrough the pores of carbonate of lime ; but Berthpllet
showed in.the most convincing manner that in this instance it is
the effect of the peculiar situations to which these two bodies are
exposed at the Natron Lakes. s
/The^data on which he founded his opinion were extremely
simple.. He asserted first that there must exist a mixture of the
substances carbonate of lime and muriate of soda; and this
mixture cannot but be formed to a certain extent so soon as the
water of.the Lakes has evaporated, so as to leave a part of its
original bed dry. ,.He asserted second, that there must exist a
pret^y^ constant though irregular moistening of this mixture with
Vate^fr . Experience proves . this also to be the case. Under
tijese circumstances he showed that a portion of the muriate of
sodaVmust invariably be converted into carbonate, in conse^
quenpe^of a decomposition taking place between it and the car-.
Ijpqijiate .of lime, the want of energy of the latter being com*
j^ensated by its proportionally greater mass. ,
, On this occasion . our. chemist was again greatly instru-
mental in teaching his country how to avail herself of one o^
her most valuable resources, which had nevertheless remained
till ;jiow, nearly .unknown, and of very partial use. All the car-
]^pp9.te, of soda consumed in her bleacnfields, her ^lass, soap,
indtOther nianufactories in such quantities, had hitherto been,
coi^tantLy^imported from abroad, or had been extracted from,
barilla, at a comparatively greater expence. Whilst, therefore,,
it is. t^ueV that Le Blanc had the merit of first attempting in
France the manafacture of this subgtance out of the muriate of
soda or sea salt, yet it was only after the views furnished. by
Berthollet, after the practical application which he made of the^
l^owledge he had acquired, that the formation of the carbonate
ojt, soda From sea-salt, by processes analogous to those whidi
nature emj^oys in E^pt, became universally practised in t^at
country. , From that time, however, she has constEintly supplied,
]^'erself from a mine wholly inexhaustible, but which she knew
not previously how to work, with all the immense quantity of
tliat useful alkali which she daily consumes. To call this revenue
out of what had previously yielded absolutely nothing, and (t^m.
aquarter which remains for ever ready to nirnish an abundai^t^
supply^ is not to give a beneficial direction to commerce, but
absolutely to create a national wealth. The sum of i^oifj^v ^us
annually saved to France has been computed at .more t^b^^
40,000,000 of livres. Here agaip the prosperity an4 Uie arti 0IC.
4826.] . : >L ?f Claude-Lauii BertholkU ^ \ 166
lus codntry seem to follow in the train of BerihoUet's scieiitific
xea^arch, and to spring up and flourish at his command, • v : v .
.. The visit 'to' the Natron Lakes was thus productive of two
great advantages; . It benefitted science by furnishing the solu-
tion of what had long been a very interesting but a very puzzling
problem, and it furnished a new and useful process to the arts of
every commercial country having immediate access to* the sea.
But besides these, it was attended by a third result, contrasted
with whick the /Other two may be almost said to Ipse their com*
paiative importance. This is a strong expression, but f^sw* philo-
sophers j?ill not. account it a just one wnen they are informed
that the new views which forced themselves on the rich and
original' mind of BerthoUet; as he studied the progress of the
phenomena of the Natron Lakes, in order to explain the manner
m which the two salts act upon and decompose each otbier,
opened up to him a train of ideas, which after being matured and
digested, formed the subject of the profoundest work that has
hitherto appeared on the nature of chemical affinity. The out-
lines of this work were already sketched, and indeed its leading
doetrines. were nearly developed ere BerthoUet left Egypt. -He
read a memoir on the subject to the Institute of Egypt^ which he
published immediately on his return to France ; ana after many
mteresting experiments, and much additional illustration and
development, of, his principles, the work itself appeared a few
years after under the title of Statique Chimique /
, .During the whole of this expedition, BerthoUet and. Monge
again distinguished themselves oy their firm friendship for each
other, and by their mutually bravmg every danger to which any
of the common soldiers could be exposed. Indeed, so intiioate
ivaft their association, that many of tne army conceived BerthoUet
aod Mongeeto be one individual, and it is no sm^l proof of the
intimacy of these two savans with Napoleon, when it is learned
that^the soldiers had a dislike at this corporate personage, from
a persuasion ..that it was at his suggestion they had been led into
a country which they detested. *
, It more than once occurred in the course of the campaign,
that BerthoUet's courage and. integrity were put to a severe
test ; and it is gratifying to reflect upon the manner in which he
acquitted himself. It happened on one occasion that a boat in
which he and several others were conveyed up the Nile, was
assailed by. a troop j of Mamelukes, who poured their smaU shot
into it from the banks.. In the midst of this perilous voyage,
M. BerthoUet began very coolly to pick up stones and sttm his
pockets with them.- When his motive for thiis conduct was
asked, '^ I am desifous,'^ said he, '^that in the case of my
being shot, my body/ may sink at once to the bottom of this
river, and may so escape the. insults, of these barbarians/^;. v . j
^«0n aiconj^octurewaen courage of a i^arer kind wiEMsLifequiredj
_•
ie§ Mr. Co/^fiiietei M (hi lifk mid WriHngi [MkMtt»
P^rUi^Uet \nul act fotHtd 'wanting. The ]plilgile broke out an tbt
French lUrmyi aod this/ added t6 the many fatigues thev had
arevlously ^idured, tht diseases tender which they were already
laboorilig <musing the loss of the eyes and of other membetS) it
wai feared might either lead to insurreotioa on the one band) ot
totally sitik the spirits of the aacn into despair on the othen But
Acre was not yet taken^ the expedition had accomplished nothing
<}f permanent advantage^ and the general was anxidus to dissead*-
Ue to hittiself, and to conceal from his troops^ the fatal intelli*
gence. When the opinion of M* BerthoUet was however asked
m couQcili he epoke at once ihe plain and simple, though
tmweleome truth* He was assailed immediately by th^
BiosI Tiolent reproaches. *^ la a Week/' said he, '' my
opinion will be unfortunately but too well vindicated/' It was
lis he foi^etold ; and when nothing but a hasty retreat could save
the t^rKched remains of the army of Egypt^ the carriage of Ber«
thollet wsas seized Ibr theoonvenieace of some wounded officers ^
isweaediktely upon which, and widiout the smallest discomposnrt,
he traveUed on foot across twenty leagues of the desart.
Napoleon knew to appreciate character ; and the conduct of
Bertli^ety even whea most contrary to bis wishes, had ever
coBsmanded his esteem. Onoe more, therefore, they were com-
jlpaaions in that most hatardous voyage in which Napoleon tra<-
Yeiaed hdif ikt Mediterranean in a single vessd, at a time when
it was scoured t^ our fleet, and arrived in France to effect aa
iastatttaUeous revolution in d»e government. Long afterwards,
when he had attained to the bi^hest pitsh of power, however
immersed he might be in state anairs, he never forgot his asso-^
ciate BerthoUet. He wias in the habit of placing all ohemical
discoveries to bis account, to the fraquent annoyance of oitr ehe*^
s^st, and when an unsatis&ctory answer was given to him on
hny seleatiiic subject, be was in the habit ef saying, ** Well, I
iriiall ask this of 6erthottet." Napc4eon did not, however, limit
bis affection to these, however striking proofs of his regard ; but
having been informed that BerthoUet's earnest pursuit of seieoce
Itad led him to so much expenditure as considerably to embarmss
kis eircumstaaees, he sent for him, and eaid in a tone of afie4>^
tionate reproach, ^M. Bertfacdlet, I hvve always 100,000 crowns
at the service oi my fraends,'' and in fact this sam was immsM-
diatelv presented to him« Besides this, he was, upon bis retnra
from Egypt, nomiaated a senaior by the First Consul, and aftev^
;wards received the distinction of Grand Oficer of the Legiottof
Honour, Qrand CrosS of the Order of Reunion, Titulary et the
Senatoverie of Montpellier; and under the empke, be wai
created a Peer of France, reoeiving the digni^ of Count « fhe
advaaeenent to these offices produoed no diange in the maabtiefa
of Berthcdbt $ ^f which he gave m striking proof by adoptiiKg as
anaofrial dislonction, at the time wbea othem^agejrfybfcuBoAed
J
mtM^fhii, ihe pbdn unadorned &gaH of his fiuthful^ftBd i^M*
tienato dog< He was no courtier before he received thes^
hdaourSi and he remained equally simple and unass^ming^ and
not less devoted to science, after they were conferred*
. It was in 1803 tiiat BerthoUel published his work on Ohemieal
Statics* Lavoisier had established almost nothing positifis oi^
precipe With regard to chemical affinity^ and it remained a topie
which few cared to assays on account of its difficulty, until the.
researches of Berthollet, at the Natron Lakes of £gypt, sug**
gested to him a train of new ideas on the subiect which welne
BOW published under the appropriate title of the Statique Ghi-r
auque*
Chemists had no sooner made themselves familiar with the
distinctive characters by which individual substances may be
leeogniaed, than the unequal energy with which two bodies aet
upon a third became a matter of notoriety. Geoffroyi one of th^
eadiest of those who took a philosophical view of the nature of
combination, advanced a general theory on the subject, which
was eagerly embraced by the chemical world, and which his
laeetesors^ particularly Bergmann, contributed materially tQ
extend and to complet€i& According to this theory, chemical
affinity, or the reciprocal tendency of substances to combinationi
is an invariable force : its intensity also is different in eaph indi-
vidual substance, and is expressible in numbers. This second-
property was described in other words by saying that affinitv is
dtetive: that is, a substance already eombmed with another,
ii#hen ptesented to a thitd^ for which it possesses a still more
energetic affinity, se{>arates from the former, and, by preference^
altacnes itself exclusively to the latter.
This hypothesis of the existence of an infinite omniber of
foreea^ all varying in their intensity, appeared to Berthollet
inooiisistent with the ordinary simplicity of nature ; and the
Statique Chimique was an attempt to demonsti^ate tbat, just as
under the same law of matter wfe see a stone fall to the earthi
aiid smoke rise from its surface^ so the most opposite chemiccU
phenomena are deducible from the existence of a single active
principle, variously modified in its effects by a very few othdr
causes, which, like it> are equally distinct and unalterable.
Chemical affinity he regarded as a force, analogous in all its
htkcUt^ and probably indeed identical with the attraction of
eravitationk Like the latter, its invariable tendency is to pro^
dttce combination, and its intensity is proportional to the quaUr
tity of Uie bodv in which it acts. But although it is probable
that these two forces are ultimately of the same nature, there is
to important difference in the manner in which they are exerted^
Qravimion consists in the mutual attraction between twe
masses of matter, situated at sensible distances from t>tie
Moth^n Its effects are^ therfefote^ dependent exclusively on
188 ' Mr. Colqihiimom'tke^I^tmdWntin^ [Misca;
tile quimHtg of mMBT existihg'm each masa ; and as' the law* by
which the attractiye' force dimiiushes with the distance is* accu-
rately'. Imown, they niay, in erery instance, be subjected to the
most rigorous calculation,
- .Chemical affinity^ on the contrary, consists in the reciprocal
atti'aotion between- the ultimate particles of substances, between
wiuch there intervenes only an insensible distance. In these
circumstiEiHces;' the inere attractive force, instead of actine undis*
tiirbed,' is modified by the peculiar > affections of the moleeoles,
as by 'their- figure, their distance,' See;; and as these' affectiGna
undoubtedly vary in the ultimate particlesof every different sub-
stance, it is obvious that the modifications which may thus be
pidduced' upon the attractive force are infinite. And this is the
reason why it is impossible to estimate beforehand the amount
of attraction which will take place between the molecules of any
two substances : it must be investigated experimentally. » -
^ If this doctrine be correct, the assumption made by Beigmann
and his predecessors, of an infinite humoer of distinct forces, all
varying in their intensity, was gratuitous, and altogether unne-
A ctesary: they are all thC' results of one great power, modified
. more or less by the peculiar qualities of the substances iniwhich
•^ it acts.- • • •...-•• I ^ •. i .
; ' An' example may serve to contrast in: a still more striking
maiKner die opposite views respecting chemical combination to
Which these two theories conduct. Suppose that to a' mixture*
of two acids we add a quantity of an alkali insufficient to neutral-
ize any one' of them sepsi^ately ; what will be the result ? Accord-
ing to the theory of elective attraction, the .alkali will attach
itself exclusively to the acid for which it possesses the most
p5WerM affinity ; while the whole of the otiier acid,' and that
portion of the stronger acid in excess over what is necess^ary to
prod^ce'exact netitralization of the alkali, will remain in a <fisen-'
gti^ed. state in the liquid. BerthoUet, on the contrary; main-
tained, that- as the coni^ant effect of attraction is combihation;
and as thedegree of attraction is proportional to the mass of the
attriaicting body,; the two acids will share the alkali between
them,, and the aisiquDt of alkali with which each will be com-
bined^ will be in the compound proportion of its quantity and
the intensity of its attractive force. '.':',.■
At first view, this theory may appear to leave, unaccpunted
for the decompositions which are such frequent consequences of
chemidail action, and which are so admirably explained by Berg-
mannas pr&ii^ple of election. > If, for example, to a solution of
acetate of fine we add oxalic acid, the whaleof^eHme-wiUbe
precipitated in the state of oxalate, and the supernatant liquid-
vi^ contain imcombinead acetic acid. * If tkie ccmc^iaKit lefieet of
uAaity he oombination, it may bea^d, what is the reason th«t
mstance the whole of the lime dpeanot remainUn s^dutioa.
19a&}' . :i^ CloMdeiX'XfiM BirlkiUit. 16b
and combine with both acids, in the oidinaiy compoimd ratio of
their affinity and qaantity?
' :BerthoUet'ft ezplatiation of this seeming anomaly was exceed*
ingly luminous, and indeed constitutes the leading characterilitic
of Dis theory. The force, said he, which poduces combination
among substances whose constitution is di£Perent, and which it
Qftoatty styled Chemical Affinity^ is merely one of the effects or
modes of action of the general principle of molecular attraction:
another, no less extensive and powerful, is the influence of this
principle in producing combination between particles of a similar
constitution. This latter force, we have been accustomed to
call Cohesion: and it has been too fi'equently regarded as a
power sui generis, as a physical in contradistinction to a chemical
power of matter, and one which is annihilated the instant it is
overcome. • On the contraiy, as is the case with evety other
compressed^natural force, it continues to act even after, by the
intervention of some more powerful principte, the particles of
the homogeneous solid have been completely disunited. - '
Hence m every case of chemical combination and decomposi*
tionr, the affinity of cohesion and the affinity of combination
must constitute direct antagonists to one anotiier's action ; and
when two substances af'e placed in a situation favourable to
chemical action, they will either remiiin unaltered or a combina-
tipii will take place, according as either of these two forces pre*
doBoinates in intensity .over the. other. According to this theory
^t should be observed, de(M)mposition must be proscribed from
l^e list of the realises which tend to produce chemical changes :
^ey-afeiinratiablythe consequences of combination. Thus, in
one of the illustrations already adduced, the cohesive affinity of
the constituents of the. oxalate of lime, is more than sufficient to
counterbalance both its tendency to combine with water, and
the affinity of the acetic acid for the lime : it consequenUy pre-
cipiCates,' and leaves the acetic acid in a disengaged state in the
liquid. 'i-'< \
• Another important circumstance which modifies .the affinity of
combination is: elasticity. Many substances acquire' such a
tendency to expansion by combining with caloric (which is the
cause. oi* expansibility), that they beccmie no longer obedient
either to the affinity of combination or of cohesion : whenever,
therefore, their expansibility is sufficiently augmented by the
accumulation of heat, or wlien the affinity by which they were
held in combination is weakened by the' intervention of a third
Body, they quit the solidor liquid in which they had previously
existed condensed, and assume the form 'Of an eltet^c gas or
Tspour. •
^ Such is a very' general outline "^ of BerthoUet's tiieorv of
affinity:;' butil would he impOscdble within the lio^ts td Wbioh
we amneceiisariiy.restrieteid, 40 co^c^edt lidequate oo&ceptiea
VfO Mr. Co^iF^oim oft the Lifk awl Wrkings [MAtVMi
f C A® pfalbuad reasoning and ingenious fexperisiento hf whidfe
he endeavoured to estimate the exact amount of affinity Exerted
ill chemical ootabination^ and the extent to which it is modified
ftf ^Mupteracted by it» Several rival forces, as by cohesion^ hy
fNKTOnaio&ji by. heat^ sometimes favouring combination by dimi**
i^siiing cohepion^ sometimes opposing it by rendering one of the.
aiibstances dla9^ic| by light> by atmospheric pressure^ and by the
slow ia opposition to the rapid propagation of chemical action^
. The recentlY eslabUshed principle of the equimultiple propor^
tims in whion substances combine, has contributed matenally
to wesJfcen the confidence with which chemists were disposed to
If ceive the conclusions of Berthollet ; and indeed it is undeni-
able that many of his assumptions were too vague^ and too little
supported by experimental evidence^ to be admitted uncondt*
t^onally ^ that the principles by which he attempted to estimate
Uie exact amount of affinity exerted in chemical combination
yiewt inconclusive ; that he placed by far too high an estimate
on the efficatiy of mass in chemical action ; and that he made k
Bftost unwarrantable generalisation when he transferred to the
eoi^stitution of solid bodies those laws of affinity to which he
haii. rendered it probable they are subject while in a state of
•9lution. It is not too much to expect that the final establisb-*
ment of c^n atomic theory^ unembarrassed by arbitrary assump«*
tionsj taken in conjunction with the electro-chemical theory^
wiU conduct to a still more perspicuous conception of the lawli
which regulate chemical combination ; and it is probable too^
that these vidws will be found to coincide with the opiaionB
eetertained by Berthollet to a much greater extent, than man^
demists pf the present d^ appear disposed to admits
Th^ publication pf the Statique Chimique involved Berthollet
^oon auerwards in his celebrated discussion with Proust respects
ing the proportions in which substances enter into combittatiodi
7his contest:, in which the two most distinguished chemists in
Europe took diametrically opposite views of what may be said to
form the very basis of their favourite science> could not fail to
fxcite a deep sensation from its commencement ; and the extent
ef information possessed by each, and the admirable ingenuity
with which each availed himself of his resources, all contributed
to render the controversy more and more interesting as it pro«
needed. Perhaps it is not going too far to assert, that since
Bergmaaa's enforcing the use of the balance in chemical inves-
tiflfa^ions, nothing has contributed so much to the establishment
el the doctrine of chemical equivalents as the views respecting
^mbination whiph Prou$t on this occasion promulgated and
supported. As this great doctrine has rescued chemistry front
^ domain of empyridism and uncertainty, and has elevated.it
iQ^.t^e r^k of a niathematical science, and as its ultims^te este^
Wjiftofcfff^ is pwi^ Bigre tkm is generalljr acknewledged ie
Ttont^n i^ftsonings in thisferyeoatifoT^jr/Whidb isontaiaftii^
oihertooounts interesting, I shall m^e no apology fov.ftbBe»tf
ing an onliline of it to the reader^ ' < ^
It ib a matter extremely obyioQs to observation) th^ titer* «?#
ctrtein ^oportions in which ehemioal sabitahcei oetnbine kf
breference with each others Thus fh)m all th6 variouii nroeesNi
D]r which it is possible to unite oxygen with inm, the redtill:
(with the exception of a single more recently discoTamd 9»di^)
ix eonstantlj' one of tw0 combinations, the proportionB df w^itA
9ae unalterable^ These are familiar in chemistry ai tbe bhek
tnd the red oxides of iron ; each of thefn eharaotertses and foruls
the basis of a peculiar class of salts ; and no other oxid« ot ifoA
has a name^ or is known. The general truth of a cembidatiM
try prefereuee, it was impossible for BdrthoUet to deny^ bu|) hf
dfirmed that wherever two bodies possess a reciprocal 9&m$if
for each other, they may combine in to infinite yariety of pp^
portions^ Hd accounted for the appaTeht preference bjfiu{lpt»>
mg that wherever it exists, itisa cbnsequence of the iiite#£ireime
of some foreign principle, such as cohesion^ elasticity, SiOi witk
die simple operation of affinity^ Thus, he alleged, whfen tny
0]fdinary combustible, as hydrogen or sulphur, or a&y vehmt
metal, as zinc or arsenic^ is ignited, it is cohverted into vapoilr
by tfac elevated teiUpernture, its cohesive attraclidh is of^
Mwered> it is ^t once placed in the situation the most favonfabk
for combining to sslturation With oxygeu^ and the result ier 4C
eeursd an instantaneous absorption on their part; of the greaile«t
E>rtioti of that air with which this proceto can ever unite Iheisi
ut, on the other band, said he> when any of ^e more fiaei
lae^ds is ignited, as tin or lead, it undergoes aprocesx ef peoik
gressive combination by imperceptible degrees of increase. witil
dxygdU/ forming compounds of every variety betwettt xere and
that dose which cofistitutes the saturated oxide. • )
The ai^uifients of Berthollet were affirmed by his aete^^t»xt
to be wholly without foundation, and his experiments were pfK^-
Bomiced to be either inaccurate ot inconclusive. With fexp«el
to the native oxides of iron, the insttobe quoted by B^rllieHet
wkieh seemed the most forcibly to* illustrate and stip|iort tte
view of combinatiofi in infinite vei^ety of preportiony Proxet
took a true, and, at the same tiifrey a most ingeniitus vie^^ He
eteceived tibat although a given mass of oxmized iron may be
Serindi the constituents of which are resolvaMe into oxygex and
th« metal in any proportions between the maxima and aGtinnfea
in which these substances are ever found united^ yet in trer^
stioh ease the mass is composed tff the blaek tad im ted oxidsi,
mixed through each other in every various proportien, ani stitt
HO i^om of oxygen is eombhied with any one atom of iroti xi^iit
itk ted of other of the proportions which ixake Ibeblteli dr te
i«A(ndd^. 'Aiidthtf Biodeiti wln<diheptorediiAto»dizeikttl
173 Mr. Colquki^un^n the lAft md WriHng$ [Makch,
to b6^ composed of d^e black and red oxides only was siioAle and
deoMdve. Tbf red oxide of iron has a less affinity.for acnbrthan
the black. Take any oxide of iron supposed to be intermediate
between these two, take any pretended third oxidey and' to a
wann solution of it in muriatic acid add potash in small quanti-
ties at a time. At first, the precipitate obtained is of a red
colour; and consists of the pure red oxide : by and bye a change
ahnost instantaneous takes place in the colour of the pirecipi-
tate, which now becomes green^ and is neither more nor less
than a hydrated black oxide. This latter oxide continues to 'be
the precipitate obtained by this process, so long as an atom of
ixoa remains in solution. Every pretended new oxide> subjected
to this treatment is thus resolved into two, the bl^ck and the
Ted, nor is it possible to detect during the. slowest process of
pi^cipitation a single vestige of any intermediate ' separated
-oxide. Of course the fair conclusion is, that.no such third
oxide existed in the solution, and thus the proof that there is
no such third oxide is nearly as conclusive as any proof of a
me^tive position ever can be. .
* Ferhaps the true secret of the question being bung up in sus-
Kase so long as BerthoUet argued on the other side, is to be
md in the fact that Proust had to establish a negative position.
*i£ BerthoUet could discover any one substance supporting his
doctrines, his case was made out; while Proust, to give even
'feasibility to the views he adopted, was obliged to solve every
apjpearance quoted by his antagonist. Under such circumstances
it IS plain that a man of the extensive knowledge and penetrating
ingenuity of Berthollet could not fail to force an opponent to a
very wide range of in vestigation ere he ; could hope to establish
kis theory. Accordingly, besides the oxidized masses of irbn^ it
was necessary for Proust to examine the imperfect oxides^ of lead^
copper, arsenic, tin, 8ic. and to resolve a// of them into: those
•weU»known perfect oxides which he alleged to be their invaria-
ble state of combination. In this difficult task he was eminently
successful, and as an interesting example of his mode of pro*
ceedihg, we shall quote his experiments on the calcination of
tin, and the results which so fairly flowed from them. . Take a
mass .of tin. oxidized by calcination, and wash it in.virater: it
immediately discovers itself to be a mixture of unchanged: metal
and o^dized tin; for the former, being; much heavier .than the
latter, is disengaged from it in minute particles during this
operation, and m fact/ in the original mass, this pure metal was
merely enveloped in an external- coating of the oxide of tin.
Take. the oxide of tin thus obtained in a. state comparatively
g^enuine, ,and introduce it into cold muriatic acid : a lar^e por-
tion of it 'passes; into, solution, and an additional residue of
1^etdl|icpa£liclesis^ still obtained, .which, on account of. their
trainl^) &a«tbeeu£airiedialoDg.with:theWde during the wa^h-*^
1826.] T] t \.. of daude-Louis SeHh&Hei. . * *l 17$
ing* 1 Siqce, therefore^ in this mass of oaddized'tiny mubh of tlie
metal, had remained uncalcined^ the solution, confornaafaly to
Serthollet's theory, ought to contain an oxide of tin at a mim*
mum, or at. least at one of the infinitely numerous inferior degrees
of oxidation. But so far is this from being the case, that the
solution when examined with reagents is found to hold a muriate
of tin at .exactly a maximum of oxidation. The slow calcination
of tin, therefore, does not afford the slightest evidence of an
ascending oxidation. .
From the results of this experiment, and from the investiga^
lion of other imperfect calcinations, Proust'd theory was placed
on a tderahly broad foundation^ and he soon gamed anodier
advantage ,by an experiment of BeithoUet's, which, had it mc^
c'eeded as .the. latter had expected, must have established his
theory, but which proved so untractable as to involve him. in na
small difficulty, and from which it required all his ingenuity to
extripate himself with any eclat. BerthoUet took a solution of
nitrate of mercury, in which he presumed the acid mi^ht be/
obtainiBd' combined with the metal in every stage of its oxidation
between the maxima and minima proportions. He veiy reason-
ably inferred, therefore, that by adding muriate of soda to the
solution, a yariety of analogous compounds might be formed of
muriatic acid with these various oxides of mercury. He made,
the experiment with every caution, but his external or coniingent:
principles constantly interfered with the pure operation of.
affinity, for the results were only two compounds, calomel and
corrosive sublimate. Both of these are well-defined and inya-
riable combinations of oxygen and mercury with muriatic acid,
(to use the chemical language of that period), the first being an^
union of the acid with the metal at a minimum ; the second of^
the aqid with the metal at a maximum of oxidation. Proqst's.
explanation of this apparent anomaly was a plain and obvious
one. All solutions of the nitrate of mercury must consist,
besides the acid, of the metal at a maximum of oxidation, or at,
a minimum of oxidation, or finally of a mixture of these oxides*
In decomposing these solutions with muriate of soda, the product'
of the first will be muriate of oxide of mercury at a maximum of
oxidation, or corrosive sublimate ; of the second, the product
will be muriate of the oxide of mercury at a minimum, of oxkla*
lion, or calomel ; and the products of the third will.be.a mixture.,
of the two substances just mentioned^ or both corrosive subli-
mate and calomel, in every possible proportion.
The only means by which BerthoUet could account for these;
results ws^ to suppose that the mercury assumes these tw:o ooii*
stant states of composition only at the instant when it is on the
point of separating itself into two combinations, and that the^e
two' definite oxides are formed only at. the very point of tijopie.
when the munatip ^cid decides their separation into a ^olubte
VH Mr. Coifukmninih^LtJ^Md Writings [MU«i^
Md tetoiiddd Bftli AUai bow often in theoiy, as' well aa ia
f$0LC(6ee, does the'probtem become stmngely diffioatt of nakiii#
tb* t^o ends meet. How often do we find t\}At on tbe iniE^iS
W9iig of om small nememt ride tbe eternal fates ! MeroiMpy i#
indeed a nimble, eprightly metal, yet one <$annot help assenting
to the observation of Proust, that in this theory there is really^
toft muob stress laid on both its agility and intelijgenee. Here^^
snd he, we find this eountlees host of infinitely various and dis-^
tinct oxides, all constituting sepamting nitrates, in an instant^'
9sApersdltwny as it were, abandon the stations they bad occu-
pied in the saalaef tbeir thousand and one oxidations, la fly to^
tbe«3Ct9emeik of dial scale, which happen also to be the pesfis et
ealoanet and corrosive sublimate, the only points^ at wbieh th#j^
wdl suifer tbe anxtoius inyestigator to come up with and eeodpe^
them! What promptitude) What exactness) Really^ say9
Froust, one must concede at least to M. Bertbe^Ilet> that nelbin^
ean surpass the admirable evolutiops and discipline of h^
osddes !
It was in this mantiev that the controi^rsy was eoneluded ott'
both aides, in the most liberal spirit, and at the same time with-
in mo9t lively argumetit and research* But before we take**
lea^^ ef it, it la no mot« than due to Froust, in otxler to shovr^
htew admirably just and perspicuous was bis exposition ef tb^
^ws which the doetrino of ob^;iical equivalents un{blda> to-
siMite what he himself then wrote on the subject. Take aa
ittfitonce of his reasoning relati^ to tbe oxidation of metajd*
' The existence of an infinite numberof distinct and independent^
c^s^es is inconsistent with the ordinary progress of nature m
^ry thing else. In the oxidation of metals, native fbllows the
siaine course as in combining oxygen with any of the combusti^
UeS^ The latter combine avowedly with definite and invariable
pioperti(mS>'ol oxygen ; and the former, when placed in a situs^
tiOn ftkvourabk to their union with that snbstance, combine,, atr
tb^ instant; of contact, with tbe whole quantity of it required to
pt<oduoe saturation at one or other of the points which in com*
xtKlti terms we style tbe maximum or minimum of oxidation. |n
the^eame manner, when a molecule of any alkali is placed in
oMtactM^b an acid, it does not at first combine mth less vtA
then with rmr^ of tbe quantity neeessaiy for saturation : on tfa^
contraiy, it in$$m$fy attracts tbe wftole proportion of aeid, with
which, in obedience to the invariable laws of its affinities, it at
once forms a complete combination. The proportions in which
substances unite have been fixed by nature from all eternity, and
are as Ittde Mder our eontroul as are these affinities by whick^
4ie eempoaads^ are upheld. Ei^tion and proporHon are two-
jMv areu^dfwkiik thewk&hsystem oftrueeembimLtions, invariadfy
rim4iv99, k^^eiier inexMmal natnrep or in th& invesHgatians eftwe^
(iikmi9$% l^mo^ tbeii' i^gteaey r^^alt ^e^ lavrs exerting' tkaff
dhiaea toe harmony between nU the felatioes aad pf epi^rtite i^
the campounda faWed by nature^ with tbose of the Aame oombi^
nUioos |)roduced in the laboratory. This assigns thoae limits
nf saturation^ which neither nature uof art can foe an instant
wefy. And ihere f>, says Proust, repeating the words of Bep-
tboUet, with whiph the latter had reproached him as imfdyiag an
•ziravagant proposition, ihtrsis indeed an equilibrdum pbedieniH
the decrees of nature, which determine$, even in out l^baratitrii^
ti^ pr(qior4wn9 of every cambiudtion.
Such ia an outline of the profound views on the subject of
ocuaEifaination entertained fay Proust. We have also seen fhoae
•uppocted by BerthoUet, and the manner in which their controf
versy was conducted. Upon viewing the whole, we must ^Ams^
that it is rare in history to meet with philosophers so eminently
eelebtated, maintaining doctrines so opposite^ upQQ< a subject to
important, yet without for a moment stooping to an^ thioji
\mfair, or permitting the smallest rancour to mingle m- their
disQiission, It must indeed be admitted that he who had the
Bioat difficult part to support, does occaaionatly evade aigumeats
which it was impossible tuUy and directly to meet ; and also that
bia awkward mannep of experimenting occasionally put it in bk
adversary's power to correct some of his positions. But we milst
still hold that the experimental and argumentative ingenuity of
either party was well poised against the other, a»d that it would
be difficult to point out such another seientifiii disousaicA is
wluch the^e may be found so much ta interest,, while notidng
occurs that can for a moment offend.
It w-as the furevalent idea previous to this peciod that the
patsefaetiQn which water always undergoes after being long kepi
m wooden casks, and which so greatly iojurea its taste am
well, is the effect of an inh^ont principle which aocompaaief
tiie liquid from the spring, BeEthollet, however, ceAoeired ikm
caosa of this putrefaction to be the sobitimk of n ea^tvuetiw nui^
terfrom the woody and that this might be preveaited by daiarmg
dm inside eif the cask. This process wanki pop»ess the double
advantage of wholly excluding the wataf ftoos the wood as tbp
oae hand, whilst the antiseptic ^ualitiea of the eaibQii nmsi
chcsck any putrefactive tendency iti the watey whatever mgkt
be ita ongin on the other. He acooMbnaly tqeJt two casks- of
the same materials, charred the ipt«rior of oae, and illlad he A
with water* At the end of faur months^ thawatey in the eharpeA
aaaH had contracted no napieasant taato or. smell wtetaeet^
^ile thc^ water in the other was beoam« aa patisd^ 4»t itft/aem
c|peU was intoilarable. ^ :
!8ot iaog afterwards, the celebrated navigatee Krasyiatem^
haviiig seen a statement <^ this made of presewing acalee^xotoi
i» n.peiiadical j^nw^y immeduitely pi4. it ia pea^teea imUmn
176 Mr. Colqufhun on the Life and Writings [A|aech,
portion 'of his water casks, and after a few months' expecieno^
ifie^iif^ct^d tiiemall to this process. The comfort wkli^ke
enjoyed from it he mentions m a letter to a scientific frieni!,
dated Kamschatka, July 8, 1805 :— " Our water/' sayshe, ''has
been constantly as pure and good as that of the best spring;.
We shall thus have had the honour of being the first toj)ut,m
practice a process so simple and so useful, and the Prencn che«
milElt will perhaps receive pleasure from learning the happy issue
of the method he proposed."
It is a little barassmg to be obliged to state now in 1825, that
fieitlier the -siikiplicity, nor the manifest advantage of this system^
bas jet introduced it into general use. But it has- been found
of>as muich benefit tO' char the interior of casks in which wine is
kdpt, 8te of tho^e for containing water. Wine possesses also the
pr^^rty of dissolving an extractive matter from the wood, which
mj^res its fiarour, and peculiarly exposes it to the acetous
£^nitotataon. It is in consequence of this, that well-seasoned
wme casks are much preferable to new; but, for the same reason,
charred casks are much preferable to either. Berthollet himself .
was the fitst to suggest this application of his process, and. at his ..
i^^ttesti^ M. Paris, an intelligent wine merchant, put his proposal
to. the test of experience. In a few years he wrote to inform
Mi Berthollet that the wine preserved in these casks was more
rieh and generous than it could have been under any other
treatment. It is really difficult, to say whether M . Berthollet is .
most io he admired mr the profoundness and originality of his
scientific views,, or for his iact and felicity in applying discoveiy ,
to ^seftil practice. . * ,
• Aswfe advance towardsthe latter periods of the life ofBerthol- .
let^ it is delightful to find, even under his silver hairs, the sao^e; ;
ardktnt and unremitted zeal in the cause of science, which ha4- .
glawed in his earliest youth, accompanied by the same generous: ^ ,
warmth of heart that he had ever possessed, and which displayed
itself in his many intimate friendships still subsisting, though ^
no^ jneiiowed by the hand of time.
5 At this peripd, Xa Place, beyond comparison the profoundest' ^
astronomeF-' and mathematician of his day, lived in or neafi
Aronei, a small village situated three or four miles frpm Paris.; ,.^
Between this great man and Berthollet, there had long subsisted. . >
awatm affection, founded on mutual esteem. In order therefore
to be near each pther^ and enjoy the more frequent intercourse, ^^/^
the: chemist purchased a country-seat in the village. Here he \ ;
estaUisbed a very complete laboratory, fit for conducting all j[
ki]|)da.ef .eKperimentS' in every branch or natural philpsophy ;.and^ !
thoreaoon socked around him a number of distioguished young/
iflbilbscqpheni, m<M of whom had been the pupils pf Bei^nollf^,^^^
iiiiil\iPi4kO:^kne^ that id iis house their araour would at Vne^. ^
ieotiMr fireUiib^ and'direbtrdA fir0in;the/ex|^ lii^^ou|^ ^ '
182S.J ofClaude^LoiiisBertkbllet. 177
0eb . of tlieir fonaer instructor ; vliile at the same titte thqr
flhotild be readily supplied with the means of conduetin^ thos«
experiments in which an expensive apparatus was requisite.
Among the most assiduous and successful of thes^ young OMin
was A. S. Berthollet^ the son of the illustrious chemist* H:«
had already rendered no small service to his country men^ by tbo
zeal and assiduity with which ha had co-operated with his father
in preparing and publishing a new and greatly improved edition
of that valuable work, the Eldmens de I'Art de la Teiature. Th#
names of the father and son stand together on the titlet^age as
joint authors, and the natural affection which must ever soatist
oetween two persons connected by so intimate a d^groe of reUu
tioaship was in their case strengthened and exalted by a ooim
manitjr of feeling, and by kindred pursuits. To the^ chemical
world in general the younger Berthollet is well known, by hie
discQSsion with Proust respecting the constitution of hydfratei
and metallic oxides ; by his memoir on ammonia, in which h«
eombated successfully an opinion of Davy's, and established
the general accuracy of his father's previous analysis; by hia
essays on the chloride of sulphur, and Lampadius's alcohol of
snlphar.
Surrounded by a company of youthful philosophers like theses
it occurred to Berthollet that their organisation into a Society
would introduce a method and regularity into their researches^
which, whilst it must be delightful to the individuals themselver,
could not fail to advance materially the cause of science. ThiK
was the origin of the celebrated Soci6t6 d'ArcueiU whioh ui|for*>
taoaiely was as short lived as it was illustrious. M. Berthollet
was himself the President, and the other original members were
La Place, Biot, Gay-Lussae, Thenard, Collet^Deseostils, Decaa-
doOe> Humboldt, and A. B. Berthollet. In this class, we fiiMl
respectively the most distinguished men in astronomy, mecha^
nical philosophy, chemistry, and botany, which Prince or
Europe could boast of, and the tmveller Humboldt, belonging to
no class in particular, but whose profoundness equals theugiver'-
saH^ of his knowledge.
This Society in a few years published so many as three
volumoa of the most interesting memoirs, in which we find th^
President, notwithstanding his advanced age, still one of the
most active and able contributors. It is worth while to make
an extract from the Introduction to the first volume, in order
the piore clearly to show the plan and the design of the Insti-
tation. ** There has been formed an association of a few pereeiU^,
tfaia vetoes of natural philosophy in all its branches, with »
▼lew to the improvement ef the powers ofeaehindividW,bylhe
ead deiTved from an unicm of which the b%^s .is i^utual esleeiti
and ftmiilfurity of tast^* It has beea in^titu^ted mtji.the:ad<tt^
N(BW Series, vot. ix. w
M
- 1;78 Mr. Gql^o^Qut^'^^ [^WIh,
,;jt^^l,ile8igQ of ^i^pjiQ^ the mconyejueQQe& wkic^^.9Jttg9^^
1 nijwej^u^ 9,» lasspoiation, ; Nejtt folio ws aa account ^crfTts^^-
' sfityytion^^it^.m^fings once a fortnight, the perfonmnl; of ijiu^
^ ex{)en)nenjta, the , presentation of memoir&y the discussioiil^bf
(6eir merit^/ the criticising the periodical journals, of sciei^e,
S^c. After this we find a singularly beautiful and delicate,p^*
., sage fronx the baud of BerthoUet, m which he calmly cc^t^^-
\ /plates at once his own approaching dissolution, and tbeVeqn-
' trasted view of the eternal duration and progress of knawled^e.
..,To,rea/l it does -honour to .BerthoUet ; its sentiment reflects
]; dign^t]^ on human nature. *' He with whom originated the fjm
j^qftbis Society,'/ says he, ''now feels as he beholds the eqd^of
.^iiis careei; draw nigh, the sweet satisfaction of having thejreby
^.cpritributed. far more effectually to the adva^ceipeot.pf ,t(|Qse
^,'spieacas to which he has long devoted himself, ; than be pc^d
^^Tha^y.e done by those works which he may yet be able .to cs^c^./pn
,'!ejihe;<iie.'V.\ . . '• . ^ . ^ -.^--C
^' P^ calm, a resignation to meet without regret the, dpse ot a
I life which had been so rich in fame to himself, and in. benefit, to
^is^ country, acconapanied by so pure, so enthusiastic wattaqh-
^^,^inent to science, it is highly delightful, and it is eminently, useful
'."^Q CQiitetriplate, After this it is severely painful to learn, ,t^at
the energy of this Society was soon paralyzed by an ^veptwh^h
#. embittered the latter days of the Hfe of BerthoUet, even i then,
jiyf)^^T^ all seemed to promise it a quiet and a tranquil eAcl...'Tbe
^^ promising son of BerthoUet, in whom his bappii[iess.. ^.as
^Yi^apped up, was unljappily subject to . the fearful malady'rof
^^^Idl^spOAdency, which at length grew upon him to such a. degree
"^.that neither the rank and fame of his fatlier, nor the aff^ctipjaj^of
^^feis aged mother, nor the respect of friends, nor. the, hpjnpyire
;^;ivhich science seemed to hold out to his young ^ears,. ^ould
^^^rpv^ent it from gaining a gloomy mastery over hfs jsouj^ '^Jfl®
. grew \teary of hi^ existence, and at length his life bec^ijptte
■:yjrbolly unsupportable. Retiring to a small room, hei lockei^.|he
I'jdiJOjr, closed up every chink and crevice which jnigkt?(d(^.M^
^.^ air, carried writing materials to a table, on which bQ^l^^i^pi a
^Isecond .watch, and then seated hin^self before ft, .wj^^pw
.marked precisely the hour, and lighted a braziejj of, ,c^l*c|^al
beside him. He continued to note down the series ^f^eijide(tioiis
ieJtben experienced in. succession, detailing tl^ ^PPf^^^/ft^
vthe rapid. progress of delirium, untU, as t^m^yv^^t,^nJ^ii;^^
j;tfK5aJue cojnfused and illegible, and the young vie? titf^i^ffiR^d
|LJ%er this even tj^, the spirits of the <^H l^aa ?^^^'ift8fflfsJ!W^
^llW^bbe/RbA(' biitrBtieli'iras the solercbiot^ he chioet iiiterWuttb
'IdiefW; tod it too was rare andshort-lived/ The otily work: which
^'1^ if^0ikii^ tb have undertaken subsequent to this p^Hdd is a
^'yciflioif on the analysis of vegetable and > animal prihciptes, a
''ipi of investigation in which he h^d already distidguished
"'hfinkielf, and in which, once more, with his usual profound peue*
"^tration, he anticipated and led the way to the recent discoVeHes
~1bf Gay-Lussac and Thenard, who reduced these complicated
'Combinations to their elements by means of combustion.
' 'It was in this heart-broken manner that the remaining yedre
''niBerdioHet were spent. ' It is indeed an awful lesson to the
^"fHdfty of human nature to see a hiempiness the purest that m<ui
*'tii|a ever enjoy, cut at once to the heart's core, to witness the
j^lbw' prospect of the tranquil close of so long a life, which in
fk^Aj vicissitude had been adorned by honour and integrity^ and
""^iakny a period gloriously illuminated by fame, in one awful
moment broken up and clouded for ever. * From the day that
^•&i)^ ien died; no smile ever passed over his features; his air, once
^' ISO ^rightly and cheerful, remained sombre and gloomy ; and
[ pmn the unbidden tear forced itself down his aged cheek.
'n^eath seemed no longer an evil, as life seemed to separate him
^/*^m his child. And in a few years, that stern but sure cotnforter
'Teatcbed the melancholy Berthollet.
.r...njjj^ end was worthy of the manner in which he had lived. A
** fever, apparently slight, left behind it a number of boils, which
^'"^ere soon followed by a gangrenous ulcer of uncommon si^e.
'Utafder these he suiFered for several months with the greatest
^^i<^itetluicy and fortitude. His complaint was of that desperate
^^^Mtare which medicine cannot cure. He himself, as a physician,
'''\1iii€wthe extent of his danger, felt the inevitable progress of the
^lilkai^tfy, and steadfastly but calmly regarded the slow advance
^%f death. During all this time, nis mental suffering, and the
^')Uqs)s of his son, engrossed him more than his bodily pain. At
^')|bng€bi after a tedious period of suffering, in which his equani-
'"^iiuty had never once been shaken, Berthollet died on the oth of
^ Jft/v^blBr, 1822, at the advanced age of 74 years. He has left
''iffie ^thful partner of his joys and grieis, to mourn his loss in
^'''d&^kLte, childless widowhood.
p'^^/^jSyi robust constitution of Berthollet had led his friends, at
^^ri iftne! to anticipate for him a much longer life. But the
'^'^'^'''^Irfe-'bf ^rief which latterly oppressed him gave >. feariTul
gtS'^to the disease that invaded bim^ and these together
seemed to cut him off ere his full time had y^t arrived, ^tee
^''tt^f^j^bllfi^ Mend Monge, and the iltasttipiis LaOr&ngd, the
^^feSA^ ii^ance have not sustained so severe a loss, vtie of
mmilimu^aij^r^^ always one of the best supporters and elti<i£^r
iHi dUimnttf; ftave only thci ^ooio 6t his Tatter y «!»•
h2
110 Mr.QttlMf^mi^ [A^kim
f salary .of, *cia9Ct^ .wka Iim dom viora th»& )i^ MU^ iywt
#:cpMn«d >tlM» fiombinaAioa of ^ oils «rMi «lkaii^ upd jiHilBUiil
i)x]4«^$,wb^iU7^Ui2od U»a fixed all^fdi^s, wdg»i^9 ^H^^kpmm
tmf^tJ^tsfir wh$^ dtoQHipased nitria a0id and wmm^t^4 into
vejl^^bi^ and AQuaaL iiiib»tano«Sy det^linc: tti« pvouliaf pliallMh
t0iri«tio§ of eacbi baa upemd up a ntw and iuiei^ea ting bMicktlf
study to. lJb9 chemiat? As a philosopher and tbeotiatiy wl^tji
oiofi^ 4isiiagi|iahsd than the arsi great oheiaist who aoof^ded to
th9,^y^ak of Layokier; wbO} for aiore ttma tw«aty ycw^MW
to th^ s^ieatific world 4ha law on the. important eubje^ afutbi
aiituri^ of qUprii^a^ who was the first toaea aiidHiaiui|ii%ia #|Nita
of pr^jttd^cai that oicyi^n is aot the aala aoidifyipg jptincipJat
wbo, agaia auperior to the errors of his day» daiaoastratfKi fdbii
lo^taljUp, oxides. havQ aa acid nature ia one ooaibiaatiQa ^i^alk
idk^liae in aaotfaar ; apd who^ ia 6nu, is at this aiooaaofe thi
eiit^vof the prafoundest workaa Qbaaiical affinity 'iibiqhJw#
as y^seea the light] If agaia we turn our eyes from tbfi uMlf
rs^ta.of t^9 paat and present to those of the future i if we dli^^
our attention from the existing actiyitv and research of the b9M^
philpsuher, . to look to that careful forethought and waMdMMl-
ne&^ which, already provided for the promotion of SQiaice dwias
tfjie .prpereaa of ajges^ of centuries after bis material parfc ah#ujkl
be jiesonred into its original dust ; if we look tor a many wb0«^
reiaemhai^ag the shortness of life and the frailty of iadivifMll
8xer|tiQa> ii^s aaxious to organize those corporate scinnti^^
bodies/. whose duiation should terminate only withthe.^cofi
the bumcMi. rfbcQ^.md whose methodical advances m tbe-oaiisiiii
of knQ.w}edge fthonid be regular and certain ; who has dgmvifa^
for th^ time unkaowa.to come than the assiduous Aqeideaiif^^
the leading member at the formation of the National fortitiitiH
a£ Frapce, ^he founder of the Institute of Egypt^ the afi^ti^ioyaitM
father of the iilustcious Society of ArcueU? Should, we ^agaiih
regiurd the n>aa of business and philanUuropisty ever studionfintPj
advance the comibrts of huaianitv» what man ia a greater. biiDi^..
faciontoihiaspecijes thtfn.tbe author of the Elements. of tha 4^4^
of Dyeing ; the instructor of the process, of extracting aodarftMti
aeamt; the indicator of the mode of illumination by gas ; the
friend who supplies the unwearied seaman with a wkolcsooia
bclverage ia his lonely voyage ; the man, ia fine, whose oame ia
identified with itn{H'Qvement itself^ and ingrafted into ^amtMre
tx)n^U6f ;r^-an eternal tnemorial of the benefits he coti^rrediOh.Qita^
of the most ootamoa, the most useful, and* the most uaiVera^ W
tne-artB • ..,,.*. .4 • ■ v* *<. »\».-*ii.-r\\\%it'\'
'Wbto, ia »ddttioQ to aD tiaa, we find m^ttMi«|(.j^M|i«
W& 6rHttiiMif%i«ent, aod took he^ ir Aft/ witib file first pYtbordftm
#Mli8d %Mioiuiii jt^ntd iGT Ati afme' ti^ tao«if1fi4g<^-#!lieh
litiird tiite t» give her iii htf deejperkt^ he«fd. thftt ^bfitMbnt
flittdf %r«mtimm(^ With wUeh the rebfeUed^fite^V th^ti^iUudli
Wwce^Bfl^ttled world, weare a^t to ^A, iitikt i^i,iA6Vh$S'6^
MMk# «»«toilr/or hdf the huppmeis of BeHhaHetf' ' He «iAtt> ih
ISli^y^efte of the most open-hearted/6ne df Aeidoets^ere^^litki
Uill^llf httmtak beiogft. How befrutifia a tmit^ Qt timfUkify (y{
eh^iiMter is the fitut step that he inakea into the eitot wbtUl-^
llHi;£rtt A^qlaaintailce tbet he forms in ?aHs^his vHxpt^fi&i
•fl{>itMicftk to Tronchio, whose disinterested tdndnei^^'^s^ildiif M
jMM^IiMi^oflhy of the dtleh confideaoe repoftred itt hifid by^the
p6iil!lpfhf§ntkji, ami who had theteby the hontivr to cotittibub
M^t 'tiiateriaUy to the subsequent ilttcoe^s of his proleg^. ' KV&
ttdNMiyncM possess more ihild and unassuming mtfnnein^4han
BtMh^dtlet, who, on one occasion, aftei^ a preT'iou^' );^en ^tyiApM^
99i^ff hed l^ndbred a ^^rtain philohopbei; almost afraid to liieet
I6mj nevertheless gave that very man so un're^erved'afa^d so
Itodlf ureoeptioa when they next eneountfeM, to to fordeT the
ttoiyii of earprise and gratitude from his eyes. '/ ^ '
'l'4M^ *o matt fever had more friends, or pi^erVerf "thbi-e
tfitio^ and lasting intimacies than BMfthoUet. He Woti toeA By
feji^^Mttaffis endoaQdour, wA he retained theat by his sfietition
gild' kitidness. After all the honours to which he had be€ta
MlNftmsnid, hisf deportment remiuned'is stm(ple and as molaffiftited
siPe^M. He was never a courtier ; and had the slrigttlar ra^t
HfU^fjf Hike^ ^rm ia bis i^egrity under the reign of terror, ind
mnit^^hoth the reproaches arwi the fiivour of Wapoleoii, Alcto?
UHlPpiAxkM to tbmk th^t a man ev^y way fitter to adbrn'^nd
eMM^wmtm nature, after so noble and honourable a cOursb of
M^^^nt amid every danger and vicissitude, should have. his
IMWr^^s clouded by a rate sb severe, yet over which he had
tfl^^l^trdtili But the sun shines, end the rain descenclsy afil^'
a^a^^^^eril and upon the good. The sufferings are now gone,
^^^St^ i^^if0Wi^ Hre ndw passed away,*--«but immortal ahioit^ all
yifhk 4d4re science, country, or etiaokind, will be the hallo^ived
itf^aJb»^<of Claude-Louis BerthoHet ! '
^Ti/tefMo will be found to contain nearly the whole of
^Experiments oft Tartaric Acids Jonmal de Physique, vfi. 130.
ibHtHiiiii^ ofmk m^Jt the JSb/JU; Me Fo/o*
«- «- *r f-.
tHe Aikali; and MetaUic Substances. Tiff fmniii iiiii iliim i iiijlfiiiiftii
RoViile'desScieiicei.w 1T8&. p. !.»-
Ubserwttibns on ihe PhesphortC'Add of Urine-* ibid.^ p&il6i*
Researches on the Nkture of AninuU Substances^ tasd m^ iidr
^MMatims with Vegetable SMstancis. . Ibid* (k.:120; mmi^ 1*288^
p.. 331. ; * *.*
Obsertationsonthe Cowinnati^ of the FLred Alkali wiA the ^
<}f^aeeotts Acid. Ibid. p. 125. ,.'
E^ayon the Causticity of the Metallic SaHs, .Ibui*.p».448v»'^ r
On the Analysis ^ "Nitric Add Ibid. 178L:
' EaDperiments on Sulphurous. Add* Ibkl. 1782, pi 687. .Aniiales .
"de ChimJey ii. 64. .
Researches onthe Augmentation of Wdght acquired bySuipAur, .
Phosphorus y and Arsenic, when' they are converted^ tnta Adds.
Hhn. deTAcad. 1782, p. 602.
Objiervations on the spontaneous Decomposition of cefiamYige'^ .
tiMeAdds. Ibid. p. 608.
Observations on the Caustidty of Alkalies and of lime. > Uiid.
p.616.
Memoir on^the Difference between Radical Vinegar and Amt9f4S -
Add. Ibid. 1783, p. 403.
Memoir on the Preparation of Caustic Alkalij its CrystalAa'
turn, and its Action on Spirit of Wine, Ibid.'p. 408..
Memoir on Dephlogisticated Marine ^ Ada, ibid; 1786,' p. ..
Observations on Aqua Regia, andoncertain Affinities of tie ->
Marine Add, Ibid. p. 296.
Memoir on the Decomposition of Spirit of Wineand of Ether -
by Means of Vital Air, Ibid. p. 308. *i
Analysis of the Volatile Alkali, Ibid. p. 316.
Observations on the Combination of Vital > Air with the Oils:'
Ibid, p. 327.
Researches on the Nature of Animal Substances, and on their
Relation with Vegetable Substances; or. Researches on fke Acid^
of Sugar, Journ. de Phys. xxviii. 88. - ^ '-
Observations onthe Comparative Analysis of Avimdt and Ve^^
getable Substances, Ibid. p. 272.
On the Infiuence of Light, Ibid. xxix. 81 . ^ ^ •
Onthe Decomposition of Water. Ibid. p. 138.
Memoir on Iron, considered in its different Metallic Stat^^rBy
Vandermonde, Berthollet, and Monge. Mfem. deTAcadk 1786,
p, 182. . . -.
Notes on the Analysis of a Green Cnpream Sandfroitin.'Peru^
Ibid. p. 474. >
Mempir on- Prussic Add. Ibid. 1787> p; 141^ ^>^^ '*0
Obsehifltions on the Combination of Me^alUc-OmiisvM^the
Alkaties dhd Lime. -, Ibid. 1788, p. 728.
1826^ of Claudei^LouU BerthoU^. 183
A: Process Jbr rendering the Oxide of Siloer fulminating.
'JpnHMg j& BhyMh. jxm, 474.
Observations on some Combinations of Dq^h^istieatfdjj^ayiite
Add, or tf Oxygenized Muriatic Add. IpicL xi^wiv^L?.
- -'^oles IM JCtruntm's £«9ay oil PA/agM^Qit.
.^'Ouiiines of a Theory of the Nature of Steely and (f its Prejm^
rations.
'*' Description cf the Bleaching of Cloth and of Thread, ky the
Oxygenized Muriatic Acid, and of certain other AppUcations of
that Liquor to the Arts. Annales de Chimie, ii. 15l^ vi. 204,
▼ii. 244, xi. 237.
'i^^Qmsiderations on Priestley^s Exj^riments relative ta the Com--
position of Water, and on an Article in the new Dictionary ^of
GAemistfy of Mr. Kier. Ibid. iii. 63.
■ ■>':■ Collection of Observations on Madder. Ibid. iv. 102.
Memdr on the Action of Oxygenized Muriatic Acid on the
"Colouring Matters of Plants. Ibid. vi. 210.
Elements of the Art of Dyeing. 1 voL Bvo. 1791. A. new
ition^greaUy improved and enlarged, 2 vols. 8vo. 1814.
Observations on the new Dictionary of Chemistry of Mr. Kiipr.
' Ann. de Chim. X. 131.
Observations on tome Facts which have been opposed to ihe
Antiphlogistic Doctrine. Ibid. xi. 3.
On Gallic Add. Ibid. xii. 312.
Observations on the Use of the Alkaline Prtusiates, and of the
Prussiate of Lime in Dyeing. Ibid. xiii. 76.
c--- Description of the Bleaching of Cloth.
Observations on Sulphuretted Hydrogen. Ibid. xxv. 238.
^ V-- Notice on an Acid separatedfrom Animal Substances, or Zoonic
Acid. Ibid. xxvi. 86.
Obsenwfions on Natron. Joum. de Phys. Ii. 5.
.^ . On the Dyeing of Cotton and Linen by Carthamus. M^m. de
rinst. d'Egypte-
.^J" Observations on Natron. Ibid.
fkl. Observations on the Dyeing Properties of Hlienne. By Ber-
thollet and Descostils. Ibid.
-? '' EtuUonutrical Observations. Ibid. And Ann. de. Chim. xxxiv.
73.
Remarks on th$ Memoir in which M. Girtanner examines
whether Azote is a simple or a compound Body. Ann. de. Chim.
k 'Q» the Action of Sulphate of Iron on Nitrous Gas. Ibid,
xxxix. 3.
.On the Composition of Sulphuric Acid. Ibid, xl, 166.
Researches on the Laws of Affinity.
On the HygrometricWat^r of Gases; on the Pxides^qf Carbon^
l*,at«i.ii Ann. de Chiw* xUi. 282*
.r
-".t:
''■f
'> *-
1^. Mr.Coltstim^mtb0X^^ml.Writ^^^^ [MAiM»t
Gases/ Mfem.dennst.Kat. vol. 4, ip9Xi\tf,2Qd^Ql9^Z2i..:'f.
^'i^m,.(^^^Q/iwm^l ^a(ifi4fs 2 vols* 8vo«
^n Cflfi^icul^Jifqmef^oUtm'^^ Aim. de Ch« xU¥« 816.
^n Varnishes. Ibid.j^viii, 84«
.J^q0 {q .$cinflub^rtf» EpcamiMtion of his niiM Theorjf o^ 4l^~
7»^(^. ' JJwI, xlix. 5. ' i
" Meport on Humboldt and Gay^lAmac^s Memoir <m the Prapor-^
iiQm ofihe Cionsiituent Principles of the Almoy^ken. By Coap^
1^ fujd $<^rthoUeL Ibii Uii. 230- ;
jyi^servations relative to different Memoirs oj Prmst, inserted A»
theBQth volume of the Journal de Physique^ Joar. de Physique,
^ 2S4 wad 347.
Third Continuation of Researches on the Iapu^ of Affimty^^
]\^f^., de riqst. Nut, vol. vii. part I, p. 229.
On the Preservation of Water during Ions VgmgKs, andonthe
^rj^servqtion of JVines and other Liquids, by charring the Inte*
ri^r of the Cosks^ Ann* de Ch. lix. 96.
' "Report of a Memoir on the Indigo Vats presented by Mi Gat'*
riga* By MM. Vauquelbi Gay*Lu88ac» and BerlhoUet. M^m.
Pres. a Tlnst. Nat. ii. 634.
On. the Alteration which Air and Water produce upon Utah.
M^m. dela Societe d'Arcueil, i. 333*
Introductory Dissertation to Riff dull' s Translation of the Third
Edition of Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry,
Observations of the late M^ Rose on Carbonate of Soioy and
Notice of the Labours of that Chemist, Ann. de Ch. Ixv. 318.
Report on a Memoir presented by M. Curaudau^ entitled
\* Ptxperiments on Sulphur, and on its Decomposition.*' . By
Vauquelin and Berthollet. Ann. de Ch. Ixvii. 161.
Observations on the Proportions of the Elements of certain
Combinations. M6m. de la Soc. d'Arcueil, ii. 42.
New Observations on the Inflammable Gases, designated by the
Names of Carburetted Hydrogen, and of Oxp-carburetted Hydro^
gen. Ibid. ii. 68^ and iii. 148.
On the Heat produced by Percussion and Compression, Ibid*
ii.«0.
On the Oriental Bezoars. Ibid, ii^ 448.
On the Changes produced on Air by Respiration, Ibid. ii.
On the reciprocal Mixture of Gases. Ibid. ii. 463.
CVi the Relations of QuarUity in the Elements of CombimUiwiai'
Ibid. ii. 470. •• .;• »
\Qn the A%Qte s^arated from Charcoal by Heed. . Ibid.i ii.^
484.- ."..." • i ..'•''
^^otes on *' ^Experiments and Observations relative to the'iuim
ffrm^pleofthe Action of Affinity estaiH%hMd hy M> BenhaUet*^
\m4^^^ ,i^'*(»(md0^tJh«Um^ ' lift
M.aHvWaff. Ano. de Ch. IxxviL 288. J^^
lUp&rt on a Memoir of M« CuraudaUf entitled ^* O^fWrMl Oin^
sideratmis on the Properties of Ox^fgenixed Muriuiic Goi^ }9if
Chaptaly Vauquelin, and BerthoUet* Ibid- Ixxx. 54^ H3; ,/ •
Aport on a Memoir of Mm Cluzelf on tf^ Anaiynis ^ tie
Liquid Sulphur of Lampadius. By Bertholleti Tb^l^ard, itA
VioiqtteliB., Ibid Jxxxiii. 352.
fiijfori on ^ Memoir (f M, Berard, respecting the Physipul aHd
Chemical Properties of the different Rays which compose the Splar^
Lij^. By BerthoUet^ Cbaptal, and Biot. Ibid. hxXv4
Report on a Memoir of M, Dulorig, on a new dietoMtiff^
Sfibstance. By Thenard and BerthoUet* Ibid. Ixxxn, 37/ ' ^
Note on a 1/Cemoir of M. Lowitz, on the Method iff sweetenifi^
P^rid Water by Means of Charcoal. Ibid, xciii. 160v
Jioterespeeiifig a Memoir oj MM. Colin atid Hobiquet, entitha
" Researches on the Nature of the Oily Substance of the Hutdh
Chemists." Ann. de Ch.et de Phys. i. 426.
Considerations on Vegetable and Animal Analysis^ Mdm* dv
la Soc. d'Arcueily iii. 64,
Observations oh certain Mercttrial Precipittttes, and on those i((f
Sulphate of Alumina^ Ibid. iii. 77. ;
Experiments on the Proportions of the Elements of Nitric Acid.
Ibid, iii* 165.
Observations on the Composition of Oxymuriatic Atid, Ibtd*
iii. 17L
Note on the Decomposition of Sulphate of Barytes, and m^-
iSubcarlnmateofLime by Potash^ Ibid. iii. 453.
Note on the Composition of Oxymuriatic Acid. Ibid. iii. 609.
I
'.»•
Article II.
A Summary View of tlte Atomic Theory according to the Sypom
thesis adopted by M. Berzelius. By J. O. Children^ FR»»
Thb general adoption of the peculiar views of M. Berzelido
respecting the atomic constitution of chemical eompomkb^
nattre or artificial^ by the chemists and mineralogists of tlijB
Boropean continent^ especially those of Germany and Swede)i»
renders an aequaintanoe with it almost indispefisabld to this
Soglish reader, since scarcely a single analysis is now publish^
ia the acuentifio journals and treatiaea of those t^ountriaii, tlui
F^Mika of vbltDh ard Biot <»dcdalBd^ according totiiedata^ and
lift:; ^ ■■^ifo.<6atf<ip»'» .SffM^mif^^ievt,^^. I?(a»cj^
4<«iOldl»i»y^4i»iwwMs» of the iUustrions Prpfessor of Stock-
holoBU' • • *•>.- ■, .
'dVmbnrti^iKCOimt of hk doctrine wiU; therefore^ probably' not '
tjttmwnteyealipg to our readers, though^ perhaps^ they may think-
Willi' us, 'tluit tb^ sittpler theory usually adopted in o\it oiitt'
oMnlvy«M>w«rs every parpose equally well, and with greiKter
teilitar, ihfti^tbe more complicated system of our continentai'
BiigimMiKu But our object is to explain, and not to criticise.*
Vf% proeeed, therefore,, to the details ; which are partly "tiXff
fttracted from Berzelius's Essai sur la Theorie des Proportion^
Qtiiniques, and bis Nouveau Systime Je Mineralogie, and partly
fiMma the work lately published by M. Beudant, entitled Traite
Mkmmiaire de Mimraiogie. '
BiGXidiilis has candidly admitted in the introduction to his
J3$mif tittt he has indulged largely in conjecture respecting the
latent causes which regulate a few facts, and the laws that d^tei^-
wiiie tiiena^ and that he attaches no further importance to tho'ge
aoojeetttres than conjectures generally deserve. As to his
theaiy, however, respecting chemical proportions, h^ speaki^
nith more confidence. *^ I here confine^ myself within the circle
€f eOipeiiaient ; and the laws which I have endeavoured to esta-
Mmii are the general^ result of experience derived from that
•cnrce/'
^ From the moment that bodies were considered as fbrnled of
^mmple elements, it seems to have been generally assumed, that
-«imilar external characters and internal properties indicate sriiii-
ktfity of composition both in the nature and proportion of the
4bment8 of woich compound substances are formed. A Germah
^obemist of the name of Wenzel appears to have been the iirst
iriia attempted to establish the truth of this assumption, by an
expeimental investigation of a phenomenon which had already
excited attention, namely, that when two neutral salts mutually
^^toeompofie each other, the resulting compounds are also neutml.
^ He (flawed that the relative proportions of alkalies and earths
%htcliL saturate a given quantity of the same acid, are the same
^r all other acids ; if nitrate of lime, for instance, be decotti-
^ygMed by sulphate of potash, the nitrate of potash and sulphdte
' of Ikyie which result from their mutual action preserve tBeir
A neutmlity ; for the quantity of potash which saturates a giv'en
'^yntity of nitric ucid, is to the quantity of lime which saturaibs
' we «aiae quantity of nitric acid as the quantity of potash is\o
tbut of the lime which saturates a given quantity of sulphtiHc
<^:'a<ndL Bergma^n also bestowed much attention on the'deveMp-
^ WJMit of .'CbetiH^. affinities, but we are principally indebtiedHo
>Bkhtgf %r the first positive indications of chemical prop^rtrckis
derived from numerous experiments. He examined the ph^ho-
iMOpa noticed by Wenzel^ and explained it in the same way ;
9^
'. Berxeliua^sJ^poiheiis of Ike Atomic Theory, IW'
he also showed that when one metal is precipitated fromitsr
Holution by another, the iieutrahty of the liquid in not afi'ected^
The introduction of the antiphlogistic system by Lavoisier in
some measure interrupted the progress of the doctrine of chemi-
cal proportions j and shortly after its establishment, Berthollet,-
in his celebrated Essai de Scalique Chimique, endeavoured to >
prove that the elements of bodies have certain fixed points, a.
muiimuin and a minimum, beyond which they are incapable of
combining, but that between those limits they may unite in any
proportion.
Proust combated this opinion, and demonstrated that the
combinations which metals form with oxygen and with sulphur
are in fixed and invariable proportions, aiid that the supposed:
iatermediate compounds between the hio;hest and lowest <legrees
of oxidation and sulphuration are, in fact, merely miKturea oC
two definite oxides, or sulphurets.
In 1789, Mr. Higgins published his "Comparative View of
the Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic Theories," in which be "con-
ceived that when gases combine in more than one proportioB,-
all the proportions of' the same element are equal; and he
founded this idea on the corpuscular hypothesis, that bodies
combine particle with particle, or one with two, or three, or a
greater number of particles." * He did not, however, follow the
aae he had thus happily hit upon, but left it to the genius of
Dalton, "apparently without the knowledge of what Mr.Uig^iiB
had written "t to resume the subject, and give it a more
extended application. Dr. Thomson in 1807 published a sketch
of Mr. Dalton's hypothesis, in the third edition of his System of
Chemistry (vol. iii. p. 424), by permission of its sagacious
author; and in the following year, Mr. Dalton produced the
firpt volume of his " New Swstem of Chemical Philosophy;"
and two vears after, the second.
Adoptmg views similar to those of Higgins, Dalton supposes
that bodies are composed of atoms, and that to form the simplest
ot binary compounds, an atom of A unites to an atom of £.
A ternary compound results from the union of 2 atoms of A,
4- 1 of B, or 2 B + A, ik.c. and generally the atom of one
element may combine with 1 , 2, 3, or more atoms of another, but
not in any intermediate or fractional degree ; and an atom of a
compound body may in like manner tmite to 1, 2, 3, or more
iutegral atoms of another compound. This hypothesis wns
afterwards confirmed by numerous experiments, amongst the
earliest and most important of which are those detailed by
Dr. Thomson in his paper on oxahc acid, and in Dr. Wollaston's
oii-*uper-acid and aub-acid salts. Both tliese interesting cOm-
_{ Psry'i ElemetiU of Chemical PhUosopby, p. 107. f ItlBk^'
JtP><imiid#r#4 iw^itb^t tJlfigf ec«btioa m ppe of the gMfttet^Alw
|)l9t,^0b9«|i9try bi|«r.«ver vmii^ t^wfttda perfections aodtiKt^tte
flPfliiMc i>f,|i4)«:mM«PtiQQ!Qf t)Mi doctrira of #0i«//^^ jwi|M0tJM8>is
<»y.Ia .l^i.Jt^M* Oity.l4ia94« fudd Humboldt iomA ib$^mm
fl'^Wwlf^iPirQMfgfiik gfu$ Qomhintmrnth two vol w»s x)f bjrd^ofitt
^9#rit^ jroarinwater) and the fifst of these two philosophers nm^
jMPMrdiog to^rtain fixed laws, ^nd that ooe mesam^ Of ona fpw
iHiH^t^ ititaer with half a measure of another^ or ivitii I, Q^ S^Ibo^
fWWPHm^i ; ^% in ptber word4> that gases either combine in 9ifmA
rifilfifim^m tj^e voiu|»e ot.qne gas i$ a multiple by a wb(de>iwdi^
ber of that of the other. M.uay-Lussao publisbed a nilBrtilf
Id^pM.pli^tbia subject, entitled Memaire sur kt QonAinais^^s
^^imi^<^G^%^i''4^f f^ ^9m av€c le$ autres^ in the seeond TOluiie
fi^UN^ Mimoinn de Ua Sociiii d'Arcueil, in the year 180^ .
ji )Ul wa ^ub^titute the woi^ atom for tha^of volume^ and ioMgiM
t]M iftbstenQeito be in the solid instead of the gaseous atato^
Ge||r<liuifiec'e . theory coinQides exactly with Dalton'e, andiftft
dilreeifcwocjf lA coofirmAtion of its truth.
\r Imlmiii ^rflumpbiy Davy published his Elements of QIn^
Hiii^ Philoeophyy*' in the sixth section of the first divisimi of
which work he has given a general view of the theory of definiM
M^fOKtiofis^ and in a variety of other places has shown 4ta
WimtoPC^Mii^ caleuUting the results of chemic^ action ; wA
einoe tiiat period meny of the . first chemists in Europe ^#
altMtivielor iitudied the 9<tomic theory, and have confirmed it^b^
^jmd(titede..of Yftluable eHpei^ments : amongst the most consjii^'
9uou0ii3itbis field of inquiry are Thomson and Berzelius, * t;>
f ,^^hep we reflect on the cause of chemical proportioiie/ the"
IM^tpfobeide iden thut presents itself to oar imaginatioiai ie,*
t)|il eU bodiea are composed of elementary particles or eildnvii^
iowpaUe of met^aoicflii divieiun^t and which imite togetbeeiii'
eiMlh. a tiiiaiiner^ that an atom of one element combines witfii
]b £i ^f &e- aAoma of another element. With this simpleposlo^
lelti^ to which the mind readily accedes, it is easy to evplatift wH
tl^ phenomena of chemical proportions, e^cisAy th^se'Whkdr
I9ftf cftjl multiple proportions. By the union of two oiitondro
elemfmtaiy atome^ compound atoms are l(»rmed which^^flfMft<«^
i|MpiiUe>bf mecbanioflLl division as the former, and 4ibe^ ua^im
wHkm togeliier to form etili m<Mre compounded atoms^v«ind so>iM^
'OW? ':''..'•'., . • . ■ ■ i •:, '■ ■?*» v^.il.t
79{^l^f^I9> be jA aalirce olrWtU tl»t oqlx thf fu#>p4fc«fl|tli»tisirid«»t)lffnmAs
^im oid«i ore compOBad of titDpte ^tomMlMi!^ atcttiM^y %iltt^.M|^
lilpllluBrr^^ammiii^ or orgftnie,. The foftadr ooii^tb^'idttilyil¥^dls-
attMMttl^ardsr ikva pfodiic«d bjrthe «aion of^ootupctimd almi^'^^
4hs first order ; those of the third by the umo* crffttCHsii^^f «hle
iiwnlidi orders 9io^ Thus sulpbnrio acid> po^tash^ tad • wate^; 'are
Mi&poiind attnna of the fiftt eitkvt, si»oe they cdMfst i^nlj^^df ft
tmm miiipxygea* Sulphate of potash and sulphate 'OfklaioAiil
sm alems ef the atoood order, being formed by the' tfMbn^
HQpqioutid atoms of the first order. Anhydrons ahisn, wbkdt^
MVipoitid ofi the two last mentioiied salts, belongs ix^'theF^M
iBie^trr^ 03ad erystalhzad alata, which/ besides tbdse afotMfil#,
4laA«0Dtaiti8 several atoms of water, is an instance-of a^Mte
-itoudef the fourth order. , . i, vx;
>' ja^t takiag it for granted tliat bodies are <^oitt^ed df itidMlil4
ijb ^Imiis, certain laws most regulate their tiombifiatioitei ifn di^Mr
to eatalb4ish them in definite ohi»iical proportions, and ah w4l<fli
Ikr.ceMatanoy of those proportions most depend* ■ The exilM^ilice
ofattfiklawB and the probable manner in which etemeittary MMMt
eomtnne, is inferred from experiment) which teaches* uatbttl^'^
1. An cUom of me ele$MMt wmbines foi^h ^m^ ftiM>y Mn», d^
mi0M iaiom9 iff nMther dementi This is of most ft«quent eoetat^
taaee^^ so that in the greater number of eompound atoms, ooe 0f
tbedeaients enters only as a single atom. • ./^
utSrf- 2Vh> atoms of one ettmemt comUneufithtkrei tflomsefawertei^
4liment^ This mmv happen whenever die qtiatiUty of oxygetufft
%|»i6tMide is to that in the deatoxida as 1 s ^; as istM^cMi^
^in^ iron*' If the first oxide be eomposed of an atom of IMM^^
ahllati to an atom of oxygen, the second mast cevi tain u^^ikoM^
of base united to three atoms of oxygen; for there cair be'SM^
siidi ^ing as half an atom. This apparent aitomaly tiMif^
];ecoiwiled in a different manner, by supposing that there mal^M*
aaafth«r hithaito unknown oxide of iron,"oontaiaing-hm th4|
yasrtity of oxygen that is contained in tbalow^t of dw(ifiWOi
kHOfWa oxides. Aecording to this view, an atom of base in^lhc^
unknown oxide ia united to one atom of oatygen, «iid in'tbe t#6^
kl(tf»wn Wdea to two and three atoms respeetavky. Dn 'nieHi^t
aAHtWith'fitrafdiua adopts the former solution. : '^^^
•>7l«k:tba compound atoms of the second order, the ralio-ofMW'
^UMi of one element to thoee 6f another is fiMUdlee^'eqahro^^
eilfo^ ^k0^ the instances ate nrs. Thus :(ilM hydiaMkiffii'
90Mia<<fiiloik^^ia' eomposed of two atoms of oMbcomUnBCl} wMir^
Area atoms of water; the subsulphate of copper contains tW6
stoMac'afOTiA and three atssns of ba0e« UfflesS'^eooniMir
theae^ as iim inie profiortiMs pf the elemeata of Ihcl 4)K>t^ <^Sii0^
ftiiffl6iAf^<me^ aiast 9ttp|>oie tb^ onide of iron# aa^«vett<aa llie
:i
^'
vJMIjM^flte'aeid; t6 dofftarh six «iiM» d[ tneygikrlm^mmtr
^^yMMM»r oOBMfcWtefhigf the mtio t6 be that of 2 : d. Tbet«% f o
WW^ ^ f3»^ ao^^n^ thdt twd atoms of one eTement cotrilUie
•>^Mth^foUr, fi^eey sfxy or a greater number €»f stams of.sMiffiW
element, but in the varied producticmaof IhenuneralkingdcHb^
4^^fi^d eompouikb somewhat diflerent from those we can pro-
tittcedii odr laboratories. Amongst the silicates, combihatioiis,
'^whicii ^fee compound atoms of the first order are united[ to
''4bll^ of the same order are frequent, as in laumonite, amphigme,
^«t6)(. ; but in our artificial productions, analogous cases are
"' i#i<iteitiely rare.
'•^ *^As ai^gcfneral conclusion, we may assume^ that in inorgai^c
^^tMitpoatids the simple atoms combine in very limited proporr-
' tiotis ;- the-mo^ common is that of one atom of^one element wRb
ik^ or ihore atoms of another element, so that in most coih-
'^fthitiiA'i otie of the elements may be represented by ndity : the
•next most common proportion is that of two atoms of one
^^Aient totbree of another; and in the mineral kingdom, in the
(Sidmpound atoms of the third dnd fourth orders, we sometitnes
iMet with three atoms of one body united to four atoms of
«lH>ther body.
'•^ - There is another law which, according to Berzelius, regulates
tiie •combination of compound atoms of the first order ; namely,
"^fhat oxidated bodies always combine in such proportions that the
number of atoms of oxygen in one of tliem is a multiple by a
'^hole number of the number of atoms of oxygen in tlie othc^;
^ HMd, in like maimer, in the combinations of sulphuretted bodttfs,
tibe^ sulphur in one is a multiple by a whole number of the sulphur
^Q^th^ otlier. Or, to express the law in general terms, t^ompoiic^d
''^$iMihso( the first order, having a common electro-negatiye
^^m&nt, combine in such proportion that the electro* negati^^e
element of one atom is always a multiple by a whole number i>f
^>flkfe electro-negative element of the other.
U^ Yltte only known exceptions to this law are the acids of phoH-
^'iihorus, nitrogen, and arsetiic, which combine with other oiraated
^4>bdies in such proportion that the number of atoms of oxygen
'^>Hi the oxide is one or more JijfUs of the number of atom^ of
^-Wygenito the phosphoric, nitnc, and arsenic acids, and one or
tw^iMrdit of the same number in the phosphorous, nitrous,' and
"«tenimis. ' - - ,
^-Vfhetk two salts, havini^ 4 common acid but ditfert^rii biftfe,
^^tiOkt^, the number of atoms of oxygen in one of theb^iie^^lS'a
^l|ifiiti{ile fay ft v^iible liumber of the number of atoms <tfd^^^
^w ttfe bdi^ ; and consequently the acid in one 6f the'SWts'i
^^il^Mplfrbf awholenni^ acidih the ottier. Iti^lUld^
«m} feldsjp^r^ the i|Qmb.er of atoms of oxygen in 'tb^^^tiik^iina
t|j^I«tti^ni^lidi^c«'al^ms of oxygtto tol£e^tbli ; llildaiilli^^
jfff^TmjI^M ^^^^^ alumina, is triple that comtsiibe^rlH^il^tle
Eif£»^r;;In the double tartrate of potash and soda, the twa«U^
,^,, .^contaii:v,tbei same aumber of atoms of oxyseo, and are conie*
,.^^])entjiy combined with the same. number of atoi9s q£ tartpuii^
-OM^^^^ two salts, having a common base but diffe]:e^{t^ffiGi4s;i
^^inj^iAe, the number of atoms of oxygen, of the portipuof Jiiip^
*^pcMQDJ>iaed with one of the acids is a multiple by a w.ho}e xmmket
fitbe number of atoms of oxygen in the portion of ]ba$ei^iu«
ined with the other acid ; or, the iiumber of atoooi^ of oxygfn
in one of the salts is a multiple by a whole mimber of tb^ a^jQfljia
I^QJiLygen in the other. We haye aa instance of tib^is'specjies of
|Q^i^4?i]^tton in dathplite, a compound of borate and,s)iiG^5>f
(j)l9^^^q which the lime is eqoaDy divided between the two ^ii^iite ;
^^^^^ilst in the blue carbonate of copper, the quantity ^f baf 6
.epmbined with the carbonic acid is twice as great as tb^Arp^*
^jP^ed with the water* ., , . i>-,.
-,{,lf^ organic bodies, the compound atoms. of thie.fir^t 0£#^r
l^^ml^ain at least three e}eipents, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbpn \
i^and-tfairir atoms are capable of combining in all &Qi:ts of, pjropiOf-
lions, so that neither of them can be taken as unity with i^^hp^
,Mce to the rest. But when organic atoms of the fir^t order
/BOfnbine with compound inorganic atoms of the first ordes, )|u»
V^Wlien a vegetable acid combines with an oxide, theyfolIpw> tb^
,.8aine laws that regulate the combinations of the compound inor«
•glifnic atoms, and the oxygen of the organie atom is ^ mMltiplei
'^ sometimes a submultjple, by a whole number of the. 0xjrg#il
\^, tt^e compound inoi^anic atom. Hence thesei combipaU^ii^
l^prjQ^ent the same phenomena of dkfinite proportionaias thqsQh^f
3^9Q^anic.nature, and it is only in the formation, of orga9iciM<P^
^i(^)ine first order that combination is possible in ail sorts, of. piip^
In the earliest experiments with the voltaic pile, it yt^as foij^Kl
.H^f^ tjbiejcommon salt, a solution of which was usually em,plpyed
l^,jp»qj,sten*tbe pasteboard discs interposed between eachpj^,-0f
'jmysjtj^ip discs, became decomposed by. its action.^ s^jd.at^t
l,^K^.j^^ar. 18Q6, MM. Hisinger and Berzelius puWfehed tbw
j^^i^g^riiM^nts on, the. galvanic decomposition of tbie i^uiriat^^^f
f,^a)i;gi^,^nd lime, and several other neutro^saHne sQlutipi\9v ii
The results of those experiments demonstrated thajl; I9^]|f0
,s^tefi^nft*^J^ !l^*^^*'^f ® ^ saline solution, or any other Ji(j^id:jconv
y^Qt^jit^ elements are separated in si^h^^.iaf^sMi^^ >l^ilfM^
ftS^^J^ft^ WP Wfl. J^« P W^*^^^^ a^ others .rOTiyi^ ^^^Kffcf^;
35S4i»»t39B»g6»««.:api<i^ »ad oxidated bo^i^ ^najw^.^tj^ yie
flfenpfift wJ^ilfA^cpf^b^^title bodi^, aJWie^i ^ Ji^#tH|jjWj^
8^8fflWBM^P*^^^i?^^^ latter. - . . . v ^ ^ : l bap.
s^iyPbWP ;?eWa^K:jfto^PRahejr, 1806, Sir,lJpf^ff|ffyaUh»iW#lO
199 mkekMrek'i'SuinmarfViMof^ ^M^ikl^
p9Lfy,'n^ 1\h Blik^rkn Lettatej oh some Cfaemied AgMl^M Qf
Bl^ctricityy before the Royal Society, wfaicfa was aftentardt
poiflisbed in the Philosophical Transactions for the foltovriog
¥e«i^. In this celebrated paper, which obtained the prize offer«S(
W Nipoieon Biionaparte for the best Essay on Voltaic ipectti^^'
city, Sir tinmphry Davy clearly promulgated, for the firi^ timii)
the laws by whicn the chemical agencies of electricity are reeu^
htted/andthe principles on which their powers of susp^ndififf or
desttbyifel^ the usual order of chemical affinities depends, nef
shoif ed iaat different elementary substances have diflferent elec^
triiid^tieri^ies, some being naturally positive, and others nega^
tke^ with respect to each other ; and that when a compotiiidy
forttitd of two such elements, is decomposed by the vdtate
b^Lttery, the body possessing positive energy is repelled by post^'
tftefy eleotrified surfaces, and attracted by negatively electriettf
surfaces} and that the body possessing the negative energy*
foSowi^ the contrary order.
Adopting these views, Berzelius divides all substances into two
gr^t (Masses, the elect to-positive and electro-negative. Simple
Bodies belonging to the former class, as well as their oxides^
fdways assume the positive state when they meet with oilier
simple bodies or their oxides belonging to the latter; and tht
oxides of the first class bear the same relation to those of thifc
second^ that salifiable bases bear to acids. He considers oxygisii
IS the most electro-negative of all bodies, and the only one
whose electrical relations are invariable, it never being positive
,iniAi respect to any other, and he places it accordingly ftt tbe
kead of his table exhibiting the supposed order of efementacrj
«tibstances with respect to their electrical relations. The last
substance in the table, and consequently the most positive, it
potassium, and all the intermediate substances between oxygen •
and that body are considered as negative to all those which
stand below them, and positive to all that stand above them ii^
ttoi table.
- £odg before any idea had been formed of the electrical reliK
Ifoiia of simple combustible bodies, their oxides were dividetl ""
•into aeids and bases, the first forming the electro-negative, 'thia'>
'eeedtid tbe electro-positive class; amongst the bodies of "Ae
(h«t ota»i a weak acid often serves as base to a more pofwcrfid-
acid, amd tn the electro-positive series, a weak base freqmittly
mels a« an aoid with respect to one more strongly ehiclro'-
positive.
• Tke eleotrieal relations of oxides usually depend on those of
4heit basea; thus an oxide is electro-negative to another oxide,
if tbe l>ase of the former be negative with respect to that of the
letAer, and vice ver$&. Snlphuric acid, for instance, is Mectro-
negative with respect to all the metallic oxides, because aulphur
ii negitive with M9peot to all the metals ; the oxides of potas-
«kuA mi zipe« op the contrary , are eleotronpositive im jrf^9|4. If
^ oxidated bodies^ with respect to whose baseft potaaB|i:||d ai^
noe 9x^ positive. Hence acidity, does not d^end^ ^as ;the^tl-
Alogiatic theoiy assumes, on oxygen as the acidifying principle^
but rather ressiaes in the radical of the acid, and the oxyg^
enters indifferently into the most electro-ppsitive and electrp-
negative bodies^ or the strongest bases ana acids.
When the two electricities are separately manifested in any
body, they are concentrated in two or more opposite points p|:
poles, analogous to the. poles of a magnetic needle. This eleo-
tcicsd polarity, of which the tourmsmne furnishes a striking
ipstaooe, must altio belong to the minutest particles of the body^
88 well as to the whole mass, and this affords an easy solu^^ion
for all the phenomena of electro- chemical affinity ; for the di&
ferent forces with which elementary bodies unite may be eoQ*
oeived to depend on the different intensities of the electrical
polarities of their atoms. This hypothesis^ however, j$ m>%
ma&ci&at to explain why some bodies ar^ elecirO'fopitive, and
otii^rs electro-riegative ; but if we imagine the atoms of such,
bodies, to possess unipolarity^ similar to that which EhnnaA
obsierved in various substances, we may conceive . that in tb^
atoms of electro-positive, bodies, the electricity of the positive
pole predominates, and in those of electro-negative bodies, that
of i^ negative pole, and consequently these bodies will always
be in opposite states with respect to each other.
The 4^sree of iiffinity between different bodies cannot faiowever
depend wnoUy on their specific unipolarities, but rather on the
intensity of the polarities generally ; for oxygen and sulirfiurf^'
both olectro-negative substances, combine with much greater
eiier^ than oxygen and copper, although the latter is an electro-
potitive element; and the influence of temperature has appweiful
effect in modifying chemical attractions.
. ^* If these conjectures," says Berzelius, '' present a consist
idea of the relations of bodies to electricity, it follows that what<
we call chemical affinity is nothing else than the effect of. t)ie
elfKstrical polarity o£ their atoms, and that electricity is thejpri^
nwy cause of all chemical action." .
&it it is time to quit this part of the subject, and turn to that
wikicb ia more immediately the object of this abstract ; and ficsit
we ahiftU endeavour to explain the manner in which the ri^ative
w^ghto of the atoms of bodies are determined*
iTohe conHnned*^
Ihw Series, vol. ix.
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\92Sil f^- iSt. Bkcht<Ae» Metemide^ SUjguUrfot 1824. 195
ANNUAL RESULTS.
%
\
\
Barometer.
InchM.
Highest observation, Jan. 16, Wind, NW , 30-780^
Lowest ditto, Nov, 23. Wind, SE 28-210
Range of the mercury • 2*570
Mean annual barometrical pressure • 29*770
Greatest range of the mercury, in January • 2*210
Least ditto in May 0*940
Mean monthly range of ditto 1 *349
Spaces described by its diflS^r^nt oscillations 79*070
Total number of changes in the year • « 162*000
Six's Thermometer.
Greatest observation, July 14. Wind, SE . ........ 86*000
Least ditto. March 3. Wind, N I , . . . 23*000
Range of the mercury in the thermometer 64*000
Mean annual temperature 47*683
Greatest ran^e in September • 54*000
Least ditto irt Februaiy 25*000
Mean monthly ditto . , • • » 34*916
Winds.
Bayi.
North 68
North-east , • . 52
East, ., , 13
South-east « 19
South 38
South-west 70
West , . . , 69
North-west . . « • • 31
Variable 26
Brisk t 42
Boisterous «... 39
Iiicli«* 4c.
Gsvatest quqjitity, in October • » 6*36
Lea»t dit|o^ in January and Jnly. .:. 1*16^
Total amQuiil; &r thayesr ,.......« , • 36*74
Daysafr«iia.. «;..,..... ;.• 117-00
Snow . . • • . .1- ; . -^ . . , . . i .; 16-00
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ISSJ B.lkM»
I fas- -zj^TZim, Jan. 16, "f- "S^
jrax=. 5.r..23. Wind, SI- - •
r!S2» -r-r^ t" tut luercury, in .V -•.-
xBsrrr :L-i.r- • ...--
Igr-T--- ;- • izz;;^ oi ditto. ......
t cnaii^r^* i^ tie yetr ,
:r::-^ V'ujd, Ji. , . ^ ^
• •
Sf-^L-r-^- --s^J^snw- ""•.»,
* V
' • *
*• »
***--.
• %
• •. ,
EtheA
im
••• — .
cd a quantity of
tubeiiito.a)iirge
; gradually raig^di
>^, aaid was iiiuoH
r had arrived at
Susp9ctin^4g[Oine
I a ttiird witb tbi^
)sery6d ^ mi^^%!^
he glasSy and on-
ent of some sub-
le to try the effect
ler, and I accord-
dar pencil, which
ood was instantly
kly brought iptQ |i
ig to arise, at least
jod. Precisely the
dill or filaments of
lued to r dd portions
at what temperature
that the same ether,
150^ by adding the
1 though slight ebulli-
a the wood was first
er part of the fluid,
bubbles ; by degrees,
aked in the fluid, gra-
ion nearly ceased • but
was reproduced,' sittd
ire. -Other substances
r; small fragments of
very considerably, biit
I bit of metallic wire was
ind copious explosion of
bullition afterwards conti-
)ut the effect was so rapid
e exact number of degrees
me effect was produced by
ler, or immersing a theitno-
an tube was plunged into the
or streaked appearance froth
ngup and down it in vatioui
evaporation went on «o rapidlyy
old was experienced by the nnget
lie tube. '^■" '.•':.'•
Lie ethet iti tibfe fclean'tttbe'bi6g^n't6
,0 cafe^ the watet in llife jaif lite Ijeei^
.11
196 ' pt^,^o^;mthiBaiUngT4>iktqfm^
., v:< -.•;•■' ,r ; 'REMARKS*
' 'Hief mean temperature of the year just elapsed very nearly
corresporids with that of 1819, and the amount of rain, which t^
kbout six inches less than in the preceding year, is on a sifnilat
par with that for 1822. Upwards of 20 inches, it will be
observed, hare fallen since the 1st of September, two-thirds of
which feB by night, and frequently attended with most boiste^
roSiH ^les. J. S;
' yiw Malton, Jan, 3, 1825.
Article IV.
-I .
Facts respecting the Boiling Point of Ether. By J, Bostocl^i
MD.FRS. &c. :
(To the Editors of the Annah of Philosophy.)
GENTLEMEN, U^per Bed/or d^lace, Feb. 1 2, 1 826.
TuE following facts which I have observed respecting, tlpy^
boiling of ether, have, I believe, not been before noticed, f/
you think them of sufficient importance, they are much at y^i^jr
service for insertion in the Annals.
During the months of December and January, I was making
some experiments on the action of ether and water upon eacA
other, and particularly with regard to the effect produced upqui
ether by washing it. Among other circumstances I wished if?
ascertain the exact boiling point of ether before and after tbg
operation of washing, and to compare this with the diminution
01 specific gravity which it experiences by this process. By
Heatmg ether of the specific gravity of '755 in a matrass whic]^
Contained a thermometer, over a spirit-lamp, I found .th^i
ascending and descending currents began to be visible in ih^
fluid at 1 07^ ; at 1 1 0° a few small single bubbles were formed^
and that at 112° the ebullition was complete. It seemed,, how?
i'ver, difficult to ascertain the object in view by this processjj as 4
difference of 2° generally exists between the first formatiqp off
single bubble and the production of what may be called coniplejl^
ebullition. Besides it was often difficult to observe the ex^
height of a delicate thermometer, on account of the 8\xd^i^
Imrsts of vapour which arose from the fluid, and it occaf^ipn^^
happened tliat after ebullition had appeared to be goiogrOii^^^f
certain temperature, it would cease, and not recomme^^^-jii^^
the thermometer .bad risen, perbapa, more than a 4eg?ef.uilif
appeared, however, that ether of the, specifipg^'^^^itj.^pCte?^
cpyjid »ot. be raided above the 1 12th 4w^> -W .^^)i#[/^'*
p^iatit was a}w|ty9 joa^t^te Qi*QOiwj^l^4e,ebiiiljtioi|„,'"^i^ jt, fiocf
4^ \ l»*^^iok&dim'^U BMngFU^ 1J99
In-order to obviate these ctiffiealtiesy I poured a quantity of
either into a ^ide test tube^ and plunged tb^ tube into a Wge
mrof t^id water, Uie temperature of wnicb waa^adui^ly raided
o^ adding portions of hot water; I began at 1 iO^ and was muob
^iirpiised to find that it was not uatil the water had arrived Bjt
^e .150th degree that the ether began to boiL Suspecting 430ine
piecuUarity in the tube^ I employed a second and a ttiird with tbf^
saioe result; but upon trying a fourth, I observed a mip^t^
stream of bubbles rising up irom one point of the glass^ and on>
examining; the part, I perceived a small fragment of some sub*
stance aclnering to it. This occurrence led me to try the effect
of introducing an extraneous body into the ether, and I accord*
ingly dropped into it some small chips of a cedar pencil, whidi
happened to lie on the table, when the wood was instantly
covered with bubbles, and the fluid was quickly brought ipto n
slate of rapid ebullition, the bubbles appearing to arise, at least
in a great measure, from the surface of Uie wood. Precisely the
same effect was produced by portions of quill or filaments of
feather.
1 now reversed the experiment, and continued to j dd portions
6f co!d water to the jar, in order to observe at what temperature
the ether would cease to boil, when I found that the same ether,
Which scarcely boiled in a clean tube at 160^, by adding the
pieces of cedar, exhibited a perceptible, although slight ebuUi-
fion, when the water was at 102°. When the wood was first
introduced, it was suspended in the upper part of the fluid,
and was covered with a stratum of fine bubbles ; by degreeis,
however, it appeared to be completely soaked in the fluid, gra**
diially sunk to the bottom, and the ebullition nearly ceased ; but
By the introduction of a fresh piece, it was reproduced,' and
i^htin this way be continued at pleasure. Other substances
w^e' afterwards dropped into the ether; small fragments of
broken glass lowered the boiling point very considerably, but
lioi to an equal degree. When a small bit of metallic wire was
dropped into ether at 145°, a sudden and copious explosion of
giis or vapour was produced, and the ebullition afterwards conti-
SifiM at a much lower temperature, but the effect was so rapid
ftdd Violent, that I could not mark the exact number of degrees
MPtfife' depression; very nearly the same effect was produced by
&tt)f^itig copper filings into the ether, or immersing a thenno-
ft^tei*; "'When the ether in the clean tube was plunged into this
iSiS^'liettter, it assumed a waved or streaked appearance from
lfatefid^'^ut*^ents which were moving up and down it in vaiiou4
liftm^li^dA^^.;' and the process of evaporation went on so ranidty,
diat|i^fei4sen*ibie degree of cold was experienced by the feiget
^ei^fteld 6y^the mc&th of thfe tube.
""'^'AASidtigli iti inost eas^s the edier iti the clean tttbe'bt^gto' to
boil at about! 'l&O^, ifa Irdide dases the wfttet iti lli^ ja;^ hte beei^
9uB«d!to.^ fail^fr tem|ldx)ftliir«( iHtbiQiil farodnfwig fikviUliioi^ in
OM iniltnoe- fm /bigh as 176°^ witb.tbe fonnMiiMSi of poiy 0Mv(9r
two »in^e lNibld«». Id ibis oate a frftgmeqt of .glittd.pl^dii^Qd
a copious ebjumtionv whieboootmuad onlil.tbQ Quid W99 i^<^^L«d
to 126^^ wb«a the /effect w»9. ugaia reduoed %9 tb€^ difiobarge.pf
a&w^ ftingte bubbleia; % eedfur ebip vfw tbea iat^^du^ed^ and (>K$^
duced a rapid •bollittoii# la tm^ experim.eiit> the. i}Eff^h»mmf
Mpper filings^ firagmeoly of glassi and ohipa. ofwoQd^ Wftfe
added in. aucceaaiou to the same portion of em^r, ai^d thojr aMh
of them appea^d .to. hare the effect of producing ebuiUUpn
when, it ha!a ceased from the action of the body previously wet*
ployed* Flvngiog a thermoBieter into the ether caiiaod^Abe
prodiiction of tbe bubbles at a temperature many degreea b^low
the psiint aA which ebullition took place without the tberoiomie«*
ter^'bttt the ^fibct of tbe thermometer was, after a shott time^ no
bwger perceptibly and I observed that by alternately plunging
the' thermometer into the ether, and removing it from the^. iluid,
the bubbles were produced at each immersion* . . .;
It appeared that in ordei* to produce the ful effect wjib the
E 'acts of cedar Wood, it wIms necessary that they should he. per-
otly dry ; and I also found that wood which had been onee
employed, although perfectly dry, was not so powerful as freah
pieces: in ona case by adding fresh bits of wood successively
to a portion of ether, the boiling point was lowered from 150° to
. The ^fiect of the pieces of cedar appeared more remarkable
b^^pluBgi^S mio the sama j^r of water two tubes of •eth^r,- one
without any addition, the other with the chips ; in one expi^ri-
meat when the ether alone scarcely boiled at 165°, eop^tij^g
only occasional single bubbles, the tube containing a pieii^p^of
cedar was in violent ebullition ; the temperature was gradu^Uy
lowered ; and even, at i02°, the formation of a continued stjTeaoi
of small buibbles was very perceptible*
In lorder to* observe whether any thing of a similar kind c^d
be perc^rved with respect to alcohol, a portion of alcohol ^of
speoifio gravity '848 was heated in a matrass over a spirit-laz^p ;
^ thermoaieter being immersed in the fluid stood at 182° ;u the
lamp was removed, and the ebulUtion ceased; but upon^.drop*
pingiinto.the alcohol a cedar chip, a fine streamr of bu^ibles was
observed.to issue from it; the temperature of the fluid waa^Cfw
14^. below its former boiling point. Into another pOrtio^vof
alcohol ivbich appeared to be near tbe boiling poi^,.as mm ip^i*
aatedtby the appearance of rapid currenits and. by a^^l^this^il^g
n«iBe,'a'fev ;copper fiUngs w^e dropp^; the. ebiillltioDofi^s
eonsidenijbkjr promotedy and ptoceeded, as it vre^hyiikn^d^tk
starts, the bubbles always proceeding from the i^inga^ i^l^a^^tter
«tp«rnMttty>«ha.binling poiatof mQ.9il(S9h^ waa K«i40d<^i^s
much as dCP and 40°, by dropping in successive pieces of the
cedar wood.
ivOiiId be jytockiecd upon watery and for thii porttooiaisaMiH M^•
liM of .w«ll boiled ttuHilkd water wasplongad iniois.^aalir'irf'
IMier that wai in a gtale of rapid ebidlitioB. Thc$iyiliF*|iijtlM
tube was not parceftibiy aibeted } the hunp whifth'bfi^ been
employed to boil ttie wat^r beiag reiiioved^ thi ebuUMoti
inMnily oeased : tume fragmeate of oedar were tben:d0^ped
fai> and pereeptible etreame of bobbka wef«> iciiiBQioB^^Ummi
^^eentted from them» In a seoond experimant^;,>oOmer ^filings
warit Employed; a numb«lr of bubbles instantly Ji^tiftMii Aottb*
strives to the filings^ and quickly rose to the surface^ freqoently
carrying up the metal idong with them. I wttt not, howevier,
'Tentare to determine how far, in the case of tbewater^ theeftct
might depend upon a quantity of air still dissolved init, or upon
air which adhered to the surface of the bodies introduced,
although from the q^uatttity of efieet, and Ib^ length of time
during which it continued/ 1 should scarcely think it aught to
be altogether ascribed to this source*
I have simply related the facts as they occurred to ipe, with-
out attempttng any explanatioti of thefn ; the results were new
to me, and very unexpected ) but t believe they will be. found to
be correctly stated.
I am, Gentlemefiy yours^ very truly^ .^ -::^
• "^ J. BOSTOOK*
Sinoe the above was written^ I have performed some ^ddi^
* tional experiments on ihe boiling point of water, which appear
to show m a more decisive manner than the former, t^as tins
fluid has the same properly which I have noticed in elhAr,
' although in a much less degree.
< A saturated solution of muriate of tioda was heated over . a
lamp ; at 210^ it wtis in a state of strong a^itation> ttitd simmered
• loiim^; at 214^ single bubbles were discharged; at 218^ or
219^ it might be said to be in the boiling &tate,l)ut the thefmb-
meter continned to rise until 222^, when the fluid was in strong
"(ebullition. A test tube, containing water deprived of air by
bt^ittilg, was plunged into the heated brine, and in a seix)nd or
two it began to boil. The lamp was then withdrawn, when the
'brine soon ceased 'to boil j but the ebullition continued, in the
'wetter for some time longer; it ceased at about 218^ or 217^,
but was instantly renewed by dropping in pieces of cedar wood.
The brine was again placed on the lamp, and a test tube was
" ptuilge^l into it, containing a portion of water together with a
''tblesisiometer. The water in the tube did not begin to boil until
^4b4 tdibrmomeCer had risen to between 216^ and 217^ when
'^eboQi^liaii first commenced ; the fraginents of wood were then
L
.. ti
dropped in> audi as usualy very much increased the ebuUitbn.
The fluid was kept for some time at this temperature, find the
extraneous bodies were alternately added to . the water, and
removed from it, when the ebullition was promoted or suspended
accdWUkiglyibr aeveral times in successidn. It would * appeM)
therefore, that the boiling point of fluids, while under the sam^
atmospherical pressure, is less uniform than has generally been
st]^»^«osed,'aad that it is materially influenced by <£e preseoee <f{
ej^mtoeoiiB bodies. In ether, this difierence amounts bccasioiiM'^
allV' t6 60** or more^ and in water to 4® or 6®. • J. Bv ■ *'^
0\ • ■ . ■.■■■',■■ ;;0
VjV.i-. .■ . • I '■•■■ i- i-'
:'■•■'"•■' Article V. ■
Astronomical ObsermtionSf 1825;
.>i By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.
Bushey Heathy near Stanmore. '' '
, . , IjrtitadA 6P 87' 44*3" Ncvrth. Longitude West in time 1' 80*93'^
Jan. i2. Immersion of Jupiter's first CISh 56' 9\" Mean Time at ihisliej.
sateUite }13 57 42 Mean Time at GMeniHdi:
Feb. 9. Emenioii of Jupiter*8 Uiiid < U 59 66 Mean Time at Bushejr.
satellite <i8 01 17 Mean Time at Oreenviiau
Occultation bythe Moon.
Jan. 89. Immersion of a smaU star at . . . 41^ 08' 05*1'' Siderial Time.
Obiemd Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Bfiddle Wire of
the Transit Instrument in SidenalTimew 3
1885b Stars. Transits.
Jaii.89.--S5Tauri. ;.... 3^ 53' 56-9" i
89 «8Tauri 4 IS 30-1
89.— JMoon 4 84 32-58 First or West Liinb.
89.— flr«Tauri 4 31 47-83
89.— t43Tauri 4 47 14-65
89.— 895Tauri 4 57 89-88
Feb, I ?Gemini 6 03 46-38
1.— ^Gemini 7 11 39-6
I.— »Gcmiiii 7 16 39-81 -
1.— 146Gemini 7 87 81-56 , j.
I.— Moon 7 38 30-35 First or West Umb.
1.— ^ Gemini 7 36 0l'6l /
': I.— 884 Gemini 7 41 48-51
1.— IQeminL 7 45 89-41
■!•
1 • -w'. . "
= 1 1.
•^'^ '"■■'■■' ■' AllTICLE VI. ^ '■■'''"'
1 .
JRimxrib cm Solar Light and Heat. By B. Powell> Miu Eik& ^
"-'■-' ■ ' ' • '{CdnHnued'firom ycA, vm.p.293. " ^
:(67t) ta ft former part of these remarks (16), Iadi(«rte4^(0j(^
'^xperioieais on the neatiDg power accompanyinff or beloogiii^
to the different prismatic rays^ this being one of the prinoipftt.
modifications to which the solar light has been subjected, and
from which conclusions respecting thenatureofit& heating power
have been deduced. On this part of the subject I propose now
to make a few further observations with a view to ascertaining
how far such conclusions may be substantiated, and will assist
in forming a correct idea of the nature of the heating effects.
(58.) It is well known that the heating power belongs to the
differently coloured rays m very different proportions. Among
the results of different experimenters, there exists considerable
discrepancy. The first person to whom we owe the idea of isuch
investigations was the Abb6 Rochon. — (See Phil, Mag. June,
1816, and Biot, Traite de Physique, tome iv. p. 600.) He
found the maximum in the yellow orange rays. There is a much,
closer agreement however between subsequent observers, if we
except the disagreement respecting the effect beyond the red
rays. r
(59.) The causes of these differences are to be in some mea-
sure sought in the different nature of the surfaces of the ther-
mometers employed, or in the colour of the substances with
which they were filled : as well as in the varying circumstances
of the prism, &c.
Two coatings equally described as black may be very different
in the shade of colour which they exhibit. If the tint incline to
red for example, a less effect will be produced by the red rays.
(60.) The Abbe Ilochon's result agrees with one which I have
constantly obtained when the bulb was painted red. From the
account of his experiments, Phil. Mag. June, lbl5, itdoes not
deariy appear what the nature of his thermometer was ; but if,
as I understand, it was filled with spirits, and they, as we' may
presume, were tinged red, his result is fully accounted /pr. My
experiments were as follows :
Indications of Differential Thermometer.
Sept. 9. — 9 a. m. Bulb coated with lake and vermilion.
Away 5*^
In the orange yellow • 28
In the red • . • • • ^
Half inch beyond ^t.,. ,••••%% ^2»
: ' ! . Tufio'oihtr es^ethnentfi m wfaieh the saixie colitiBg' wcUrtbidiAr,
'"i ' Green.. 12 —
i vi . t . Oi«fi«y4lk)w» ^ 18 ....»«.« 12 «
Red 16 11
, :i»t<6U) Tittt Uift betttiaff efiect produced wkhin tbe Mm^ ot
the Yisible BfieelriiiD is or the same kind as that prodaoed bjr ^e
. tolftrilight in itt ordinary state; that is to say^ that it is Icans^
t«|iussibta tiirougb glass, and affeotsa black surface more ihaQ-^n
•fdlMirpftive «a»e> ifi> loonoeire, sufficiently eataUiriied by mtmB*
WiMieKpminen tisi • I have frequently interposed . a pkte •£ gkaei
Allttt^witbattt intercepting any perceptible .^portion of the effaol
v^m the :pbotofiieter« A coating of brown or white silk ahoiiwa^
rlftbly gave anuich less effect than Indian ink^ or a sur&sfl of
vUack,gUss. .
.: Theae results seem to me decisire against the hypothesis of a
wiperposition of two spectra^ one of luminous^ and tbe olher.i>f
■eiJorific raySi
. (62.). It 18 obvious that the greater heating power displajired
by 'the rays towards the red end of the spectrum, may be owiag
iO either of the following causes, or to both jointly*
r L A greater intrinsic power of communicating hott.
I. 3. A greater number of particles brought into actioB^ * or
absorbed.
* And this last cause may depend either upon the peculiar ibtate
#f divisioii to which the rays may be reduced, or upon a greater
pawer of absorption in the surface for these than for other
..(30loured rays, or here again both causes may co-operate. . .
, With respect to the state of diffusion of the rays, it is obvious
Ibat thered rays are mote concentrated than the yellow, and
.,jM9ese more than tbe blue, Sec. ; so that from this cause alone we
ffU0ht expect a greater heating effect ; a greater number of pur*
tides acting in the same space.
.('.With respect to a possible increase of absorptive power iu
i lespeet to the greater approach to the character of the extreme
.Ofed light, I am not aware that we at present possess any rdsutta
.i|4iish can assist such an inquiry, unless we except die. yitfsir
joaintained by Mr. Morgan in his experiments on thelightfcom
. cjosahustion, Phil. Trans. 1785, No. IL He considers. it^tjaa
matter united to other bodies by attraction, blue ray^haTi^ the
, least, and r^d the greatest affinity. If this view of the suoject
be i^miftfied, taieris paribu^f more red parti (4es wtidd Jie
-.absorbed than of any other coloured ray when impinging* upott a
Hi i&ii) A n^tice.bas verv receqtly appeared (BeejAMMhx^SAi"
v^siqp%, iSe|M;..l%.4,.p, 336).of some pRsanlie eitfietiiMbts^by
/Jte^'8e«b«d^ of.B«rib* Th<«6 ▼eryiitt|ptateitem«aAF6liMJfe
to establisb the conclusion that the position of the ma&iinM(iii
point of 'littat varies in the spectrum according to the imtur^ of
the diBpening medium. With some prisms it i« BikOftted in th€
yellow or orange, in these of crown glats in the ceftlfd of the red,
and of flint glass beyond the red.
These experiments well explain, the discrepancies belwdm
diibrent observers, tht^ngh cither causes befdre adtented tcf^'tMy
haiwhad some share in produoing those differeneie. .-/•^ sii?
>^i.Iiii viewing these results in. reference to the natare ofJk§iteM'^
ingisffects accompanying the rays of light, it becomes ^dei^ffUMe
tAcinqiiiro whether such changes in dire heating power MCiiiflte^
-eat .p»rts of the spectrum are accompanied by eorreilpMdklg
muiations in the intensity of light: whether the greftteq^'hisat^'be
•Ofwioff to a. greater number of calorific and iHnifiitiMitfgiiW^ifK
tlisowa into the same space, owing to the dii^enthtw <iPm*
sersion followed by the different refracting media. It u^jvi^
douAxtiitl however whether there are any meane^ of ase^rtittiing
this witb certainty and accuracy by means of the iillUkifmitiiig
powers, so as to arrive at any such conclusion. But ff^^ iNStd
shown that the light is dispersed in different pfOpOftiOAs 40 the
same part of the spectrum by different prisms, and thai si4h
difference corresponded to the difference of heating poweV/ IH*.
Seebeck'a results wonldin this case present no objectioti td the
ide& of the heating effect being inherent in the lighty or r^eulting
merely from light so modified as to become caloric* ^
'The elaborate experiments of M. Frauenhofer onthe fe£ra^ve
1 dispersive powers of different substances (Bciin* l^hil. Jorum.
H^^ 16, Art. 16), exhibit instances of a considerable alterft^^i
in the relative dispersion of the rays by different med^kir ' l^s
was ascertained with great precision by means of th^ %ell*
defined bdght add dark lines which he observed croi^eiilg'^tfae
■peotnim^ it would be extremely desirable to ascertain <Wli4t
rffect these lines have on the heating powers of the dilT^^Mt
rays. ^'-'-^
:■ 'If liiis view of the subject were not established; it nnght seem
•a; natmral iuferedce that these results favour the ideu of th^ihtlftt
being due to a separate set of rays ; for if the faeaUtig ^bWe^^in
iim chffbrent parts of the spectram can be made to vdry, (ihd'lEke
rimakdibuhi oanbe thrown at pleasnreinto different ^otouredyftyi,
'itmii^t be argued that tlie effect must depend upon s<H80k^Fd<^
^odvntiagent or set of rays distinct from the luminOiM t^^i^'^^
-: Such a conciusiou however is, perhaps, more- than the' fi^s
witt>MMy warrant Those who have rejected the tdtfft of ^e^-
ntc| raya ctf beat have useally gone to the opposite id Jtfretk^^Md
soppcwed the heat to be identical with the light ; luid fhtft^lbe
vhttUing effdsl; is-meceiy the display of the same Afinty ti|llt> ifi
anotbcff'foim' Bdt is this the neceito$ify ttlfemMM^? l^^Vi^
l^9MI$i|iKirjl)«lb(?Qeii id^tttifyifi^ light with beat, mdnMj^tmaSbg
8fj^^$tl^8eiMiiCat6«et of rays ? It appears to me tb«t if Yfe wjecli
^j^jilW^iH^ of (tb^e opinions* we are not by any meaDB obUgsd?
io adopt the other. Without identifyiD^ the two agente, lOP
^t)if||iti supposing tbem inseparably united, without conceiving^
tb^ iHaatiD^ power absolutely inherent in ever]^ particle of ligl^
f^^iorar^aUe in intensity, except as the intensity of ligbt
tWf s^^.o^ the one hand ; or on the other hand, that the. heat
cppsifits of a distinct set of rays analogous to the rays of li^it*;;
If (^ m^ ^mit it to be in some very close state of union, combi*4
a^tiopy or dependence, yet so as to be susceptible of variatioiL
w>(|^<^t. a corresponding variation in the other effects of U^»t»
.^b^d .sfich. indeed, antecedently to the inquiry here adverted to^
^pu^d. seem the most natural and obvious way of considering ther
if^^f$f^^^ beeause we are ignorant whether light be matter,, -ari
ijjg^tlier.hciat be motion^ does it follow that there is any neceS'*'
i|;^^ fbic ejcplsining the phenomena in which both agents aeeosr
^ffpfftpm^d, by assuming them to be one and the same thing, oit
ijkf^ pne band ; or by denying that there is any sort of unifitt^
between them, on the other ? • t
". -X^*) T^^ adopt a view of the subject which shall be a mediam
l^ween the two extreme theories hitherto adopted appears ton
me not only to be what is most natural and most analogous to
1||b^e views we take of other natural phenomena, but what > is
cequirjed by many strong facts.
To suppose that rays of heat exist distinct from those of lights
either in tne direct solar rays, or in the prismatic beam, requires
the supposition of a new and peculiar sort of radiant heat^ as
d|^pi£nt from common radiant heat as it is from light ; by which.
iil|A903 I do not see that we obtain any more satis&ctory explan-
ation, of the phenomena than we did before, - «
.^;(66«) It is certain that whatever we suppose to be the state 'm/
^^ch. the heat exists when it so inseparably accompanies the^
smi'ls light, there must be some peculiar circumstance in tlifir
iQ/^de 01 its union which makes its effects sensible only underr
^^1^^^ particular circumstances ; and under others endows it with
pmp^nie^ which heat in its simple radiant state does not possees^
. In ordinary cases there is a direct communication of heaJb!to^
^nbstfoices with which light comes in contact. This iefiect is
p;podpced on all substances in some degree, but on some <mttahi
Sipre tham others ; and these are of a character widely differenti
9m those ^n which simple radiant heat is known to pcodimesil^
greatest effects. > m'-: >-.
^,{|^ aoGOO^nying light passes through the densesb sAb*
fl^Qc^ whjich^are completely impervious to simple: tadiaiiliUali
(m)e^ first thoroughly heated), and yet produces lessibeitfaigs
^^^ji^ Jlh^lthan on any. class of subistaiifiea wiueh;ar^hettleiti
^ ' i
r
iba^evidedt tiiat heat accompanying ftolccr light nl^^it'^he' '<J^b^
ely altand in* its properties by the ^cooii^xion s^b^M^M^
:(66.) If we had any esiperimental proof of the XBHtetMi^kfi
lighty and ahouM obserTc heating ejects accompanjfiwg it>' ^W
shoMildnot hesitate to say that tl^y were nothing more tbanf^ttif
ordinary effect of a combination of heat with the itiat^al flUS^
stBiioe in question. Bat in the absence of such proof oan'irelye'
permitted thus to describe the phenomenon? Did the qttegtidtf
ittn>lve no other difficulty than this^ I should reply that ttsi^^
Gfta define matter by no other tests than its observed pft)p^i^^
iti^ould be the proper course for the experimentalist to dedtfb^
tbe nature of light from its observed properties, add ni3t>ttf
describe those properties merely in conformity with its sup|yMl$lf
jtaterew And observing real effects of ordinary heat, and €tidiftl#
liMim coextensive with the luminous beam, I do not see atoy itfi
difficulty on.this ground which should hinder us from describing'
the pbenomenon as a combination of heat with the lumiiloUk
•particles.
itmay be objected that to attribute such an union with heat.
t5 light IS to assume the materiality of light, and thus to.'adiDpt
gratuitous suppositions.
It- is never objected, however, that we make hypothetical
assumptions when we talk of ordinary matter possessing a
^sensible temperature or latent heat, &c. and yet what assumption
do we'^make in the case of light which is not made here?
'We conceive it allowable to say that ordinary matter is cotb-
bined with heat, yet if we come to consider the matter abcti^
TOtely, it is only that we perceive a certain degree of solrKtyv
extension, &c. united with a certain tigure, and at the same time'
vee find the sensation or efiects of heat produced coextensively
.with those other properties cognizable by our other senseki
Why then is it not allowable in the instance of light where w^'
peccfsive a certain colour, extension, direction, 8lc. and heating
QfieotSt concomitant and coextensive with the display of thdsi^
.pvepertieSy to say. that light has heat in' a similar sort of tttuoin!
with it? - \
i(67iS) In .the preceding parts of these remarks, various pfool^
litcue appeared of the close connexion subsisting between* tfa^
luminous rays 'and the heating effects accompanying them, anii;
of the t^xaot proportion followed, so long as the lignt is of the'
jsame colour, and derived from the same source^ <
«. if then we can show by experiment that heating powers
Itelotig'to'l^ht; if these effects accchfnpany light in a m^ntfe^
^gididegree strictly amlogous to a given class of those tfhei:^^
iiieiiK> which atdse from what we call an union of h^at wltn iSf^p
nary matter; why should we not be permitted to dt^scribe-fl^
facts by expressions framed upon such analogy?
Those effects which we call effects of caloric in oriinBrjr niat-
ter, pervade it in different ways, and are exhibited in sevaral
sorts of union or connexion. In order then to adopt with pro*
priety this mode of describing the calorific phenomena of light^
the cmief point is to examine carefully whether the ansJogy d0e8
hold good ; and to show to what part of the phenomena of lu^at
in its combination with ordinary matter, those of its union with
light are to be compared.
T>hefinit and most obvious idea is, can the effects beaserihsd
te> whiLt we might call the high temperature of light?
'Stooe light is known to pass through many very dense mediae
and' communicate very little if any heat to them, it might bt
iilliesJved that it possesses no sensible temperature of its own ; but
thffirtnference is obviously of no force : for in passing throng
CirtiB parent media, most of the luminous particles are neverin
cbntaot with those of the medium, but pass probably betMMtt
tham and that with inconceivable velocity; so thst whatever
beat they may possess, they are incapable of commanicating iL
Some few rays are stopped and absorbed by the SBedtnss wtA
more as it possesses a less perfect transparencv ; and ia propoi^
tkm as this is the case, we know that heat is always communi-
cated, and all transparent bodies, after being some time expoaad
to the sun's rays^ become heated.
When we come to consider the different development ol^ its
heating power on bodies of different colomr^ the effbeta aira
totally unlike those of temperature. On this principle, the hem^
ting effect would depend upon the impact of light rather thani
ita absorption, and it should not be greater on a black dmn on
a, white surface. But peiiiaps the difference of calorific poweir
in the prismatic rays is the strongest evidence against attributing
the ^ect to temperature; for in this -case how could suok
dtfEbranca of temperature be maintained, supposing it couM b#
originally xsommunicated, when the rays are aH in contact, a£Ml<^
BBDiFing witli equal velocities ? . -
From these considerations, it would follow that the heatmnet '
exists in some state of combination with the light, more intimita
anil more connected with its changes and modifications tbsti' -
that belonging to heat of temperature. '-in
tin Older to be the better prepared for following up tlris>'
inanify, I propose shortly to bring forward some cxpemaMMv
and pandusions, which are supplementarv to some resean^l^ *
on light and heat from terrestrial sources iBtiAy read before tte > '
Royd Society. (See reports of the Royal Society, Anmhyr p.
f • •-;- : -'^v*? ;<
9^1 ^., Onihf CfkmttfiifiieAiiHiHimM ¥9^- 909
Article VII.
On> the Ciimate of the Antediliivian World, and its Indepem(^f^^fi\
^ of' Solar lvJiuen(;A: ^^d on the Formation of Granite,' By ^iy,.
' Alexander Crichton, Knight, St. W. FRS. &c. \\ ^,]
{Concluded from -pAOS,)
' Having endeftvoured to prove, in the first part of tlus essity^
that the laws of vitality, especially those to which the life of'
vegeMkUes is subjected, afford an almost certain rule forjudging
of temperature ; and having shown by the character of the fosm:.
remCLina of the earliest plants of which we have any knoiwiedgid; -
that an uniformly high temperature exerted its influence overt
every part of the globe where they are found, I passed to. the*
ceDsideration of other geological facts, all of which are connected -
wiik the same subject, such as the similarity of the fosult
remains in the transition and mountain limestone, and the di#^'
feront temperature of hot springs according to their respecfiti»'
depths, and the heat of waters which issue from rocks in deep
mines. From all these facts, the conclusion appears to be ine«'
vkable, that in the very early periods of time, the heat of die
earth was greater and more uniformly diffused, than can b$
aceoanted for by solar influence.
Tbe analogy between crystalline substances (which we know
to be of igneous origin) and granite, and the recent disco verie$
of Mr. Mitcherlich, were added as strong arguments in support
of the doctrine. As chemical science has now opened a road
by which we may account in a natural manner for the formaticMi
Of. granite, and also for tbe high temperature which resulted
frem its immediate production, we need not have recourse to .
txf everstrained^-conjecture to account for the fact, such as ihe >
a^ll^ of a great and unaccountable changes in the direction of
the earth's axis, an idea which is totally unsupported by analogy •
oriEetifian.
'4t ia not possible for the imagination to conceive a state of -
cba^B and disorder and of intense heat, Uke that which most .
have happened during the rapid ignition and oxidation of the
mcA^liq nucleus. Whether granite be the stratum of oxidized
mi^felhU nearest the nucleus is very doubtful. From the exaiiit-»
na^0p of many collections of volcanic ejections, I am mucll
inclin^ to think that some micaceous beds lie under jjranite.*
^' The varietiea of natural mineral compounds wliioh assume the cryataJQine fonxi.i^.
mka are numerous. If we except those compound substance^ which assume the fo^Ri '
«f ^anets, ^lere are none so diversified ia their chemical constitution, and therefiire
ihcff VMf exist micaceom forms iiad«r granite which differ fram timse tluiA hdouf tek,
ar which lie over it| or are connected with other focks- MfUM* of mu^ fnVurtim
ledc^ i^qpear to have been ejected from Vesuvius on its firat i^urytlllg $n:ih at ths AflOM^
ihne that ^pieces of granite were also thrown out.
If the sapppsiticfi be well fpunded, that srauite and^ts.am>-
Ciat^s areorfgneoua origin, inasmuch as tney are the re^tt.^
quick oxidatiou and fusion, there ought not to be any greaf coa^
stancv irt the super-position orjuxta-position of these rocks^ fof
1^ iii clear that they may have varied according to the prepon^er
ranee of any one metal, or any number of metals, in any giveij^
portion df the metallic nucleus. .' , "
Other causes appear to have co-operated with this in produor
Sig a considerable variety in the mechanical aggregatioa of the
tinm^tive rocks, as well as in their forms and relative positiopx ,.
Ih a paper (Bxpressly written on antediluvian temperaturj^.^^
M¬be expected that I should enter fully jnto an.examinatig^
Sf all these causes ; yet a cursory view of somje of them is un%
roid'able for the elucidation of what is to follow. ...
. \^f ^mediate.effect of the oxidating process of the mel^^c
mass Would necessarily be a violent ebullition, s^itation, juii^
.evappration, of the surrounding fluid, and also the (ormati^ii.of
variou^ g^^3, and gaseous oxides. Although the extinctio^^oJT
th^ighitloa would result as soon as a crust of earthy oxides,(%?
Sriimtiye rocks) was formed, yet during the conspli^atioa qC
ijesej the action of the watery . vapour, included between th^
intensely heated nucleus and the hot involucrum, would giy^ ^xi,
.^asti.c K>rce to the included vapour commensurate with its )}pj^%^
Wheifi to this supposition is added the.phenpmeaa resulting^froi^
causes which we nave every reason to believe to be sjmilar, such,
as the sudden elevation of islands and of great tracts of lapd.9^n
the coasts, as well as the equally sudden depressioii uf oth^r
tracts of continents, we are furnished with strong reasoi)s fdi^
believing that niany parts of the imperfectly solid and stitt;
l^ated granitic mass must have been elevated .?ind. ("ei^t in*
yarioiis places, giving birth to groups and chains of ,grai|li^^
UQiouTitains, the peaks, of which, although greatly .worn doyra
since that j)erioa, still exhibit a character of juggednes^/aBcl*
ttiSture! which peculiarly coincides with the theory. , V ,. <, '♦
^T^^e following account of the highest granitic peak, in, ^to^
IJjjier Oroonka district, taken from the justly celebratea^miY"
mimbofd's excellent work, entitled ''Personal Narrative,'*' is
am>rppriate to the present subject, and so singularly intere$i|i^^
in itself, as to ^stify its insertion in this place. I raigiy pitJiuUe^
tKl^ moth^tatins the least elevated are sometimes the m^(.:
pebble. '4.tibe beginning and at the end of ifaie rainy^^sej^^^
ac-
«4
btt account oflBl^^eetii^tit ini Ae t^timomCwncetiimffw
r
flMKf^* CUmdAofiKeAiae£lAi)iknWinid. ^
*y^ Si^ltitH^ the improper name of a yolciaiio,' 'Asity
B^n^airly 'd.iohe, it mi^ht be sapposed that li^tning frbi4
tb'tfme sets fire to the brushwood; but this suppoaitioj^
rfts probiibility when we reflect on the extreme didficute
WJtll^ which plants ,are set on fire in these damp climates. ,It'
tiKoiiCbe observed, also^ that these little flames are said to appear
oftoa^ where the rock seems scarcely covered with turf, ^nd that
^^'same igneous phenomena are displayed on days entirely
siempt from storms on the summit of Guaraco, or Murcielago^
a hilll opposite the mouth of the Kio Tamatama, on the sputherii
rafiit of the Oroonoko. This hill is scarcely elevated lOO.toilei
above the neighbouring plains. If the assertions of the natiyetl
tftfthie, it is probable that some subterraneous cause exists id
l^ina and Guaraco, that produces these flames ; for they never
£roear in the lofty neighoouring mountains of Jao ana Mara-
mintit, so oflen wrapped in electric storms. . "^
''The first cause of these igneous phenomena is at immehael
o^fhs below the secondary rocks in the primitive iTortioations i
le rains and the decomposition of water act only a secoodaiy
^•tl' The hottest spnV/g« of the globe issue immediateh/ fror^
f/iSfe. Petroleum gushes from mica ischist, and fright-
t di^tonations are heard at Encaramada, between the rivers
ftuca' and Cuchivero, va the midst of the granitic soil. of the
^^dnbko and the Sierra Pnriraa, Here, as every where else on
tt^ l^bbe^ the focus of volcanos is in the most ancient strata ;
sfttl ii appears that an intimate connexion exists between the
'(kt phenomena that heave up and liquefy the crust of our
'p£i; and those igneous meteors which are seen froiatimeto
!e. oh its surface, and which from their littleness we are
ukeci to attribute solely to the influence of the atmosphere/'
-^tIS^* Personal Narrative, vol. v. p. 662 et seq. and voL \u
<ft^! 6^ p. 291, and vol. iv. chap. 14, p. ^h^
^m <hV nrst part of this essay, it was stated in a general way, on
',^ authority of Baron Humboldt, that the thermal springs of*
'^iMl/A.chertca received their heat from the primitive rock^.f
e!lpU<^wing passages are remarkable : — Speaking of thern^al.?
*/s1n the neighbourhood of the lake of Valencia, he says,'
Be springs gush out at three pointy of the grawiVtc cordillefa
c^ast'; near Qnato, between Turmero and Maracay ; near.
Wo the north-east of tjiie Ibicienda de Cura; and ne^,
./fn«ichpra», tm the irafaii from Nueva Valencia to Porto
1 tbu^ e^pnitH^ with care oi^ly the thermal waters oft
fM*^ ^^*^^^^^'^***^' Tfiie mountfi^ins of Mariara, Ke*
'Xviaftt amphitheatre, composed of peirpendiovJ[p^^
' tiy pe^ks with riigge^ summits/' l^egrmite.
Hem SfricSf vol. ix.
w,.iii^4;-C«(*Mr««Aet
{M»»eii,
Hi:
■ ^
«na[pgy betw^mi <|lie igneous phenomeni^ c|f Duidi). npcl volca-
uoH, but tn^dy to justify the assertion concemiug the deep
^surea of sr^nUio p^^^s, aaA the heat derived tram thei^ fou&-
(l^tiona: witei^ it may lie siiinjosed there is a vicinity (o the
Ktill t>ot ituelei|g qf the earth.
The sol'teiiin^, eUvatJui), nnd rupture, of the first formed grar-
iittie mountain^, and thp action '^t the agitated ocean, would pror
duce the sqpai~9tioii of an Infinity number of minute grains of
the newly-foFoied crystalline substances, many of which would
liesnspended mephanically for a longer or shorter time accord-
(iig t() their resjiectivB gravity on the one hand, aiid the greater
>tnr< lesser- agitation ofth^ watu-r^ on the olhfir,
^fiome earthy oxides, suph as the argillaeeous oxide or (^1^,
' icb feavp a kind of niuchanical altraptjan for water, which i«
perfectly unf^eretood, would be longer suspended than the
ute crystals of m.iqa, ampliibole, qpartz, or feldspar, and
mid be precipitated, all ot-har tMn^ being alike, at a later
riod, and hence in the uen^rali^y of ca&t:s gneiss lies under
e argillaceous bgd^ and rocks where these are found.
The presence of apthracite in the fissures of piimttive rocks
imonstrates that carbon was an elementary ingredient in the
ideus of the elementary globe ( and it ig therefor^ reasonahle
conclude that, during the state of ignition, it would attiaot
iBRsygen (Vnin the decqpipoaition of the water, and form earbonic
■" i, which, after combining with the waters, would render it a
'ent f^r all such tiietallic oxides as have a powerlul attractiaa
it, and which are rendered more soluble through its agepey,
ih aa lime (oxide of calcium), and magnesia (oxidq of magoe-
m).
The precipitation of such carbonated oxides (hmeetpn^ and
nsian rocks) would dej^end chiedy on the agency of three
nowM causes; ,first, the continued formation of mote
(ikliides than the waters could dissolve ; second/^, the diminutieo
'«f temperatuFe j and thirdli/, the effects of evaporation.
These few pFinciples throw much light on the formation of
JBfijiers and serpentines of aqueoup origin, and of tlie limestone
rooks, especially if to such causRa be added the heat of the sub-
jacent rook on which they fell, and the pressure of the strau
■which were piecipitated after them : and the same principles
lead to an explanation of the various anomalies we meat witli in
"le forms and relative positicais of the piiniitive rocks.
All the fbtsiations from the granite to the deposits oi^iwhi^ii
diluvian boulder stot^es and gravel lie, depionatt^te, )iy th^r
mie remains, that tberp has beep a gradual dimtputioRiof
.temperature from the eiirliest times tilt the earth was fitted fer
the creation effoau, and the present race of animal^, atwlifah
period itapj»«|!SLta:)UtvalM^9 9»t-"^S Wtd^r Mar intl4t^li}9>a(Mi
seasom. ■.■.^^■*si'/*-lii*.il'i'.' - . ■'■J**l#'"''"
•wn^fl.^OPg)! 1^ pe^it y^fty of ii8||i^ta})Jp.%w«* t9^^^^
^ff n^ fto0| wc)i o%^^h »Bd »nlike t)iQ§^ W^ipb ^iwrtia QW'48yf1
tat whftt P§6UlMy charai^t^ri^e^ tfe^ ii¥ing foripp 0f tha «mk4i8ti<i
^«l|^ V|^ fpi^^t wiih genera ?L^d sp^qie^ whiph bave a itevfai^
jftgWli^^i"^ Vfitb e^Qh o^bef pv^r t^^ ^^Ple .B^rlHce of the glob©i
^IWyPl 9* fer ^» ?t bptB been i^xploFftd, Tb^ gf«P^^ d^t?|»!^S fif
pof^ f^x^ wbl^^li bfLv^ bpoQ e:i|^p.mi|»e4 ^Qth m t» li|^trto|da w4
A wwt# ^^swfi^tipa of tb|38# ^aciiftt reJic^ wHb tlw?8f» wbipb
.Iju^l? te^ olo§^^t s^pmWwcfi 1^ ik^n ^WHig -Oiw piw^tfiteftp
f |»'*«g*t^l^ »a4 aiH?«»fri scenes tQ p»pv# Jh^^i the pcae^if bmi
•WM^^flfBI fl» fiip^ple^t fqtvfi^ tq (be fUQS^ fipqapii^i^^cf plpuof ii|fiSj
kifti fjl^fp tf^pd ??bicb wqttire ^ cQpftt9#§y of bpat ^.nii Ba<>fstiim
*^#9W^]^if5b wfre fi^t^ft fof giM al<^rQ»Uo^# flf b(3^t »ft4 q^W*
As ftp fl# tbe great gqU^gti^ of f?^^ wbighf^i^., to <4wi
#lftt94i^ jf>f.6^a9i9^4 bodiei jft^tifiQS thQir b^iDg g^HjeffiS^ed
w^W *bi* pomt pf vie^, w? §8em ^o bay« f^ rjgbt. tp n^, that Ibe
wIM 5^^ }^¥ing fofi^s wbipji nature b^6 obaef ve4 ia ^ei^iy m
ifotldw; first, ^ PI %w plantip of )(Fe^ 4Q^btf)}Vobai^cter ia^bfi
^4l49ll^jP?]p^Q)^Q^)ai;^; ^hep zoppbile9>aii;)de^i9St^c;«^uil molu^»
•v^ll^itebiteei ^fi^fif wi^rd§ w ^by^dwt cria^tiop Qf aQ^yl^di^ii^Q*^
4^ ^fH>^p^1yl^floap^fi plaptii ;. ^ff^r tb#^e ^ g»^a$ ifi^rpj^^ ^
lIuiaQll (§9t^ceou§ aiid pFuit^CseQu^ ilialu§^p^ and soppbyt0ii }
'dieiat fishes, birds, and oyiparpDg qu9.di^«pe(ls, poBipr^h^dipg tii^
Saiirif^n fia^ily s aft^rward§ dicQlyledpPOU^.plptQt^ ; tb^n marine
1»tt ^ ^nmjli. Tb© fo88il y^iaaips of tbei^ }i0 b\^^ ia bied««
H^bi^li ovf rlif^ lefbcb other* p^^rlyia tbg o^doi? lopitiopofi; ami
flHitlMe^^^hfi bed§ <^ ftf§,tft are g«a#rpJly fQppd Qtb^.a wbii* 4©
no*; gpBtfBB ^y f/a§eil r^pi^ipfb a^d wldm im^k intefvallB.af tiwfi
ift th^ gf PBpps' of tbejip e?tipf*ipp. , , -
3aoTi^.g|u^y pf (b^^9 Tepa^ipe and the strata i« ^Wob tb^ Jif,
'4m^<kii I tbi»|6, faH tQ pppdMO^ w eptiF© eop?ietipx| fi^ the mind
"^tm^Kc^^r^ ^u^g ^^^Q af ^ny m^ pfiripd it t([)tal a^ mMm
i4fS|Mi^ii pf 4ii^ wb^ «»f tHp Wmg sftoei^ ivitU tbA Didoge-
W^m -^^ pbwiftlpr ,pf tbi^ -T^gptablsft aiid^ wiw«te rf >t*»
'1^wWi^¥^^1i 4uly ppQ«Mi^4 >^ ^ i^by«^$^l^gml 9Q^U ^f view
ifaHiiiyg f^'WumiiHsitt^ kj III p^mditni^ of oegmaatiw
p2
•M \
^ :!(n*tbe pmifttl slate ^ tiie wcKrIdi the ratio of dieotvkdQn^nf
to ac^tJjpledoQOUfl and monooptyledonoue plants is kao^A .t)^
increase (all other circumstances affecting climate being^alik;^
in proportion to the distance from tropical regions, in the
OQOler regions of the temperate zones, the 'proportion is astQO
td 1 . In the. torrid zones as 6 or 6 to 1 . But in the very aqcieot
;^orldj,aU over the surface of the globe> we find nothing reseii^
bling a dicotyledonous plant until we come to the oolite
thcsrefore/ there is room to suppose that every part of the surieice
'0f the earth at that period was hotter than our hottest regiona.
•t We now know from various facts that certain forms of vegc^
tabtes and animals exist and multiply in a constant tempejraliM^
^hieb approaches nearly to the heat of boiling water. DunMr
^nd HiHiter, in the journey they made along the river Ouachitflb
lA^l'tiisianay found bivalves, and confervas, and other pliants^ in {ft
ki0t spring, the temperature of which was between 40^* and 50?
x>f R^umeur's thermometer. Sonnerat and Prevost state, thu^
they discovered in the island of Lucon a stream of hot water of
dy^ Reaumeur, and that the roots of the agnus castus aiid a'sper
«ies of aspalatus grew in it. But a much more remarkable mofi
is mentioned by I'orster, who found Uving plants growing at th^
l^ase of a volcanic mountain in the island of Taniia, and that the
heat of the soil in which they grew was^lO® Fahr.'
« In the strata of the lias we meet with a rich collection of f\i^l
remains, but among them there are none which prove the exisfer
ence of any one terrestrial quadruped. There are plenty of ero^
codiles, and we are introduced for the first time since the fornix
tion of granite to the Saurian family. ■ ' -^
Previously to entering into the consideration of these, it m9^
be observed, that the laws of animal life do not afford the natvi-^
ralisl quite so certain a rule for judging of heat and climate i%^
plants do ; for every animal, from its being indued with a locomo-
tive faculty, can roam to a great extent in quest of food, ai|d is
fitted to hve where that can be found in sufficient abundanci^.
Nevertheless we know of manv, the health and existence of
:^hich force them to keep within certain boundaries of (emf^i^-
turok These, together with the antediluvian members of t^^e4r
/amilies, are the only witnesses that can properly be br^ug^t
forward to corroborate the testimony of the antediluvian flora^; j^
• , The examination of the analogies which have a refereoQe . 4o
this subject is attended with difficulty, and confiassedly wit^
«ome want of precision, merely from the vague and loose m^fo^v
itt which the denominations of the geographic4it2onBs ai;eiaf|pii<^
to. the residence of animals. Some are described as inbabiti^ls
of tba torrid zone, others of the temperate zon^^ oth^oflj^
ifNDliiir r^ionfi« \n many cases, this is sufficienj^for gen^ei^l .flilir-
npsdai b^t-as^mwy^eneraand speoies of ai\i«ia)s/ j^tih^oo^U-^
iWOB^f^iid 4^rrf«.triaU are copfi^ed to.^r^nge of ff^Qm.l^lM^^^i
USr-i^^kf^tid^lUfe on the bord€f<B ^f th^ t^mp^fiM aiid^toiMd
lidniii^ 4nil not in every part of each; tiheee regions dd^t to bd
totter dederibed/ \ ^ 'n >:
'^clii'^e present essay, however, all Uiat appeats to'be tfejced^
(ifRyi& tQ point out the most striking instances of animals of hot
bltmates which have an analogy with the fosisil species of tb^
iM^e' genera, and by stating the places in which tJieir bones ai^6
A^uid, to prove a similarity of temperature. * *^' • ' ^
'- Before doing so, however, it may be right to call the aU^tftiiiti
^fiBome readers to the consideration 'of an opinion which' s^H
fr0V«^, notwithstanding all that has been written on the 8a>l^<5Ct,
^Mt" notwithstanding the late discQveries of the cel^bvat^d Piot.
S^ckiand^ which ought to have set the matter quite at r^&tfot
4if&t'.- The opinion is, that the remains of crocodiles, hip^ottt^
4ild6e6, opossums, rhinoceroses, hyaenas, and other aniiiiiiil80^lH!)t
liiiCniates, which are found all over Europe, were not ihib itAi^iA*
Hitiits of the re^ons in which their skeletons and bones sdredis^
Vibvered, but that they were scattered over the surface of tb^
^ilfth after their death by some great destructive catastf opbb
i^ijsenrbling the Noachian deluge, of which several are supposed
^'have occurred. ; . , . ,
•'' <5eology does not offer any collection of facts upon which it
is possible to build an hypothesis of this kind '; for although^ ^h
%^dih the oldest conglomerate and greywacke fragments of pri-
milive rocks (and this is the first or earliest appearance of any
thing resembling diluvian detritus), yet the very agitated static
#f^thfe. wafers occasioned by Ae intense heat of the subjacient
strata would account for the phenomena* But allowing the
'^frguinent its full force as to an analogy with a deluge, it is
"i^^hd'ent that it is not applicable to the question concerning thfe
<idKstribution of fossil remains, inasmuch as the creation df
iferiticmted beings had not then begun.
^'^The next great series of geological facts which beat te^-
'iSit6ny t'6 the destructive agency of some powerful and geH^
^htl siBt of causes, is not met with until after the formation
*tfift!e' transition limestone. Soon after this' period, a general
T^^iriifvttlsion of nature appears to have happened, leaving tllfe
^^8mt 'Indisputable testimonies of its violence: — I allooe-^tb
thfe^'^feoHiplete rupture and dislocation of the newly-fortaed
^rftfae.* - "Previously to their consolidation, these do not appear
^''•h^lfe safferied ahy other disturbance during their formatioh
^^ttWi-'Sfa^ as the gentlest motions of the waters would accoUttt
tRjtfirifTh'^'. tfilobilfes, and the few shells which are fbufid in tllfe
4^^(iaaiitieft6ne, are entire ;' and if the Btems of etlcriUit^
^fk^%^iit4^ini^ are brdk^n and dispeifsed, it is a^ph^tiolai^n^i
'WBi66^^^%pA\>l6 ^fe>a8y explanation^ lUcL^tntieh as^^b^ >Ve%HR:
~'~'^^^0iy^^[%W precipitated' tnagttia.<ctaAdn*lt^'^lt!*8^'jtf
fifai>Wdliild b^ ^^ffi^etit to elfish the slender sf^idi^'4>f^>«ui5ii
zoophites, and carry the fragments along with it to a short
8It ;>^^--^^««^'jt^eHtetool<^W.lA* ^^'-v'-> [MaHI^,
abt(diG<!>' trUtdH ebr^ei^^nU^ With llie t^lattfeltlibkieriM^mk
Pitate should be formed of nearly equal Itiifellfiete'lffW
' mdiit6df dlitioii is iti^edible ; tod W#j th^r«mf^$ 1((^ a
0 infer^ thial thU pmWim ih iltfhiigh 11 il edlift^iilf fiMitf
waB oiie into \Vhii6h It li«d b^eti forced Idtig a(^fc¥ Iti^ Wmk
ebnsdlidation by th4 op^rMteft of iibfiid poVigfftfl <5aiH§8. ^' *'
There is one which flfey be rfe&doftibly ^rfdSftltiFttd l« fiiWI
Ratted a gitftt miltif^tt^e ih ^fOd^oiiig th^ efildt>«^I ffi^tii fU^
Elastic ybpoui^ (ionfltted b^tw^ed thb fnleds^ I\6tit«d Ui^titiie
nticleiis sind 4h« ftfewly^ftftaed oHiftt bf 6:tid^s; Tfefe faifiy Htf 1
a^dtiirfed' a foltje gl-esltet than the p^feHfettre Whidh W&ii HfcrtW^ &f|
il, aJia td hft¥e butit itte Itett^fS, faptuiSiig fttid ^Verthr6*ing'IM5
d«i|^erilidu«ib^tlt Atrktit ifi %he ^an^id hi^hner 1^^ W^ Bhd itt^ b8^
di;^3 wiole tracts Of kftddfmhrdwn by feubfferWift^bttii «g»«flB
ef ft jjrobdbiy Siffltto kind. It i§ td thiiS pdflbd thatt i1^ ftl^
refer the elet'^tiott df fedtitiiifefiti drid ttimin!aifife> «h tfc* stteiSSSM
ftiid ^nrfae^ of wbidh we HM pi^tmft df th^ii' ilibtoaritie oWaH*
and it is tothfs netidd of g^nefal dontuHioii that We aiffe ulw'lSs
look fot th^ subsiddhoes df oth^f pattS, fdftftirig ih6 ^H^i
basins into which the ocean retreated, and the lessor bfeifeifli
irhich afterwards vrereflll§d with fresh Wftt^t lotf^nt^ atid Mitt.
But at thife period df tim^ the gr^ttt t«^dA df erdlitidn had nllid*
but; Kltld prdgre^s, and the diily afiiwals WMeh fejti^ted bfeldng^
to th^ sea* Ndfld Hppeftf id hare bfeeri de^ttdyed by thi^ ^i^tt
cal^stjoph^, ftnd if m^ find d did^f^ni^^ b^tWe^n the iz^ddpbit^^
ftnd msinne' iiidllude» which Wdrfe dfeposlt^d &ftdfWardfe, thfefe iS
lib way df accounting for the pbeddfliehdn btit ill the diminrltidfi
df ttemperatare whlfeh was grfediiyiy taking plab<». " '^
Since this period of diBdtdei- until the appfeartipae df the'dfiHS^
Vian bduldei* stdnes and gravel, I do ndt ktldW bf any gebld^fejll
Appearances which have the ittdst distant i^^^dttiblaiice ttr Wi^
wrecks df a d«(ige. The Wdtk df brefetion: dn the cofettiiy,
appears to h&ve pfoeeeded ^ith grelt regiimtify, Vatying and
multiply ihg the living fol-nii^ abddrding fes the tempfeHtlAfe
varied, and as dry land and filluvial sdlls wet»e piddbced. • ^ ' '^ |^
It is impossible td digriy tb&t many aribi^ttt continents ^^itite
dlluvikl dfepbsite have befett fregbently bv^flSWed bttfti by'Mt
and fresh water- They h&te left inflf&put^ble l^stinron}^ bf tfte
fact* IBiit these we^e 6ll of them partial in contb^H^bA witH iStffe
twd events described, ^ o^ with the deluge ; ^bd ihkt *% aMl)fidfe,
the remiirfi df Whleh thdy bovered With neW d^po^te;' ^fffe
defed befdte the inundations, appears ftotii thfe Berfeit stjatd^bf
thfeir skefetdnsv ' -i :.' j-i.>
IVhen to the^e considef atiotlS fere add^d thfe late 'irittfaVt^^f
Profi Biidkl&od 6fi his diabdfery of the deh^'df. ahtedittWih
hy^iigiks, Jt6. in this tdlifttfyi nd dduM d'4n be left dHllife ftind
^Mi'nnprejiidlced berSdil, thkt the dniinal^ bf*dt yliBritf^i, Iftfe
finwii bon^s df which Are fduttd distributed over both continenti$y
Vf^4\r ' ^^nm^tHii jhi^kl^m W4rli.
^
Sl^ I8f«ty tlegt^ «ei&tiAl^^i ^6t^e> iti ii^dim tii^fAi ^^ d^Ji^-
ibimbitants of the places ia whicitilbeir jfeisicd&s are diseoA
VSVBCl; ' - ' in
AHi^btti and erooodiIesl> It I» ^^U kndwa^ afe don!^nei|
lAf theii^ iilLture tb the VeiV hottest re^gioas of Ihe d^rjEb-*
Tb^ Hre i^hi^fly fonnd in Ihcl Niger^ tb^ Nile/ the 6ftn|(^;
Hid AtDtadne^ iktA otbeir rivei^ 61^ th^ I6l*rid zone^^ So de-
|Nl0lde0t iire Ihey on a b()i temt^eralufe/ that it ha| been found
unpossible to protract their lives beyond a very short peritvl
WiteBL Wotight ihtd i^ tfeifiM^al^ bm, eHtm hf ^ttifi§t^l tem-'
liebutUi^ BbdnaHlj in hid I^ictiofitiki^e d^tiistdire- K^turelW
tomes the following pii§d«tg6 ft&m itI. Perrault's acboiiht of a
UVi% eh>eadil6 v^hM Was bfoU^ht to Y^riraillellt It is so miicli
lo IhB point thbt I batinot aVdid1n6ei1iiilgil :^" DiSons d'abord^
!|ne 14 spetitat^ld de t^et ahimal ViValit/ d^ja si propre jpar Ihi-
t^m^ i ^xc^it^i" la durio^iie> p&fQt snrtout eEtfabrdtnaire par la
ti^fcdiiSthnde de la sail^bn oh Ton Stoit eblors, et par celte dii
tiithat; Hkt le f!t)td e^t tellem^ht eontr£lir^ ad (drbeddile qu'en
*Aaf^qn^ H ^ Egypt^ m^me, ati rapport de^ iut^urs^ del ani*-
mal ne pent passer leit huitd d'£t^ (]ad datisi T^tiu/ qui aldird est
li^ucdup plhs cihftode ^u6 Tai^. O^ux qui avoit appbrt6 par
terre depui^ li ilodhdIl6/l€ crbcodile ddiit il s'agit> dtrent qu'ild
jWdi^M cfii tiidft pliisiteurs foiS) et n'avoifeftt pii 1^ fair^ revehjt
«u*^h U ifiettltit auprfes du f^ui" This ferododil^ lived only ^
Itle tiaorfe than a tnbnth.
The litin^ ftrocodil^ i^ 6e¥fei» (bund in atiy ptirt of Europe, but
ite fossil remaihs ^r^ discovered all over it> and in various beds.
Th^ fbfliil remaiila of a species of didelphis or opossum faavQ
been fbund in the oolitic bedfe bf Ertgland^ No living opossum
is tvtt fbUdd in a corfe&pbhditig latitude, tior indeed do any
tSiist iii Europfe. The living §pecies are chiefly inhabitants of
South Afti^rica, and are principally found in Brasil, Guiana,
Mexico, and range into Virginia.
• The chief fejiidehce of the ni{)p(jpotamos is in Africa, between
the fiVer Senegal and the Cape of Good Hope, knd in several
tropical rii^ers of Asia; The oohes of the antediluvian hippopo-
.tomi are found in the upper Valley df the Arnd in great abun-
!Biih^^ ; and as Baron CuVier ftSsiire^, in almost Ieis great numbers
'^ fnos^ of rhinoceroses knd elephants. Thfey are also frequently
tiet with in the neighbourhood of Rome, and in the county of
jtticldlleseic, in the neighbourhood of Brentford. — (See Mr. 1 rim-
a<^Ps account of them in the Phil. Trans, for 18113.) Aldiig with
ieis6 there Wei-e als^o found tlife bones of rhinoceroses knd
elephants. As to fossil elephants' bbnes, they are found all over
.^e. t^6dtinents of Europe and America. Not only European
^J^,^i4, jmt Umost all Siberia, teems with them.
f^^Jtt^afiur^ly needless tb multiply fUcts of this kind. If mo^e
mtF ji^i^ffW, . thi^ r^dtr is referred to the dassical and ti^ly
"^^^^^'pH^iemtitti found in one of the uppermoat ofoiarAiifata,
^^i^\l.c(iidoQ i^Iay,. indicate for all the places in Ekiglandy'^avsJao
^lm^^0tli^ii (Ml the continent of Europe where .coDleoipcupaneodbs
^9ig^£n|is^r^ inet leitb, a temperatur/e; equal to that of .the Webt
'^Im^^ii* ^nd rthe north of Africa. In these de|>osits the fossil
'^^inatHs%egin to bear a close analogy to living .genera' sidd
. We have no means of measuring the lapse of ycflMS from tke
period of these depositions to the creation of man. From the
time of the Deluge to the birth of .Christ is 2348^ according to
the Hebrew text, and consequently 4173 years from the present
date. The creation of man is supposed to have been 1656 years
b^^C^tbejPeluge^maJcing altogether. 5^29 years since, i^ain.
Now supposing a period of 1000 years to have elapsed from the
extinction of those races of animals to the creatipn of man, we
'iiliVe^a' period of 6829 years, duringwhich the climal^ o£i<?reat
"^Britfiiin has been reduced from the heat of the West lodies^i^r
'the toMi of Africa to its present standard. -rJt
>v t'he whole surface of the earth seems to have suffered a: great
diminution of temperature by the action of the Deluge, <^e
Waters acting as a medium between the earth and its surround-
ing atmosphere. On the retreat of the waters, another causa of
cold arose in the immense evaporation which followed ; and .is
■th^ radiation of heat from the centre of the earth was constantly
going on, we have a right to presume that the equality i of .tem7
'pefrature on the surface of the earth, was gteatly destroyed, by
'that catastrophe, and that the loss of terrestrial heat has biebn
^fafch more rapid since the Deluge than in an equal lapse oftVQ^e
^|>i-66edii)g it. Solar heat is insufficient to compensate theJo^s
^bf 6albric in the polar regions where the fields of ice seem^^Qii-
^j^tantly increasing. . i*?
"^ '^ i^ut at the period of the deposition of ihe Loudon t4ay,i aiid
^^ ooiitempbraneous formations, it appears probable^ from the
' itikintml remains they contain, that the heat on the suriuoe. of the
^i^tttthwas notmucii greater at the time of their existence tliiailit
^ll M present in places which are inhabited by many of the humdn
race. If the earth was not then fitted for mai^, k miiak base
^\ii>^tk owing to other causes than mere temperature ; iteould not
have lost much heat by radiation between that periqd aadnliis
creation.
-4^^j6^iiQQt^\Xi%iOiXhei Hebrew text, the human /aj^. , began ^0 be
iiMnefwed after ^be IXefeige in those regioi>j$ where. awil|ur.ipgusnge
lis gi>^aty aaid don^equeivtly in a temperature^ w^^i^h 9ft9^^PiSBS^
ri[l»^aM«tuwHh ih'4t whicli had been nearly U^v^g5a4i^^^fr3|||e
earth at his creation and till the Deluge.
At present^ttae loss of terrenitrial heat ia^ vo-gcofatHhat we are ^
mountains; and regions which were gw^i| w^^,^jim^
oi^'ivbich. this. leads would. be ^t^rely^put^f ^f^c|.^ro0|^,p^j^
'lutt.ibefi||itJKM»ely : tf> throw . Ipgether ^.ooil^cti^ .9^ (^^q^f^M^^j^e
:ifadlts inigeology, which it apj^eaced to metobii.t^^j^g^^
iiaAAo bt^come more int^Uigible^ £^nd as elutidat)i^. ,^^Hj[^(^
i ttow far /I have succeeded must be left tolhe^ef^isij^y&^pf^l^^e
competent judges who peruse your journal, and wliose^^jogi^^s
^i&dxEttkiiAms I sbaUjeoeive with pleasure. .,., .^i ^,^.ff ,,')/
ttU * •" ^ ••♦! jfo boh^q'
.IV.,... Article VIII. . ,_.,^- .^^^^
^^^a^ination of a Mineral from Sussex CoutUy, tfeH^^Si^,^
^'^' ^ ' By Prof: Renwick.* ^ - s - ^^•^^
iJt;i»:17wB sabstapce in question ei^ists intimately €pnnic^§id*)^i^)
:«9d» disseminated: through the ore of the ADdovecmi^ }.,f^j»it8!e
that was at one period famous for producing tjhe beia^ Jifoiii)n
Y^tQffth America, and the only kind from wbiclt iM^^i^a^tJ^een
.^daccesfifulfy manufactured. .^\^[>
4i^. This ore appears, at the first glance, to be compose^ pf thrj^e
Ityaiy- distinct substances. The tkstis intermedial^e in, appeo^^DHfte
'belmeii granular Franklinite and large-rgrained magpetiq.ifiGiii
«;br6: <mi a cursory examination, it seems to b^ ^ protp^idi^i^f
orontwith a slight trace of ziuc. The secpnd 4S an nisf^rjifiifms
'duartz, tinged with a colour varying from a pale jcose c^piJi^, )^a
«(tUep Vermillion. . The third is of a dull vermillion r^d^ #in(i qf ra
'-giailular fracture; in some specimens fine, in. oth^r§ QPfMT^-
e^MXkied, . This last was chosen as the subject of examiaatiaqi<^t
» Is hard enough to scratch glass; its powder is rbsevn^;^it
slightly affects the magnet ; and it effervesces with aci4i^^;^:ilt
had been supposed to be a red oxide of zinc. My fir^t jQi^eri*
iiinteiits shawed that it bad no analogy with that substant)^; 9^
:3it having been subjected to. the action of the blpwnip^ iti^.r^-
iXctcify^ he inferred that it contains cerium, as it ion|)k|94tf¥il^
iboiak a.gtass that was green while hot, but lost it8t.c/()Ipiyr^
deodlfBg*^ £.\pQsisd alone to theblawpipe, it is infustb^. ,'^^1
J^'uTbiasocrtsunits nature, it was subjected to the foUoW;ing pi^
^liiqi^naryfivoe^ss : , ;•,.;;..(
''" 'i^i^^^'A'lsiiiaH perrtion was separated,* and reduced to fine pow
'^ii^Hn^U sVeei disb. In this state it was acted oj^on \iriebtmiteiit
^WSf^fiS&^eeh^ iiitro-mnriatic and mutiatijS acids ^ giving* vittb
^m^Wtteit^iaikt p^culiat' sm^l of hydrogen.* Tb6 sibtien' eeasediiki
I ■■■* '■'.•'» '•4*Pj-'
i^
idii6ui'hidFV Hou^r^ le^ia^ k tionfiid«ilftle pvti of ifie mteii.
tiiitdiiiblv^. aW but littte lAii'ed in aiiptarancb.
Tb^ bUniitlc sotutidii tiein^ 6ct^d iipoh by tests ^hdwedi
]^ong others, Ui^ ^lioWing i^heiioinenfl i^ •
t^.) With ibfrdeyabatb'bf potash a copious bbieprteipitat^;
With ferAnibnia A tt^lpitet^ df i rtdh f ermillion rtfli
Wi^ t^&tbdh^t^ bf aoithbnii a reddish ifhite ptedpitatelw .
,,<S;\^With hyd«)suiphu?et of pbtaSh, & Milky ip[)earahd§j th^i'
lij^tdii^g, l^ft a-Hcanty brbWii pi^cipitate.
(6.) The compounchs of beriumbfeiiig sblubl^ in eUteH^ bfa^if}^.
t^ iipKiJ^o-muriatic solution was concentrated until the greater'
part of the free acid had evaporated, and was fhenneutrafizedto
tj^e point pf nascent precipitation by carbonate of soda.
i(7.) A part of the liqubV In Jtb. 6 being diluted, crystals of
sf4pbat0^QCs0cla were thrown in ; these, after some hoorsy. Wera
4issolved^ causing a white precipitafeet
(8.) To another, portion of the concentrated and neutralized
iiitrb-thUrilitib ^dlUtibh (6) tsiiifate of j)bt^l^h Wit§ bdd^d, on
i^hii^h a ldb))ioUS white breeipttiit^ lihsugd. Thg §iil^pieibn thai
fh6 ^iibistahc^ contllin^d dehum beihg thus cotlfirmed^ it it^
j^&jetited tb a moi'e stHct e^athihation, a^ ibllbwid t
B.
(1.) A iiiaSi weighing tieariy an bunce, and cbntuiniri^ ist ri^
jkvr small gWlns bf the o*ide bf iron, was brok^tt from the cbfi
tier of one df the lipi^fcith^hs. Weighed by m^abS bf a Very acdn*:
rat^ hydtOBtatid b&lanc^^, it appeared to hlive a specific gi^aVity
bf8-26.
(2.) This Mdsd beihg Mt dfHihed ihtb f^agniettts in % &t«el
iHoi'tary All ih^ dxtraiiebdS matter Was carefully picked oiit with
aforc^ji^s; itWaS then itdtic^d to impalpable pbwderbylon^
grinding in kil agclte dishi
<3.) Hfty graibS of the {)dW(ller were boiled for half an houif
ill nitrb>ttiuribtic acid, the soliltidn assumed a Hbh yellow boloiif*
k^ a dob^defublli r^sldbum Was left, which, ^epkMiied, ^dSh^d ^
and dried, h&d lost in Weight exactly 27 graitiSi
(4.) I'he insoluble pbrtlbn (3) Was then put into a silvei* bruci-
ble i^ith 70 grains tJaustib potk§h ; Walef being thfown on, the
mixture Wai bbiled, eT&j^bf^ted to dryness, and finally fiii^d:
Tb^ fusi^d ihass wtis softetied by water> and separated vtotit the
crucible; muriatic acid being then added, thb Solid liciattef'
swelled up into a gelatinous masl^. This was evaporated to dry***
fa«^0fii baih^ oonstantly stirred throughout the pro^ess^. ahd ailer-
i^ards boiled for twd hours itk very dilute muriatib acid« Th^
^dle Was then thmwti ispod a filter, and cairefully washed ; tk^
Jj^soluble portion when dry wlis found to weigh 16*3 graib^^^^f^
lyhite, wiui a faint and hardly perceptible tinjge of rose coloi^j^,,
(5.) The nitrd-ftiuriatit Isolbtiott and Wtii^hings (3), and the
ftfindbnia #a§ add^d Ift gJt^^Bs, WMgft tkMW dbwfl h^^1k4Ppmi^
thrown on a filter and washed, diiid tli€ liquor #il& IM^&ibffiffl
n^WjrteHSHB^i'^J^efimehl:. SeS (12): * ' ^
(6.) Th^Wefei|>H?ltfe (8) WW r^iSsbl^^dih a feffiMigiclS^fiiy W
miiriatic acid, and tlie ioWtiBii dbntiferArht^ J t«rtfttt*af abOMl
ti^'ke^^dnmllfeflgfte^c^lfig^tga^rdf, Wh^H et^l^lM^ 8f tftltaric
Mid ^ktk thh>Wn in, bjf iHi%Ii ^ c6^idti§ White jpf^^itnte'^M
' t*.> ThlS\^?edbitkie (6) #ftg decdm{)bgfed W HSkl, Vmei^;
fiffif^^uifeed tot) hdstily, a b6W;idrl bi^ dh^redkl iiJfte!%ffi; iMt
^f ^ktbc^m or pa^aHrh should b^f^i^ght^ iti cdiiWt|ti§jak^ 6F#
pi^xff iU tli^ei]>ltat& (6) Beih^ the diffitallty idlfibt^ bitii"^
f tkte of potash) the triads wfes Wa§hfed With f 6f y N^fe^k Vifl^gltff
To separate the carbon, the mass was again acted upon ' hy a
dtuall quantity of muriatic acid, and the solution filtered.
■ (8.) The new muriatic solution was depoi6pofeed by ammoxiia'^
Which threw down sa, fgd preclpitkte, tllat, when Washed arid
dried, weighed 6*16 grains!
(9.) Lest the acetic acid (7) had cafrifed off ahjf part of tkig
mineral, it was tested witli amtnoiiia. biit iio pfeci|>itate ensued.
(10.) IritQ the liquor remaining after precipitation ty tartrate
df potash arid fartaric acid (6), ferrocyanate of potash waa
dropped; a tnilky appearance first todR place, and finally (I
copious j^recipitate of a pale blue colour. This precipitated,
when dried) Wei|(faed 26*9 grains^ wbltlh^ siipptddiiig ft to Ife a
ferrocyanate of the protoxide bf iron^ Mi its ^qUiy&leni u4itsbi^
9@^ give$ on reduciioii ID'S gHtiiis pfotblide ef ItMi
'^ (ill) To the liquor yel rediaitiing (10)^ carbonate af ftfBttlo9ii
waq add^d ; a white powder was thfown dbwti, weigbiilg I'M
grains. ■ ■■-• -t/j
(12.) The ammoniacal Hqubr and washings after th^ firi^ fURii
cipitation (5) were boiled for an hour, but no precipitate ensuled 5
being theh acted upon by carbonate -of soda,- a* gfe^lsfe precipfci
tfitefell, weighing when dried -30*92) lliid ^aiiimtlhg the jyr^
sence of t9*(M grains eaua tie lime.
" - ■ ■ » . . . « . • • *
'^{h) Aiit)ther portion of the powdered mineiHl Was expoted
ibr itt boflt' to ia red heat in a platina crucible ; its weight wtis
I6djticed ffbfai 80 to 48-25 grains. ^ •
• 1^.)' ft was then treated as bf&fore (B. 3)^ with nitro-muiiatfc
tcM, th'^ thsbliible portion fused with caustio poiaslu he. as^ iti
tjD. 4)/ khd the whole' of the liquors united, as in (B, 5). *Hie
fSt$ttfl*e'^tts then concentrated to separate the excess of iaci^
kiU'WgiiA diluted with wateh Crystals of sulptiate of soda
• Queiy Carbonate f— C,
aSi ' Prtif. Jlmiii^k m ThmHtr. \Wkve^'
AfOlfDi'in. were, after a few hours, dtssolred; a pnoimtMk.
^laued, which, washed, and dried, weighed 8*62 grains. If tbt.
representative number of cerium be 92, thit>, when reduced, nil|'
fel*e ^^ grains of peroxide of ceiium.
^"(Si) The hquor whence the ceiiuni had been precipitated (.
ttUpg tested by the oxalate and benzoate of ammonia, ehowl!
tfie' Presence of hme and protoxide of iron.
""Tne more important results of the analysis B. being thus c*
ffiitted, it was not considered necessary to extend the proci
farther. The results may be, it is believed, depended u]
telieeyt so far as the equivalent numbers of ferrocyanic acid
ij^ribni enter into the calculations of (B. 10) and (C. 2), and —^
doubt whether a small proportion of some other metal may uU
llttve been thrown down in (B. 10). This analysis shows Ihft^
stowing to be the constitution of the substance : 'J
dii:-. ° i
(,„„ Gnilni. ,A
Silcx, B. (4) lfi-30 ij
iAi ■ Peroxide of cerium, B. (8) 6-16
«rtl .il Protoxide of iron, B. (10) 10-50 a
oiul« .,, Alumine, B. (U) 1-84 *
'~ Lime, B.(12) 12-04 ■
nt.,.„ , Water,C.(l) 1-76
.^,, Loss ., ,., i-41 l<
•■; 60-00 ',',;';!
As this mineral neither agrees in external characters nor
chemical constitution with any other compound of cerium, tbfl|
has been hitherto described, 1 have little tiesitation inannounfi^
jng it as a new ore of that metal. It appears to possess th^
nearest analogy in ils composition with the AUanite. This laafc
by the analysis of Thompson, quoted in Macneven's edition ol
&ui4e's Chemistiy, has in 50 parts, ',^^^^
noii Hn
Silex .
Oxide of cerium 15-13
' Aluraine 1-83
-^^■'",'_ "' T*rbtoxide oViron V !""!.'!!!".!!!!*. 11-34
"" " " iime 4-11
Water. 1-79
raadi
50-00 ■''^^™
,L ■' - ^! iT
Tf If my surmise in this respect be true, I should propose WhlK^
it.tfae Torrelite, in honour of my friend Dr. John Torrey;'tawliDi<
nineralogical science is under many important obligatitma, arti
to whom this tribute is fairly due, as it is to his nice ttKtt'iti! th^
jaknkgemeot of the blowpipe, ibat V\\e A\sc«-^evj al t^tva«i'\«i
the substance is to be attributed.
}g3^} jr J Mr. Chilfkm <m th A^ffJm nf^^hrrdite. gff
Several months before the second i^un^her of ;|li^ A9^a|%
thp J^yceum of Natural History of New Ifork (frQm':.vfr^i^I^;\^
lis-v^e' copied the preceding article), arrived in this ftQ^^n^j^xH^
jViend Mr. J. F. I)aniell, received a specimen of Torreiiis7i&^
J?jrofe^sor Renwick, \yhich he put into my han|jts fbr exa,¥ai2\ft'cyn
with respect to its containing oxide of ceriuip. t ^fiJl bjCJg^
state the resnlU of the experiments to which I submittedUjif hcI
t". iSeated to redness in a small matrass, ^^^.^^^^f&yp.\^3
^JMle water; it did not decrepitate, nor suffer any 9^,%ngg.)^^
appearance. / ' .v^rj^ijuL
/Before the blowpipe, with soda, on the platma wirf^.it g^if
m the oxidating name an Oj^aque deep green glohul^ jijl^^
inclining to blue ; by the addition of nitre the colour liecame
pure deep gfeen. in the reducing flame, the assay beoaaie
Drown. ' "
Withborax, it dissolved readily; in the oxidfttift^ flame the
globule was transparent, and of a fine amethyst c6h)'ur. In the
reducing flame, light yellow whilst hot, and coiouHess whea
cold, ft remained perfectly transparent. ' v .^
Salt of phosphorus had very little action on a small fragment
of the assay ; the globule in the oxidating flame was cj^uite transr
parent ; yellow hot, colourless cold. In the reducmg flame,
colourless both hot and cold. The fragment remained enve-
loped in the diaphanous glass, apparently very little altered., A
jBortion of the assay reduced to ftrie powder was more reaDftiJy
aSct^d 'on by the salt of phosphorus than the fragment, 'bui'^e
scjj|iearances were similar, except that the colour was' itflfifl*
deeper. A considerable silica' SKdeton remained in the Sfu^^^A
gfobiile, ivhich, when cold, was slightly opaline. . ^ ' ^^'
' jtlbiih in the fdtceps, the mineral fused with difficulty Sft'
surface, bubbled iip, and became covered with a vitrified'gt^ei
grey transparent coating. '
These experiments give no indication of the presence of oxide
of cerium* but as that substance, when in combinatiojp with iron
and silica, cannot be detected by the blowpipe, no certain infer-
ence, as to its presence or absence, could be drawn ^om them.
They demonstrate, however, that the mineral cont^ns manga-
nese in considerable quantity, of which the analysis takes no.
notice.
It is stated in Mr. Renwick's paper, that Dr. Torrey inferred,
Ib^.itH^ uasmeral 'f might contain cerium as itibrmed with diHw
ftigiMa th^t H^iz4 §ff0en whilst' hoty butflost its colour: iomiodolii^^
Tbf chf^PiQtejEs which BerzeUus gives of oxide of: cefium^witii
^r%^t|<^$K§ Ih^ ^Ip wpipe are, *^ that it fi^raiaiii Hke oxAtnimriflam*
%:imwpii4^^'i^^m:ii^p cmnge-yelhm^^^^M ^olfte leafcoa^jMei
^Milfk^'f tke glasi become^ enamel . wfaiteV. Iti ' ^e rida^k^
^ssDe' itloses its colour."* Thatthese ckaracters aie accmiateiy
givi^p> I ^aii vou^l^ fpom psperinieql:. • . r . > ^
V /L poptipi) pf tbe iniper^l |n I^Qe ppwde? ifas digfsa^ iq.n^tr^
qauruitic apid tp dyyhfisa. Tlie dry ps^a wj^^ rf^ii^plT,e^ |^
^ater, witk tbe adoitiPQ of a littl^ tnuriatip afi^id^and a few 4?^pi|
^tpitFiCf A p^rt remained andi^SQlvpd;^ whiah of^ 0:v:amipa<;ioa-
proved tp consist gf ^ilips^ yv\ik a ii(tl|^ oxide pf ifof^ aji4 9^j4f ^
^k^n^^m^^, Tljis ijpipg spp^^atg^ Ijy tbe fiUpr, "aajiy}qpifi v^
added tq tl|g cjeq^ polutic^n. v^^ipli tbrg^ dpvfn ^i^ al)^p4ant
4ar^ red prepipi^fitgi (ft)t Thfl whole Mra^ thipi^n on tRp 61*?!^^
add the ammoniacal sohitiph set aside. On standing ^ ffpff
J|00r$< it depqjsited a, porppn ^pm?e pxide of m^ng%p€t«fe; fpid
1^ th? iidditiop of oxalate of .ft|i|mopi^, ^ffeided ^^ abi|f|4an|
vhi^e pttjcipitqt^, ^hifth i^'^s fpi^p4 to pfip§i8t.iperi8ly of c^c^^
pf lii;i§ wUft a conpi(l^faye q^^F)Uty qf oxalate pf w^gapei^f^/:
- The dark ried pecipitate i^a) was redissolved in munati^i |(^id
f^Hh wW 4rpps <rf njtric ^cid, tl>e ^lut^ea p^r€|f«Hy flg^itolifei
ty an^mooia, and ^n ejj^cegg pf o^aj^^e of ^pxjppni* 4r9RPf4 ^^
it, , ^^ fipQt that rpagent pcpa^iqpqd PQ prf^cipita^cjji Vt ^ftf^ ^
large quantity of the p^ala^g W befp ?4lJ§4| tfeP pol^ip^
^caipQ turbid, and on stapding pepp^it^e^ a §ip^]l whit^ Pfgoipi-
tote- TJjift was separated l^y decgpting off ^t gfjjngfQ^taftt
fluid and well wa§hed, Op e:^apypation it prpv§d tp De fjpfttjy
Jyure oxp-l^te of niarig^nefiie, fqr b^^ng beftt^4 '^n ^ vhtm pap^
^le ove% tl^e fiipirit Iwp tP redpfs^, it l^t ft (iarV; h|9\jfp'^ul^
sl^ce, wbifih gave with fioda an4 njtrfi, \ipfqre tjiQ Wo^piPf i aa
fjpaqp^ dy)t inftn globule ip tftfj p^idiatipff flame, and wjrtt
* orax a tr^n^par^qt que pf a be^ptiful f^metny^t polpur, wImq^
.isapp^ar^^ whep be^te4 in the reducing flapie,
' Ammonia add§4 i^ exqes^ tq the solutipp from whic^ the hat
«(e|0jtate li^d be^p sepp^rated, threw dowp a, large quaptity of
d-p)pd^ pfirpn pai|ie4 with a ^ttle manganese^ an(dipn poueifig
'^ S| solttlion of prusHiate of potash to Ui§ ^p^ipppi^bc^ hq^aofjt
^^PHsly ^Itm^i ft epii§i4§rRfelf? white preqipitat^ qf pf »$»]^te
As Q^y P^ject w^ merely to a^eertaip ifv^etl^er oxide of peri«i||
f; j^^^ in tha ipinera| or no^, |hp quj^ti^i^s of ij^e ^B\m^l
|^<^|^^te« WCTf |>Pt ftW^nd^ i^ » tli§ ?W% 9f ^<?hjt ^P^S^i^i
Qs ps^'^faily ^3fanijpe4, mi^^ ^^^ 9f 9eri^ro ^m\4 ba^dg^eq^
any ofthem* .«
ApE&C(i9SI iSiC f ^>«> Siffiterly tr?»t«4^ JWtaptly gajseiin'iM^^nwk^
fift ptei^ijpiti)^^ <^f oijplate of oermm, pq f^d4ipg o^^at;^ qi^Oi^^ff^^
'>, f^t94 r^tji^^m^^W s|plptio|t, pp^vipȤly neutralised ^%
KI;H-^!)t
]^aaieH-to>yrpf, ^lei^mpk^ wbP bad tbf .gQD4pes3 Ji© ^d^n^
DP^^r-fiiitQiit^eQ ot Tpr^^^^tef ^^ I receivect at the, s^^tm^$
p.ogy of hu ^|i^y§i§>, pqbli^faed iix tlje work alregdy i^U^qed tOt.,,
w§ r^iil^. w^qh I hf^^ obtained diflfejfing so mii^h f|pr^
I^Qi^il.Qf dPrpf. R§Q5S?i6)5^. I pQftsidered it du^ to that g^atlqia^Q
iq^resurog jpy.laboHr§, an4 I accprdingly repeated l»ia ao^lyaif
m $ BP?tiftR Qf ^he mm^l h^ H^ sp liher^ly and ol^l igiagly
' Tq ^y §D^pH^6! I W^s a§ ^nsuQpessfuIas before ip my attQi^ppfai
V9 4i*FW«f 9-^ pxi^§ f)f Q^fiurp. I thereforp rq<jiie)5ted[ |^r,
j^r^^l^y tp ^av^ |lif gQ^d^gag tp e^^atpiq^ ^ portion pf ti^e piinOr.
^pjr pjBLC» of (h§ Ol(ia^ ip qpe^tjoii. To wbatey^ciu^^ it vm^
be Qwwgi th^refoF^y I fipi cQpipell^^ tp coniQlqde tlipv^&pme «rrof
Itsui.c^pl; intp P|?pf. R^nvvipk^s analysis, and tliat o^i|fi of i^eiittin
foTfi^ no part of the coR^tit^ent ingredieqt^ of Torrelite.
. Itip^yoe righli to add, thi|i both miqp and.Mr* ^P^rqiddtY'ii
^^rioiepts w«re m^fi or iiifj 4uU yermiJliQU red por^og pfl[^§
• Articlb IX.
|:ix- Proceedings of Philonophiccd Societiei. i
v[- : * . \
BOYAL SOCIETY.
- Jani. 27,-TT-The name of the SoUqitor-fGeperal.vv^ft ordered 49
be inserted in the printed li§t§ pf "tllfi S^^^et^y ; m^ a pstpear w^ji
Mf^xxm^y On Wf Anatomy pf the MpU^Cn<;kf t i % h^^
. jEgp. 3t:r-^Th§ re^dipg of Dr. J^idd's p^pen w^^ cpftrf^d^,!
»p4 iMi. App^mdis tq the Crpo^i9^ l.|ict\ire, by Sir E» Som^^ B^rL
I^F^R^. r^d| fmnq^iiping tfeg qimnUanepus fll^cp^f ry i)y h>fl;v§^|
|iid,Mr. Bauer, of n^rv^i^ in thp hvipo^n Q§,vM'St'nqg |kn4 plfti:
0^1^ dr^vipggi of \vhich by Mr^ B, w?r§ anRfis§4 ^9 ^hi§ Pl^peri
.. • jHpfe, lQ,Trnr:C^^ Viacjount Str^gfprdi and t'h^ R^y. Cr^orgt
Fifher^ MiV. werQ Mn"WM Fellows pf th« Spciiety ; ^n^a pap^
iKiHi)S(^, pf which th@ f pup wing i^ 9, Ijri^f a-b^lTOt ;=^ ... .
j*>/|ifotice.Df fhe Igupeoodpn, a Fossil Hm'hivP?§H§ R^ptik fouii^
iibtbe S%Rd9^tqne of Tijgat^ For^§t ; by Q\^m Mftpteji, ]^]L^r|
^IQ0|ui^i^te4 by levies Gilbert, E§q, VPP,S. . ,. ,
In |.ha ^an(J§t9n^ pf Tilg^t§ fpregti n§ar Quckfi^Wi iJ^ ^M^^^
^rti^>bf?fei»ft to the irpn-^OTd ferfnatiop^ m^ fprma pact, itf 4
fdM^^.pf bife ^^tfuding frow pa^tinffs tp Uomhaw, fim fquij4
# l^tI^^|od ^ few pf tb^ bpn«^ of ^ »i^^ pf tbiP ppi^
tog^K«r ^Ub tbo^e ^ l^ gigaptip spfde^ pf pvpfs^dilft, pC.lfe|
»WgW>*W.^ ^1^ flfwps^prui, ^oid tf)e, rSPa^W pf teHe|,
. c ■• ' . ^ 'It ' »it _
224 Proceedings of Philosophical Societies. [Marcb,
birds, and vegetables.. The author, some time since, sent speci?
menis of the tecrth to ^vatious naturalists; in particular to M. 1e
Biiroii C«wfer, wfeo^e iopinioti of them cointidedwith his own;
th^nfr tber felonged to an extinct herbivorous rieptile Bitherttf
undi&seFibed* with the assistance of Mr. Clift he had subse-
queoUy compared them with those 6f a skeleton of the receij£
iffiMtoa of the West Indies, in the Museum of the Royal College
of SorgeooA, v/\t\\ which he found them to possess a closi^
atBeky ; and he details, in this notice, the particular results 6f*
the.cQ&ifmrison ; adverting, also, to the probable station of the
extinct aniuial. in the order' of Saurians. From the affinity
just meotioi^d, and at the suggestion of the Kev. W. if.
Coiiybeare, he had given it the name o( Igitanodon. On tibe
8U|^po6iiirm that the proportions of the parts in the ettitict
anloial were the same as in the recent, Mr. -Mantell infers tJfat
the Igliattiodon nuist have exceeded in size even the megatcteirti-
ru%.<^|Mi have been upwards of sixty feet in length; K'6m thfe
fossils associated vvitn its remains, he concludes, that if an
amphibious, it was not a marine reptile, but inhabited rivei^ahd
freirfi^^atlir lakes^ Drawings of the teeth and bones of the
IgiHMiioidoo were annexed to this communication.
JFtrfr* 17. — Capt. J. Mapgles, RN. was admitted aFellow of the
Society; and a paper was read, . entitled '^ An Experimental
Inqii,iry into the Natine of the Radiant Heating Effects from
Terrestrial Sources; " by the Rev'. Baden Powell, MA. FRS.
The object of this paper is to investigate an important qnestioa
relative to the nature of the heating effect, radiated or emitted
frotftbumipg. and incandescent bodies.
The heat from non-luminous sources has been shown by Pro^
fesscMf Leslie to be entirely intercepted by a glass screen ; that
from lulninous hot bodies, though in a considerable' degree*in-
tercepted^ is yet partially traiismitted. M. de la Roche Ifias " '
shown, that the part transmitted increases in proportion to the ^
pari intercepted, as the body under trial approaches nearer itS
point) of luminosity, or is more perfectly luAiinous; and'botJl
M. de la Roche, and bis commentators, seem -disposed to view '
these' results as showing that the effect is diie to* one simple *'
ageii^ the principle both of light and heat gracVuaHy passing frbiti ^
the state of the latter to that of^ the former, and in pirrpoitiori f\
becdming capable of passing- through glass: This opinion, h6\fr^ /
ever, i^ not absolutely proved ; and the facts nea^ be explained'
without adopting it. Luminous hot bodies may giv6' btf jfwb j
separate sets of rays, or emanations, one bf Krfrt potrsfes^ihg*
an itisep«»iWe heating powierHke- the ii^ht^W^^ simf Wa * ' * '
tran^is^U^thro^^ gi^'^r the other,' sample i-adianf KSft^tB^'^
t&dvlif^^S^d by %|E»k8. To examine Whiell 6F Aieie W^^o^^ "' '
is toe true one, was'the primary object oif the ' expfe'iiroifti lilSi "^
n^nfr ; <ti»o thermometers^ CjMiled po^ with ^m0oihbMk;mlif
d^K otber with alisaqpiiy« whiter jmm ext>oi(e«l togfaftker nalidi^^
Q3B|ctly fikmlai: citciiza«twcas to tiie; maiaktitim fram dUEMsKtii** '
iida<>us, kot bodies^ sueh na kOo mwed lo a o^nftidenlbie )dtgfM f
^^(liybdaadBnee^ and the flmie 0( a lai|»p. This fll^aaddne ftrit^ >
w^ ^Ltijl'theh without )&e ioteTpcMiition of a f iaaa > iK»Mb«< '
iMtot i^wio^' ibr.all the. causes ot enror likely to hav^ttQTeiiiMl' '
tl»|^Maalts^^ uie eh^eat was to obborve tike ratio, ofrth* mfm^^f' -
whLbhihetwb thetmometem rQse when espOeeid; and to dMi^ ^
atifo it widi that. aimiUifly ^btcooed when Hkm wte^«(MMa4^ '
If |fce aomea (acoordiaijpto the tha<iry Of.de 1^ KOchei tu^) ou^ <
iHMtM^tedapoctioo 4)f oDe aioij^le a^Qnt^ thd umeea^ ^06ts^ -
would; M, iatoel^ dtmimslied Ja abmaie qu^ntkjfy but waiM:^*'
Kiijpaa ilitiakared inrutio. If thi9 be not th» >ea«f^ it will IM^y ^^ "^
flii^'di4 tiaiiaiDitted porticm of henliiig ieflaeiHie tiot fedy jiftjin /
from the rest ia the property of transmissibilily^ batidi^«ff«(iMr ^
stt^bei^ % iL difiSnranl; iaily.
U ttU the vuiona expmmeiiis teied>. one unifoiw risiA Wtti ^
otouned; ▼ti^.> that the aecMMd fadio wubjmm^ ^malibr tlHtt -
die^exposed. For example, ia one instance, with the flame <^
alsknp the 'screened ratio was aboUt -g^ = j ; ^^ exposed ^^^
-* JL *' ' ♦ ■ ••
Iji^ gpiieral coacluaian deduced is, that the radiant heateg
iaflnenoe. ia the united effect of two distin«l aj^ts; OM li
8iin||f^ ; radiant beat» having the propertien of rebilum %ot
ttxiwTj^ ,and not darkness of colour, and stopped by ghss ; the '
othejL having relation to 4&bmt, and iranimitted legless, which
ma^^^ ^^neminated *f transmissible heat»'' or iff«am its el5ie ^
asSjIip^iiQa with li^hy *' the heatiqgpow^ of lignt," '
Tp|^4i^tiact jB^ten^ of two heatang eanses in the t9taF*' :
sffi^i^if^mtl|imjip<>^s hot bodies having bee& establi«h#d in tlH^ i
fii!Bt'^f^ of Ihi^ paper^ the .object of the secood part la to aioel^ '^
lu im eempare ti^ retia suriasiating between those two parit'^*'-
sf t|a^f^iii% effeet in di£R)rent iaataaces* The iasteices Met "^^^ *
«a, ]|i^.lbiQQia<ojf It )|imp, whoa the waibastioii. ««s ia diffetetit ^'
imf^!0(:qAVE^iei^^ i the uniQa ^ sevoiai flames oomMMf
iri^^gl^^tiie ujifiwm^ of density in. a ^ame ;; and the 4immat
wAMdes.^moe,ii|.metids. .
i ifeei>Bctkmff4iffaffet«flapmr iMMid»»^^"^^
H i| fl#ii#4 iPa mth «be Jimfgnfs^^ tMIMi. t'^^^
>ae were also inferred from the luqp(it||Qiiate
JHf. ^iaade* Ceuoi Rumfordi fcc.
Abio Sme$^ vol* ix* ^
«»
rf.i
9SS6: Proceedings df^PlAWift^pt^ Societies. [Miiiiii/
-M^lie«hJ^ Wtitf '*tl6jflgs to the light !» rfM)*^ni|oHfe Ife-.
*Wd'fHi\&^^tlot'b^^^^ and to be abstracted or tearf*^*^^
'^j^^/^A its isefisible temperature, so as not to be giVWfHlff
iS^ttfttft ti^tt We have no right to assume that tbial pet^n;
'W*the^Wat iA converted into light. Bat it is ^ridedt- tfattiMt
' "^e.tisfe^iiii^ofiafe state of very close combination' witH lig^; i^s-
^ifijer r^iidered sensible till the light is absorb^, as by dwk.
itA)fot3tfea bbdies: All bodies become Inmrnons by. the:apiplica^
f^^tttfM |bfl/a tJ^rtfeiin degree of heat. We cantiten form no otHer
^'^^pcrai^^ci^; than thiat the portion of the. heat which is iti the
-**"i^' ftfs^ttince lost, is, in fact, communicated- in: somfe "i^ity
gain given out and rendered sensible wh^n-tbe VAi
k,ab[^rbed, or changes its state and enters into corabins^on
'^%ith^^ other bodies.
^'^J'^VhtivifiW of the subject is applicable to avariirty-of phW^o-.
^^%e^a.'' Thdse of phosphdt'escence (hitherto considered 'sb atlo-
*^^i|iaf6u8) 82r6 ucrtic^. Most others are too obvious to require tyiq|M-
^^^^lilariiing. •
^'''* ^ These conclusions will perhaps be regarded as argumenl^ in
/ayourofthe materiality of light, it being thus shown to j^os-
^ ^ess those properties in respect to latent heat, which would
"belong to a substance of immense tenuity and elasticity.'" ;
^'r-^ ..jgjj.^^ 24.1— The Teading was coinmenced of a paper, OA%he
yMateniO-foetal Circulation ; by David V/ifliatns, iWD : edm^Ur
-/ nteated by Dr. John Thomsort, df Edinburgh, FRS. - ' \
-rv,':' "'.A-' .-LINNIrAN SOCIETY. . •- * . :-:,:!•.::
if y^ <fhe sittings of the Lirinean Society 'for the Sei8$ron iB2||-5,
. wene resumed on Nov. 2, when the following papers were fiad : »
*7^^ ;A Jitter from Mr. J. De Carle Sowerby, FLS. tojlr. R.'^Ylor,
;''^^c. LS. statlrtg that many specimens of a fre^-wate^-'ulkiU,
^^^j^^^ytilus polymorphm oi unielin, which is aiiatiVe ofifte Da-
^^ "Sufe, had been found attached to' littiber in thd Ooiirtheltial
^'*l)p'ck^, where the species had probably been btougfcit in tiftifcen
'';;;;%Deschption;0f three Species of British Birdi, tjro:df tpem
iifeW^ tti the Ornithology of the British Isles; by K.^A;"VWor8,
' la»tf;-ii^sprLoad6n' an Wdescribed ScrofiW'tftdtiii.qj^i^tei's
i'^'-tea'JfityJtt-It^lfend, fh r«22; and- nimed'byMi'; mmi^^^sa.
Mfii..m^.Querqvedula docitatit, or the Binnl€i^n#d;£%ck, j
a new m&^^f^m^i^? mm^wmil^maiiiim^Ae
^Me}a4ot4fW^ri)£ the Herbanuva of Mociimp 4ii4^P8e^ hqF'P
.JSffi tp9fifmci^ of A. 5, Lambert, Eajq. VPtSr-^C^fl^iH. iPby.
t^^e^y Cplyx 6-fidu8, - Petala 5. Ovaria 5-7^ ayji^o, er^pto*
o^ljfh terminaJesy continui. Achenia stalls i>laaio^ perpistenti-
? ^^jfitrifitatsu Embryo erectus. Sieversia par^doxa^ -. fqfiis
>f|^cic9)atis linearibus obtusis sessilibos integris.,3-6-^J9ve,
;^9ribMs suboorymbosisy stylis plumosis^ caule fru(icc>$Q» , . ^^^ '•
.1. . Nqv. 16. — A letter was read from John Atkinsoo,, Escj^^if^JLS,
-..to^Ali^^r^der Macleay, Efq. Sec. LS. accompanying. 8p(E;c^l)(^^s
. of a bejBtle found in a mummy sent from Egypt bylV^^.^al^. ^4
,f^c&fxiiy opened for the Museum of the Xeeds Philo^opWal
L't^^pi^^X- • The imperfection of the embalming appeaj:e4 tff iadi-
affffi^;^^ the person had not been of hish .caste ; the foid9,.qrib^
tiWiept^ which it was wrapped contained seveial hundr^^. j[}t ^^e
n.Iw^^ pf the beetle, and some of the perfect insects. ,, ,
Descriptions of several species hitherto unpublished i^f th^
<r^g#W^ Coccinella: .by Georse Milne, Esq. FLS.: communicated
>oN|ri^^. ^Qologiqal Club. The new species described in. this
•fi^er, were C circumclala,4-fasciaia,epkippia,parvaf6^gfiiiafa,
aecussata, ahdominalis, and, cyai/ea, from Brazil; iS-mtcuUta
fji^d X^-^macuhta from New HoUand; cordata and /^o/tna^ from
.^fiforth America. ,.4 ,
V AA^ Account of some plants belonging to .the Natural Order
called by Dr. Jack Cyrtandraceae ; by rrancis Hamilton,^ MD.
^,{FI£. The species described in this paper are Chelonejit^ormep
i^fi^TubicwHUij^nAClatifoUa.
ObservatidQs on the motacUla Hippolais of Linaseus ; by the
Rev. Revett Sheppard, MA. FLS.: communicated by the Zoo-
lo^cal Club. Mr. Sheppard concludes, from a particular exa-
/ pii|i|ition of the synonymy, &c. of this species of MotaciUa> that
* ^ H|i* the Greater Pettychaps of English writers. ^
,,^i ,,4'<f«r« 7.— Mr. G. B. Sowerby, FLS. exhibited some Beryls,
[jjffptu.the; Maroe Mountains, in the county of Down, in Ireland.
^kCI V^^' reading of Dr. Hamilton's Commentary on the third part
[jf^^,^,itortus Malabaricus was continued: tlie following i|^re
.19(^90^)9 ;4^^ PJ^"^» ^"^^ history and synonymy of which ^ere
{i,3mrf^V\&^ted: CoddaPatma, rfili Panna, Toada Pannay-Kattm
t^<fy^h{J^!3^h'^ ^orcum, Ata Maram, Anona jSfaram, AjK^^cUy
JoHt^iM^fymlv^^A letter from J. Youell, Esq. AI*S. stating. that spe-
'B^wk'^ miA^^'^f^ Coyofienm and Tantalm vinVu had p^en ta^en
a*ni«J¥> ftP*'WW^^*vra».d deposited in the Norwich Mupempj^iand
•n?«^^^fi¥A& ^9iW^r .^f' oneous statements of Bewick ,re^jM^c^ng
to ftW%lAi5figV«'''ffi* ft^]«yf;#r^«^tothi»
td % th* ItoHattbUbtt to Eat6m6l6gV 6( U^m. KirBj^ "aW
6^|lkni;e, ft* UJigear Vot fo hail^e B^fen Wfof e sufiSciently iolicw
(M^ d^^^iibi^d ^, by the 6iilme author : communicated by the Zd6-
Jttfi. 18, 182B.-^Th€ reading of the Rev. Messre. tt, ShiBpj
pift«l^4^iid Wi Wluteaf'ft Catalogue of th6 Bifda of' Norfolk tm
%v\ffsf^, i^bmiB^nc^d alid continued during the last Session, waS
Hb^ U^Oli Ih* Structure of the Tarsilfi in the TetrSimeraus
kvA Tniuer6u& Col^idritera of the Fiiehch Entomologists ; bV
W, $, BJlHc feeay, Esq-. MA. FLS.
Feb. 16.-^Th^ r6aditig of the Ret; Metesrs. SheppanTk and
yth\^i^^ t2kii\Kmh dt Notfolk and SuflR)lk Birdis, and that oF
Jjf . H4*iiU6n's Cotomfentaiy on the third part of the HorhW
M^labaricus. i^ils tbhtinlied;
AStROliOMICAL «OCi«TY.
The fltth Ahtitikl Geheral Meeting of this Society was held 611
e lUhtf F^b^uftt;}^, ibr thie jpurpOse of receiving' the report 6^
it,Ctnj^ci\ upon the state of the Society's aSfairs^ electing
ffiic^rs for tcie ensiiitig year, &c. Every Idver of astronomy
m)ist|l|Q. gratified to learn that the prosperity of the Society cf)|l«-
ii^\ikii;& ih6i;e^ke ; but the late period bf the month at "^hich^^
jpectivt^^ w account of the proceedings precludes its insertioi^
|ji tfi^^tiBsenl ftUoib^r.
r- V Article X.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.
• * ' *' Chemistry.
-,.'1
• 1
/ h OntM IngoU of Copper obtained t^i3 kamdA.
By M.Clement.
' Th)s b^kutiful Experiments of Sir Jame^ Hall have difemon-
ttiiiAeil tiiit bnlvi^ri^led Carbonate of fime^ a substance emm^tl^
^ei^Mi;ipo$ime by lieai^ niay be ftmed, und^r, ^at preissiite,
^itbottt losing its t^arbbnii; acid^ and afford when cold a so|UI
iijasf.sjmilar to marble. .^Z .^
^ .IhUkis manner, a^ it wa^s hei'eitoifbre imagined that that miii^i^
'jkv^ neeesWafiJiy fd)*med bf dii^positibh from itk a:queod$ sot^ii^^jQi^
^1^ jMild b|r ho riieans be a product of heat, so ^pre^ht u
'Jgl^ij^f hm^vm thfLta splid m^s bf metalUt copper ib^ji^^i^^
ei^tension under the hammer, must have undergoixi^ i^^^
'""■'■>er
<%, bnd M^ ^bt^uifl^d Vti cohtsibn by b(:|Dmg. J^p^
^l|hBil: k^ i^ ^bttitioti trjr whatevet ^eidt ii^ lilWaf ^ ik
state of a fih% l^s^ f^^lih Th^ following iai^t, libi^ver, Wl
■how that an iagot of copper iMf be formed vid humidi. I am
tl|l| to fiae f^ rtort tiflafi sxnqe, pn Wj#itiBg, ^ ,^ .___
jj ^ seri^fi of qpefatiQps fpr prf ps^wpg fjuj^lialt^ 9^ I^^I^tf "^
caldiniiiff cppwr with sulp^iur, ?oJiittiqB| Qj tl^ NJTO4t0\'Wlf
^l^ed; wtjicft beopipp tui[bid by the ^^p^mt^qn qf fj^ig|§)|^^
Pfiil^^phatp, TMy ar^ plftW^ m ^ tg^, h^f ^ujip^ i^ d)p
^11(10, in Qrdef to f^eGom^ clear, It ig ^g9^P»^ne^}lt^i^ ^^
pf this tub, wd always i^t %\ie mnctjon pf {vii^ St*? ^§ ^llVl 8^<
llHttpW (c Afl^wMfifOB^) (rf pft^Uci copper m obii|5f^tf3^ i^fpi
fliich gracjpanv mcre^sg ir gize. w4 wouW dpabtiesf 9lti«(K^;
irjiich gracjpanv mcre^sg iR^we. w4 wouW dpabflesf 9lti«(K^^t^
eppme €;otisiderable iqdas^e^r I l^ayp ^qn^<^ speeimetni jyl^j^O
dtetojslied fron» th§ t^^l witlj ^ foj^on of t:l|§ wqo4 ^4^JJf1f[l»
Oa QD^ ilide we ^nd th^se bits pf cqpper mottj^^^ ^^i%^
^OQ^^of tlie tub, whose stpiee ^rfj iix|pressed p{i their fjiif^c^j -w
the oth^r^ ibey have tb^ fo^ pf m^ppipdell^p wHhV^Ty Wt^fit^
hriUiaut, crystalline f«f ^tp, ,,
ppe of these specimens weighsf mqr^ tjian 7A .S^^WMI^
gptrarly 2^ 02, English), . / [ . ^ ,
. The qbemi^al aptiqn by whji^h the cqpper i$ m^yed is/^a^if
Explained- The prqtp^ufpbate pf pqpper which i|nquj|Stiqn{|
^ists in thp spiutiOBi in passing to the state of ^qutpsqli|!|i' _
diitoiiits its base whicl^ gives qp it^ oxygen andiftpid tp fqn}) i^f^^h
USTtJ - It is evident that the revival of (he copper in^y.hi^ '^^A^IW
fiD £his manner without the assistance of any iron, and in feet*
^er6 ar^ ^o traces of that metal in the interior pf tq^ tfib; )^i#
noli hqwevefi this part of the phenomenon tha^ appu^Ars t;q Mf
most remarkable, but the cohesion, acquired by the 5{9ppsr §9
precipitated from the mids); of a spliftion ; a cohesion which is
so great as to allow the metal to b^ hammered in the cold and
reduced to thin leaves ; and whose specific gravity is equal to
t|i»t of fused copper, viz. S*78* I bfikf ei moreover^ Sled a ta^nel
of this eppper» find have produnod » surface ^as bnUi#nl^a!a4 free
frQ8l pPF^s, as could have b^en pbtoii^4 by similar mean^ with
an ingot of common copper. — (Aunales de Chimie.)
2i:>N9te on tie Presence of Tiianium in Mica. By A^. Yauqufllin.
V-*.|M. Vauqudin, at the request of Mr. PescWerpf Geneva
(^^Ub conceived that hQ had found titatiium in several ntitcas ih
such quantity as tp be an essential constituent of theinrnei^I>,
i%]p|^a^d his ejp^rjmeqts, first pp two y^irieties pf iiiica, and
lUtetWards oii matiy others, in all of which he detected'. the p'r^-
ji'p^'bf fittnlum, but in very minute quantity, atd in tKilhfeiJt
"* ' ""UphV: the riphest in titanifim did not give WfcOffe thaq ijfi^
^^Wttatmet^. ' ' ^ /; ^ :^V^:;
i<Mi^' W anaWsis was ts fbllqW^ t^He i|ilitfea^th^M«ji
[Wtt>;*t^»i' lamin*. 'and, cut v^y srf<att>itfe>%>teai¥^tf
28e Stihatftt IfMee^^Min^h^. [MAiii^I
tdssaniVwxft'fwo paMs <ft CMstic jpo^^h; fer^klT k4 keMf l«» '
digeM^d ^i^* ni^s m' 100 p^rts <>f water. ^ MurittCic utM<%^^
gradually added to t^ mixture till it was slighdy tfi ex^is^;^^-'
soiutid^;evapdtiBited'^ldwIy to dryn^s; the fesiditmai ^sted^^^
with' cold w^ter, and the silica separated by the filter;' ' ^ t..^ :
' • If the sffica' was 'coloured, which often happened^ he-digested
it in cold muriatic aeid diluted with 10 parts of water, till it
became white ; it was then washed, and wnile still moist boiled
in strong muriatic acid. The liquid was then evaporated to
expel the greater part of the acid, diluted and filterea , and the
solution, containing only a slight excess of acid, treated withanf
infusion of galls. If titanium was present the solution first
asaomed a yellowish red colour, and soon afterwards tannate of
titanium sef^rated in flakes of the same colour.
The muriate of titanium is so easily decomposed by heat, thiit
in 'general the greater part of the metal is found with the sBica,
#hich Should always be carefully examined in all analyses -iif'
which titanium may be expected to be discovered. If, on^^e^
c^^r hand, the evaporation have not been carried far enough j' a-
portion may remain in solution in the washings of the silica. Ta^
yk certain, precipitate the solution by ammonia, wash the preci -
pitate, and digest it in caustic potash, which will dissolve the'
ahimina, and the oxide of titanium, and the latter may then be^
separated by saturating the alkali with muriatic acid, and prerflV^
pitationby mfasion ofgalls. • • •'^-
Neariy two years since, I examined a dark brown mica, from
Siberia, for titanium, without finding the least trace of that
njiel^.— C. ' ,'
MlNERALOOY. ' ''**
3. Harmotome.
Dr. Wemekinck, of Giessen, has published a description and
analysis of a new variety of this mineral in which the barytes is '
replaced by lime. Its constituents, according to his analysis, •
are : ^
Silica. , 63-07
Alumina 21'31
Lime 6'67
i ^ Barytes 0^ * i n ?T
O^es of iron and manganese. ••...«• 0*1^
Water 17'b9
• ^.
■• <
, , ' ' 99-09I
It is found in a basaltic amygdaloid, near the viHag^ of Anne-
rode, at the distance of about a mile from Giessen. it always
occurs in regular crystals, and the only crystalline firm under
which it har been hitherto observed is a perfect square prism.
tiM«d0e9.4>f Aepiism. Thd lateral pwc^ bf tjhf^piDB^
ei^My'Vsapectttiadar/ and none of them iM^e streafcei^' {'^9!!?^
tittMifctime piiBOUi are found: combined ^getker 14 /die:;tpm^^
tfniLGryfttalB« ■ - •
• Thcf ordmary hannotome he found to be composed (}C ' V.
• T ■
.•.'...- .-.A
1.. .• ^ .
' I
Sflica. 44-79 -
' Alumina 19'28
Bkrytes. ; !7^ ^ ' * /
Liine *•........ lOS ' V'"
Oxides of iron and manganese " 0*86 ' • ■■*'--
Water ..; 16-82' ^ ' -^n
The specimen which he analyzed was obtained firon^.^ Scjuf^
fenbecg, a hill in the neighbourhood of Giessen. lake tbe.'^i^,
ceding, its crystal is a square prism, but it presents itself .i^ig^'
a variety of modifications. Its matrix is also a basaltic ^ygy,
. Ifh^ calcareous hannotome appears from his analysis to ^^ j|:
compound of 6 atoms of bisilicate of alumina + 1 atom,pf4u)^7
dcpsl^cate of lime + 8 atoms of water. The barytic barn]^Ql;ow#,
apipiaars to contain a similarhumber of atoms of bisiUqat^.o^^
alumina and of water, combined with an atom of quadrosUics^^^
or trisilicate of barytes. — (Annalen der Physik.)
4. Cadmiferous Sulphuret of Zinc. ' '■.
A specimen of common blende, of a reddish colour, paiasin^
into lead grey, was found by Dr. R. Brandes to be composed^
Sulphur 33-838
Zinc. , 68-160
Cadmium • 0*932 ^ ^iX
r . .... iron . 7*628 ■■; .viijm
• .. . ,
100-548 ' Vu
(Trommsdorff's Neues Journal der Phannacie.)
5. Sulphuret of Lead and Antimony.
Trommsdorff found a specimen of this pre to be composed of >
Sulphur 20^9
Antimony 22*4
Lead. 49-0
Iron 4*0
■•''Ay.r :> Manganese . ••••«••«« •,. 7s&i^-ri *l-^i
*'•*,■ -v*-? ' 'Chopper. V • «'• « ; ....'•• .^.« ..• ar. «i. • ..w* «■• v' vll;- /.- ;;»t)<'''i
9Ip4 ie«49aqr» ^ftfidiin^ uatvm fiactsre; illMidi«N^ trtideiM^tM
l4o«|^tj^ ^< 4?<^M494 fitieagly, and altewavdcr <fttiMd^ wiito
gDCBt iSKniiftyL-^TroQiixisdorfl^^ Journal der PhtipneiB^) >
Miscellaneous.
\€. Th^ BrittshMUs^tirfy.^^Mr, Goodwyri^s Manuscripts/
1rh669 Wfio^^re interested in matheipatical 9Qi^pu,(Ationd, and
the ite^ul^t^p^ of their results f9r practical purpos^Si will learu
withi pleas\ire. that the curi^ons aQ4 ^^iensive t^bl^9 Qf the late
Stmry G^qdwuHf J&sci, ot Blackheathf have, by ^^ advice of
jb^.Gfiregory, Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military
Ackderny, been deposited by Mr. Goodwyn's family in the
literary of the British , Museum. The fallowing copy of ..Pr.
Gregory s Recount of the general nature of the manuscnpts wilj
serve to coiivey ifche requisite informationto our readers.
''fhe late He
iff6us computatiohs^ many of them ^elating to tppips and leading
tcr^esutts that are exceedmgly curious £^nq interesting : — ^oraeto
linnttitie^ ; othere^ to the determination ofpowers and roots | several
of th^e he applied to practical inquiries relative to interest^ iSj^d
dtherd to the reductioii and comparison of weights and mea-
sures, whether British or Foreign ; and to the rormation of a
general system ; afid p^er^ ^^. r,ei:\deire4 appUQ^ble to the rules
o| mensuratipnj ^ud to. still higher iucjuipe^ amP^g .m?Lthen^ti-
eians. . , . ^ '"' " . ' '.'•,.'. ...' u.
•' In the pursuit of these researches, he developed various'iu-i
^resting properties, indicative of the mutual connection her,
tween circulating decimals and prime numbers entering eitlier^
simply or cpmpositely into the denominators of fractions re-,
speotively equivalent to those decimals ; of which properties
8fC)nve have bee^ long known to mathematicians, while other^
hitd almost, if not altogether, escaped their notice. A few of-
thf 8^ are explained in the quaito appendix to the pamphlet tp
'y^h this paper is; ^t(a(^h$d ;* and, in that appendix. Que of ^
r. GoodwyhV ingenipus improvements iiji . gpmputaUoi^j ii^j
sdiibed tod applied. »?
The re§uU3 ,of Jiis.peraavering and .long-contii|ued Jalbpur^',
hdve, as yet, beea.only very partially laid before the jpiibjic^ii^y*
few^'de|aii^e|i j|ciiiiphfctg| volumes, &c., copies of all whfch ar^'^
herewith, trjii^spii tied: but, bis two works of greatest labpu^, Q)^e t
onedenptilijmat^ A Tai)h x^^ complete Deeimai p^Qtiejits^ ^p4l
^^.]pt%|r^yi. r^ JSer$9s of Mecimal (^mimipijbrfilffpi^^
''<^-wS^*^n Centenary of a Concise and Useful Table of Complete tht*
dimaQuoti«m*' fith a Specimen of «« A Tabular ISeries," &c.
i^iflO^osItt v^ioi^u injisAWsoml* Wim ftmmta^f' thrift; ii
iation ; and, by subsequent calculations, had nearly, if nol QOt
tirely^ v^.pfied the porre^^ess of tiie whole. He hft<L ^so,
advanced considerably, in the computation,' o^f ^e ^bular
Smrus, tl|^ results being entered, and duly arranged, im .4ve
Toliimes larse quarto; in the last of which,* however, thf ^4f^«*
ffirm of his labour is above exhibited. A ooaiparispn pf Uie4re«
spective manuscripts with the two royal octavo , pvtnted
voliimea^ entiiXed Tabbt of the Cir^ie^, and Tabuiar Series^ %nS.
#ith the quarto pamphlet, to which this is annexed. ^ will ^iis^f
aky competent judge to appreciate the extent pf these cleisses
qf l^r. Goodwyn's labours, their utility, and the oomparatfvft
valiie of those portions which still remain 'unpiU)Iish^(l,
Mr* Goodwyn's family, amnions to consign these manaserintii
^ their revered relative to some institution where they may be
ecca^onally consulted by the friends and promoters df m^the^
matical science^ do noiv, with t|)e consent of the trustees i(
Ae British MuH^um, deposit them in the lib|rary of ihi^l nut^g^
ilificent national institi^tieo. • '
-^iS^Jr^' Ot.lNTHWO,,00«TV.-
7, Xn^partant Work on Cg^ieholiJgy. . ' -
.Mesapi. Sowerby have .recently issued a prospectus of a heli^
work, whieh hai» lone been wanting in this interesting braii^h
ef naluial history. They propose to publish }n quarterly nuMN
hers, descriptions, with coloured plates^ of all the ^nown spf dif«
ef recent shells. The first number will appear as soeiias l\)p'
subscribers shall have signified their intention of patronising
the work, which, from the acknowledged abilities of %fa[#
authors, will (we have ho doubt) very soon be done.- ^i
descriptions will be^ivepby Mr. G. B. Spwerby in Latit|i an|
English, togetlier with such observations as maybij required ^
si^nd the figures by Mr. J. D. C. Sawerby. Tli^ work wiH .6^
printed ott royal quarto, and each number will contain abouJ*!'*''
JigUy finished plates, coloured from nature, and eomprise iab^'i^
100 H^eicies J so that, when complete, there wiU 'be desbrip^o^t
aiiict n^ves of ^foout SfiOO species. The authors are placed In elr-^^
^fts^iti^eti peculiarly ikvourable to the producti^ti of p^ #em
of|fliff lilid,, fr6m the sale of tfaer eelebraUd li'anketvirie eo'^^
letftlon('?iaViii^ be6n entrusted to Mr. G. B. Sowerby, the pdi-
seMon of whi6h, though tiecessarily only fbr a shorttim^^ t^ilj;
eMble'lhiem t6 secure drawings and descriptions x>{ many shells
ti^ <;9uld |xpt otherwise be es^ily obtained. la ad^itioqi tp ^|/9^
V ■:•'
$8t Smmh^Xmimo MikillmfO^i. [MiMlg:
tjbtpiimteocllcetion of the i^tliors, the tBtteaue nmak^niwpe^
mi contttMd ia the Golle9t|anAl«te the propwtv of Mf . Qeor^
JSumphrey^ aad the fi^e access which the libendity of their
frioMs aUow9 to :vj^ri0mi ether cabinets, mlUenable them tc^
rs^der the above work by far the most splendid and complete of
it»ki|id»
8. ^Electrical Cofuiuciing Power of MeJteq B^simtu i^
it is cbrnmooly staliedy that melted resins become '^odcoli-^
dadont , of electricity and freely allow of its tmaamissioft. The^
fonoWitng experiments were made with the view of det^rinim&g ,
to what extent they possess this property. v--^ '
. ^ Campion resin, shell laC; asphaltum, bees-wax, red and tdapk-
i^i/ig-wax were melted in separate glass tubes, fitted yd^)\
wires Tor taking the electric spark: they all slowly ;^dwit1^l
difficulty drew off the charge of a jar, and not with the facOity*
usually supposed. The melted contents of the same tubea'
ad^^fts n0il^'KX)adactor^ when made part of the voltaiC'C&reiiit;
'Several thin glass tubes (previously tried by metallic eoati^fg^^
Sere Qoated outside with copper foil, and aoout half filled/wiw''
le melted substances, having wires dipping into them, stmittME
to,Aip^ieyden phials. The resinous coating, however, distal-'
buted no charge over the interior of .the glass tubes, when c6nr
nected with the machine, which would have been the. e^sf^ i^jil^h'
cwdftctQfs* .7'
.Upon removing the .copper coatings and wirjea, substitutigf^
pointed wires bent at right angles, resting against the interiiMr
of the glass tube beneath the melted ' btMlies, and su8pa»dijllg
themsuccessivelyfroman electrical conductor, placing- a. mBtU*
lib tod outside opposite the points, sparks passed in all ^ase&per*
fqrating the glass . -^ ' • '-'
Vllielast cases would indicate that melted resinous bodteS'-fire
not conductors, and the results, obtained in the first instsli^^
msiy possibly be referred to heated air about the apparatus. . SVO^
—(Journal, of Science.) • «
9. Lectures on the Phenomena and History of Igneous Meteors
and Meteorites.
E* W. Brayley, Jun. ALS., will shorUy commence, at the
Russel Institution, Great Coram«street> a Course of Lectures on
the Pheenomena and History of Igneous Meteors and Meteorites,
illtt]Bitrated by a series of transparent diagrams of Meteors^ an
M^nsite collection of Meteorites, and various expeitecUti^a
Cfaethistry and Natural Philosophy. v;j'>ij imt
• .^' •••*;'% ■.'•-■ • • ..■•■■■■ ■•-vi.v=^ :<io;ri biu
'''^*- •>-."'•• ... '•- .. • «, ;. .>.^.':;j'Ji,'{ijniiiT.
'■ '* ' ^ •■' " ■• • ■ ■ ■ * ' ■.'-■*- 'iiio cti r\HQ<
• - I ) vol4
J
Mt>*<;^T •■•!•' '^'\"-' •• ' ^itTiCtE 'XI ' " -'*" ''>• -■''"^'■•■n^'^^^*>^'>
•'• '••' :'• ' ' " ' NEW SCIENTIpC BOp^S. ' *r '• I '^'f 'r'*
PREPARIWO FOR PUBLICATION. '( ..J ^;
Principles of Policipal Economy and Population, uicluding jw Cifa-
minaticm of MaJthus*8 Essay. By' John M'lniseon, * • ^ • ; *
. Asesir «Qd e»)fti^d- edition of Or. Front's biquiry itst^ |^Nai;«fe
a^d Trealraent of Calculus, ^^. will shortly be ready foi; puhUc^i^^ r
ji^ Pre^t State of the Mines in Mexico;^ Cbiler ^e.ru»i)n^^!pj^^^l
^F^rytjcal Chemical Mineralogy. By Frederick Joyce! ' ''^ * r
;A Voyage in 1822^ 1823, 1824*, containing an Examination Wthe
Aagircpc Sea, to the Seventy- fourth Degree ofLatitude: atid'i^'VtSS^
toTBrridfel Fuego. By James Weddell. 8to.
• ?^1VH
i •»■»
^*., JUST PUBiMHED. ' ! -*.
Aih9C^wre on the Origin, Progress, &c. of Ship^g and CommerceKt^
ArtlT^Asd at the Bristol Philosophical and Litemry Society^ rV^y
Qli^. Pope, Esq. ls.6d. . ^.^
. A, System of Pathological and Operative Surgery. By B^Bm^
AlUni* FRSE. &c. Vol. iJ. * * ^
Evils of Quarantine Laws and Non-existence of Pestilent&l^^bnia-^.
gibn. By Charles Maclean, MD. Second Edition. 8ro. ■ W^/^' ""
'Slew's General Zoology. Vol.12: . . ..r,w
The Botanic Garden, or Magazine of Hardy Flower Plants.' BV 9«'>
■Himd. Nbs. I. and H; with four coloured FigureSi po0|i$to; iCBs.
foolscap ^o. 1/. . . : ; ,q
..UiMin's Companiim of Medicines 8to. 7a, 6d. ^ *r to
-iPtary'aPatboloffy. Vol 1. Svo. 14#. , . . .,0
jTestiBionies in favour of Salt as a Manure, and as a Condiment fo|;;
the Horse, Cow, and Sheep. By the Rev. B. Dacre, ALS. 8vo^ £i^^^
^^arxf tive of the Unsuccessful Attempt to reach l^epulse Bay, nnh
i^Cp^t^ and Engravings by Finden. By Capt.Lyon, RN. JO^.'m.
Qoservations on a General Iron Railway, or Land Steam Conveyance^
*c: By Thomas Gray. Fifth Edition, enlarged. 8vo. 8*. etfr '> '^
Cards of Euclid. By the ReV. J. Brasse. 5s,6d, in a Case; "^"^
• '.".•■< • . t"
■* » a Hi
— — ^— —.— I 1 »^.— .^MJ — ^-^.— ^—— ^^»— ^^
b'Ai jc- • ... ....•'*' J
no -.H-:,n.j.) .. . ArTICUS XIL. i -^.^i^fl
,^t,ino-)v^\ . 'KFW PATENTS -' -At
ni&jiitolfbfl^ Mfudstpoe, lime-burner^ for hia method of c(>n9truct&g^
and erecting a furnace, or kiln, for the mpre speedyiufnore c^9f{jfj^||^
and more economically manufacturing of lime, by means of applying,
directing, and limiting, or regulating the flame and heat arising in the
manufacturing or burning coal into coke, and thus making lime and
coke in one and the same buiidingi and at one and the same time.-— ^.
Novell,
, W, Leftlh/f^ Great Guildford^street, SouUiwark» eDgiireert for
improvemeDts io the machip^fy used in ipaking bricks* and improve-
m'ents in drying bricks, by means of flues and steam. — Nov. 11.
- P. Brunei, Wimj^QJ^rStr^et, Qay^ndish-gq^afej merchant, for a fur-
nace TQ9de upon a new oonstruetien. — Nov. 11.
J. C. Daniell, Stoke^ Wjiltt^. (dotbl^lF^ A>r icnprovements in dressing
WOi^ljP. clQt{>.T-Nov. $p. . ,
"^ I/reiylgVy lun. Chipping Qng^, Ess^x, for a pock or tap for drawine
off IWMj^r-^ov- 20. . . . / ' V*;"^
V|r» Khodes. ti9xton> brickrmaker, for his inpprovement'tp the
g^nstoiicUon of ^lamp^ for burqing raw bricks, — Nov. 2Q.
* L.Lambert, Cannon-street, for improvements In the material B^^
pumufactur^ of papcgy-r-Nov. 23^ * / ^^
. ,^ Wilson, Streatham, Surrey, fo^ a pew manufacture of stu$ yrith
^Quispa^ent and cplo^red figure^. — Nov. 25,. ;
* W. S. Burnett, New Londqn-street, merQhan^, for improyeijKients in
9bk^' tackle.-r-Nov. 2.5- . * ^
J. Osbaldj^ton, Shire Brow within Blackburn, Lancashire, calico-
g:er, for bis n^et^od pf (f)aking or manufacturing ai^ article whic^ ^ay
in many instances substituted for leather^ ai)4 he f^p^Ue4 to
(Hber ysi^ful purposes,— ^ov. 99, ,
. W^Fvimiyj^i A([)4prt(}u, Ch^^hire, aa^t manufacturer, fpr iinprpve^-
ments in the manufacture of salt. — D^c, 4. ^; ..
uiWr W. You^, Newjfpp Nottnge, GlamorganMhira, engineer, /or
imprqveRifltnt^m ipju|ii&cturiflg s^It, part of which iq^pfoyemepj)^ ^
ipolicable to other useful purposes.— *Dec. 4.
^^^ H, Suw^ckropi Viq^-str^etf Minoriea, m^rph^^t* f^r ^ W9^^^U^
^ iaachioe, whicn he deno(i)i|iate^ ^t A thfrr|iopl)ore^ ar f^ ppi'^ibler
inlperal Qf fiyeX'W^lQt bath and Hn^n warmer ^" and also fgr 9t,t\er appa-
r§^s p^ mactiinfi^ CWPePtpd. (herewith for filtering and be^tipg Vaier,
^M;. Wyclij|»ley, \VJiifqJ|ivr^hf Salop, ^addlpr. for iraprovpm^ntji iqi
fiiaiclpg an4 <;onstrpqting sa(ldi^§, and side-saddles. — ^Dec. 4>.
; H.. ^jfkftpsojpi, J^'ark-gtreat, Sputhwark* Surrey, for hisioiproved iairn
fjiain^er for variqu« purpose^,
J. Thompson, Pembroke-place, Pimlico^ for his improved mode of
l9fdMQg cast-steel. — Dec. £;.
ll. Bowman, Aberdeen, chain -cable maker, for' his improved appa-
lafeua for stopping, releasing, and regulating chain and other cables of
y^sf^ls. — ^^Dec,9. . . .
['. IV. Moiiilt, Lambeth, engineer, for his improvement in working
water- wheel^. — Dec. 9.
;,;^j|RW,(^i?!PgrfV8, g(?qH.s|rfe<, SN«^< ^^r his irpproyed jg^-mQtpr.
^lil!y«fcUpp«r K^t Snp^hHpJ4, gMn-lpckrmaker, fpr iropr9y^|[3^5^
MH»*;IW4 otVr.Waro^^ . . . - . . -.
M. Q(9|n1q|i, Ba»inghalUstr£er, l^ndon, for improvements m cari[^^^
improvement in the manufacture of plated' gmnlsr'df %i96ll^'^M6Ktf^
«»i,^»6fca!ir ■ • *' "• '■ • ' ' "' '■ ■-•••• . >.'-^i^ ;?'^''^
or machinery for weaving various sorts of clollts of fdbricl^.^*^lt)fex^. IS?'*
^'S^.-tjartb^r^'sndth, fend Ji H«^5ert, earp6ntfer,'bm!i 0# St^^lLeoUras.
GHdHe^f^t^il-e, foY iMpt^Ye^i^htJ^ on ikidchines fbr sb^alFilig d^«ft}{y|!^g
woollen cloths. — Dec. 18.
W; K Shi^Wd^n, dxfdPd>-^tfea^ machihtet, fbi* his it)Vefiti^ 'Wf^S^
way am! Its (^arriag^ fof th^ Sot^V^ytince of p^lS^ng^f S|' tuettlk^hiaiifi,
und tothtftt* tliib^s along fosids, Yati^ and dther way^, either tfh a H)W f>^
lUaified TpStiile, And aftplifeabld to dthfelf |)urpdSfeg.^Dfe<*. IS. -^ * -^ . *
Jt W«i^> fitf^ild, sut^it^aJMfisti^iiiki^At m^k^i* bftd ttiitli^^fti'iHIrr)!'^
lieftis^dft «it«aMtfii|i fi^i^fiiSgj ht dofideHsifi^ pUHtp^ of Min^^i'^nA
m ih'e Bfpkmi^ cibnil^^ted th^r^ii^rth, ti^hich lim$l^Y^«lftl$'^')fiW
applicable to various useful purposes.— Dec. 18» ^ '*' '"'•--,'
J. HDd W. H. beykin^ BinUin^hlitti; buttdh-miiki^s, Alt ifttt Itiipr^^
ment in the manufacture of militafyandliVefy butt»frt'.«*^Btee.'^i ''
' b. fetaffohl, Llverpbbi, fdf improvements ofe ciarridgfeg.ii-Dtfce: fi*. ^
S. Deni^f), Li^d^-, \7hit^¥hU)i, &ttd J. Ha^iil, L^i^, Jl^j^ipilMli
inilker, for improvements in machinery for the pitt'p^TSts (^ m^Al^ wi^
Jliai^ayAt)er.^Jiih. 1. 18«5. . ..i.. ; n; ^
P. Ei^d, Gr^ht Ma?lb\)^ugh'«»tf«^ti fhMcal^hsIf oM^ni flMief j M
iteprbVemehti in pian6-.f6Hfeii.^Jaft. 5. ' ^^^ • «U<*
A. Tilloch, LL.D. of Islington, for iraprovfem^^ iti IS^ ^sti^itt*
ttojrinebr apparatus cdttnectfedtKiei^With.-^Jah.JL = !^^^^
'^' w. Henson and W. Jackson, Worcester, lace-flnanMK;ttiVers/^iQakt
ftiitihSV^tti6<ilS ih ftiAchittfefry fb^ fti^king bobbin-ttfet-- Jan. I iV ^ - • * '
G. Gurney, Argyle-street, HanovfeNsquate, sUfgecm, fo^1|iii'iil
^v^ finget^keyed musical inst¥tinhent, in Ihts us;^ ^f WMch'iifer«
fei^r i^ ^lilibled to hbM bV t>rold/t| Ih^ ttM^^ and to !iH^<Me W
Modify th6ton6.--Jkifi. 11. ; ti/ura
' F.t5; dptlsbiify, Le«k^ j^taffbrdiihfres IsilW-tn^MftSttii^f^ fbfitt^ftl!^^
ments in weavin^.-^Jat^. 11. -ji^^
' W. niM, L^eds, clblh^ttianuflitturefi for im(^ro¥^m^tl^ in K^n^ff
and shabbing machines. — Jan .11. • *t i. .11
' 3. f. Smffli, Duhstbn Hit!!, Chester fidd=, for }ttt|)twe«i€fttt In'tlic
iNrepbr^tron bf sKverft br tops fh)ni woaly ^tHM, Of ^^i» IStmmWtH^
rials.— Jan. 11. '
J. F. Smith, Dai^^ton Hal), Chesterfidd, !br hM^Vem^tii in dt^M^i
Ihff and finishing woofleh cloths.<-i*JaA. 11. i ' ./«
'" j; f. Attfefe, Ma!r<*w6od, SouthattipttoH, ^ k fif^o^ bfyOiSak
plaifks and other somtlingis of wood wiH bt ^&vtti\^d f¥on^ shHftMWl
niiT ttW be alteiCbd aiid ntat^riAlly iimp^dVed ih theli* duUftbffltV, el%e-
ness of craif), and power of resisting moisture, so as tO refi#^ Ih^ itMl
MW m^eA fbf irhiti-burldin^ llM^h^ b\iildili^^i^oli«lj m M^i.
tut& and oth^ purposes x^re dbre oi^ toUipact miod f« ISlttMWI
insohiuch that the wood so prepared wiA b^^to^^ '<i ti^l#' MUete'^
'cofAfatttd tsi^d tfianufkttu^e, which hh intaMl 6rflirtfe **^tWl<ihiiliia
W«)df."7-Jan. 11. • ■ '"-' '-•■^*^'wa
" Gl^tS^ner, Hunslet,' Yorkshire, dyer, and J. Greenwood; GoineiiaK
in the said county, machine-maker, for iroprovemeats in the tnioAlw
lawing wood by machinery.— Jan. 1 1 .
^9$9 Aw Hiitoto^s [M^t^ii,
' T. M^grid^t DiAlin/for hia composition to preserve animal, ^nd
vegetabJe substances.-^Jttn. 11.
T. Magrath, Dublin, for his improved apparatus for, conducting and
poiitfldoing water and ot&ir-duidis; and preserving the same from the
effisets of frost. — Jan. Ji.
J. Fhipp8r.l^>|fer Than^ejF-stceety sUtioner^.an River,
Kent, paper-itnncer, fbr improvements in machinery for makmg pi^r.
' — Jan. II.
W. S. Burnet, London-street, fbr anew method of lessening the drift
j^|lij|fi.|it seaj and protecting them inhales of wind. — Jan. J 1 . ,
J. Andrew^ fi» Vailt^y^* #nd J. Shepley, Crtjimpshall, neaf Manches-
toftffottofi^innevsy for Hnprovements in the machine used foribi^tle
and wat^r-^pionittg of thr^ead or yarn* which improved machine ia, so
constriicted as to perform the operations of sizing and twisti^;jf or
^dierWise-removiog the smperfiuQus fibres, and- of preparing i^ .jroving
fov^he same.-^ Jaa. 11.* ;.
OS J. He^coat, . Tiverton, lace-manufactnrerj for improvements, in
machinery for making b(4i^in-net.*^Jan, 12.
W. Booth and: M» Bailey, Congleton, Cheshire, machinists, for
improyemeots in spinning* doublings throwing, andtwsting silk, wool,
cottonj» flax, &c.-^ Jan. 1$.
J. Lookett, Manchester, engraver to calico-printers, and copper-
roller mamifacturer, for imprpveme«ts in producing a neb or slob in
the shell or cylindier, made of copper or otber metal, used in the print-
ing of | calico.-^ Jan. H.
W. Rudder, Egbaston, Birmingham, cock-founder,, for improvements
inrcodis.'^^an. 18.
W. ClHirch, Birmingham, for impro;veniients in casting cylinders^
tubes«;and other articles of iron and other metals.— Jan. 18#
.:»>F. Melville, Argyle -street, Glasgow, piano-forte. maker, jbr his im^
liroved method of securing the small piano-fortes from the injuries to
iii4uch they are liable fron¥ the tension of the strings. — Jan. 1^.
£• Lees and G; Harrison, brick'^akers, Little Tburrock^ £ssex, for
«n improved method of making bricks, tilef, &c. — Feb. 1. , .
J. Thin,' Edinburgh, ^architeiet, for a method of cpnslructing a
roasting jack. — Feb. 1.
8. Crosley, Cottage-Ian^, City-road, for certain apparatus for mea-
atring attid registering the quantity of liquids passing from one place
to another^ — Feb. 1 .
« S. Crosley, Cofttage-lanie, City^-roiid, for an improvefnenidn the con-
structtonof gas regulators or governors. — ^Feb. 1.
T. Burstall, Banksid^ Southwark, and J. flill, Greenwich, engi-
neers^for^a locomotive or steam-cairiagc-^F^. 3. . ,
G. Augustus Lamb, DD. Rye^ Sussex, for a neif coriiposition of
|||alti|nd4M>ps.-^<Febt 10.:
^ R. Badwan,jun,Leck, Staffordshire, silk-manufacturer, for improve-
aiQenUl ilk^he winding, doubling, ^spinning, Uurowing, or twisting of silk,
'"wool, cotton, &C. — Feb. 10.
,«ioorfJtt;Mw*i?oftt*/fiy|Brtpn, J^evpnsbife, }^'mM^^\K'rm^t9fMJF'^''^
i«c(liiiiifesbgiulieinieibador:inanu&otiffi^ #jiy(.TtrFeb.:4 U -^ ^s -i^n^i^ .
^MiQOi Mr.M9mu0U^mMiPI^'Umii»t. ^' -Sit
'. «;
> J
AnfCLBXIII.
i'ii>\'
-3.\aq %\''
MB^X^^bROLOGICAt TABtJE.
.. ^ .'»'■»' *
•>.
ji.-jD . " *r
-f';) »
ff""^' >
- .! , -^- "^-
2
Wind.
w
w
'0(8 W
4 W
e N
7 W
8 N
9N W
• • ^" 10 N
llN W
'h;9in'». 12N' W
13 N W
15* W
J9^S w
N 'W
tN E
N £
N
N W
BAROMBTSIt.
Max.
120
22
25
27
29
31
S W
N*
Yar.
W
W
,-. •?..;
30-«5
3048
30*48
30-65
3078
3078
307.9
30-89
30-89
30*89
30-86
30*80
3C70
30*53
30-41
30HH
30^4
2.9-65
2976
29-92
30-10
30-34
S(V34
80*23
30-20
30-21
30-68
iO'8^
30-84
30*64
30-60
'• ■•■
^89
Min.
30*15
30-15
30^11
so-n
30-66
30-65
30-65
3079
30*89
30^
30 80
3070
30-53
30*41
30*02
30^2
29*62
29^2
29*65
2976
29'92
SO- 10
80-23
29'85
29-85
30-20
30-21
30-68
3064
SO^)©
30-27
29-62
TuomtoMei^ER.
Max.
•«««■**«■
54
45
54
53
37
49
45
42
42
50
42
48
50
42
42
43
46
42
39
42
43
41
40
40
40
51
44
38
4i
50
MJn.
■ h
»m4n
■««••
54
42
35f'-
36 f
32
25
35
32
82
38
35
29
32
37
39
S2
3t
37 '
80
31
36
35
32
31
32
27'
St
3^
24
24
3^
44
. I
Bvii^
34>
II'.
'47
RaiM.
»T
«»
.U6
. *
\o
•«
imiJH
.. 'T
07
ad
i
07
•'<y
r «
^^ . . -i.-OI -*
■^
'» r » ■» .
<»« p•^^596
Hi I »■ 3-
•j)/o>^rAoLf
^ft)ft each line tH t!ie uble apply t^ at perfed 6f ^ti»<ifty^Airf4ww,
bq^nauig at 9 Ai M.^-^ tlie tlAjr iadidalM Hi tli«iiitodlttlAlw.a i
the^MEt ialiiUiilcd in the next raUoiHft^fdtt^rVali^
m Mr. Ummif$ Mukf^Ug^l iBmnkk ^abgh.iIKK
MMAKKS.
Fint M&n^.^U Finei 9—4. CkioAf* &, Fine. 6« MHbita ftvit, and &g^
morning: fine daji 1. C^djr. 8. Very i&e diy. 9. Clitudy. id. Orercast.
11. iMtio. IS. ^oggy: glo6mf. 13» U. Oloonij. 15. OloHmjr': An^ afternaon.
16. Ovemttt: showery. I7. Fin& 18. Raifiy morning: wind faSght niil^
WWmt. S0. Fiaezavne n^n a| ni^U «1» 88« Ckmlj. S84 Ooiidj; cold.
84w doadr. tU. I^Ob 26. Dtitety* 97% Fine. S8» Vmy ibe. 89« Hom fnti
RE^LtS.
t •
Winds: N,f» NB,t|S,«;iSW,4; Wi€)irwr,t; Vfc^L
Barometer I Mean height «ii,.
Forthemoniih •••.'.. .«!»,». JNK
ForthdRmairpe^hid, ehdiftglbfc I lib.. «•..•..... ..w^dplll*
.;^ IS dAjSf ending llie ^ (mooB north) ...«••.«.. )Sthj|ptt
' fofU^s, endttl^ the 2td (aeon loiMli) .....* ...... 4^ip»
TbWMinto*^ Mean hHi^
• i » • ••' . ^•
Forthemonth « <•..« »•• 36*SMA
,...i'.«.*V«..k..*«««4«. •••..<•
For 99 days, the sun In Cii{>ncom ^')S51
■ »
E^iupwilifw , • • f.i% OM^
luk.,.. ••*w «v. «. o-fiis.
• t I
Ltib0rwt9nf^ Sfiratfiiriy JUamd MlmlhY m^ iMk U^UMNkMAt
ANNALS
PHILOSOPHY.
APRIL, 1825.
Article I.
On the Origin of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations.
By Professor Sedgwick.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
OENTLEMEN, Trinitu College, CamlnJge, March II, 1825.
The existence of widely extended masses of incoherent mate-
rials separating the vegetable soil from the solid strata of the
earth, is a fact which forces itself upon the attention of every
practical geologist. These materials have for many years been
divided into two classes. The first composed of a series of
d^ositg originating in such causes as are now in daily actioi^.
The second composed of various materials irregularly heaped
together, often transported from considerable distances, and
Bi^posed to have originated in some great irregular inundation.
Since the publication of Cuvier's great work on fossil quadru-
peds, this distinction has been very generally admitted ; espe-
cially as it seemed to be completely borne out by the zoological
phenomena e.xhibited by tlie two separate classes of deposits.
Prof. Buckland was, I believe, the hrst geologist who adopted
the terms diluvium and aUnvinm, diluvial detritus and post-
diluvial detritus to designate the two classes of phenomena
above alluded to. The propriety of this separation has been
since confirmed by a long series of well-conducted observations;
and by the inieresting discoveries brought to light by the same
author jvithin the last four years, some important errors have
been corrected, and the whole subject has assumed a form and ,
& consistency which it unquestionably never had before. Since
the publication of the " Rcliquiee Diluvianse," many objections
have been urged agaiuKt the opinions advanced in that work.
The greater part of the objectors are undeserving of any animad-
version, as iliey appear entirely ignorant of the very elements of
geology, and far too imperfectly acquainted witt i\\e iacfei f^sooS, ^
tthich they tvnte to have it in their powev to Vutft "i^ftWi. ^a •as^'^
Neil- Scriei, vol. i\. r
242 JP^'?/*- Sedgwick on the Origin [APBit,
account; or to draw a single just conclusion from them. This
censure does not, however, apply equally to them all. A writer
in the two lafet numbers of the Edinburgh Philosophical Jaurnal
considers the present classiftcation of the superficial detritm of
the earth to be founded on an imperfect induction, and to be
contradicted, or at least invalidated, by the distribution of the
organic remains contained in it. Though I am opposed to many
of the conclusions of this author, and think that he has been
misled from 4 want of a more extended knowledge of the pheno-
mena in question, yet I willingly ^Upw that his arguments are
adduced with a sincere love of truth, and that his facts and
inferences are entitled to a candid examination. It is not, how-
ever, my intention formally to enter the field of controversy.
Prof. Buckland is far too secure in his position, and incompa-
rably too well armed to need cLny such assistance.
The words alluvial and diluvial d^tritiis desigp^te certain
classe&r of phenomena which at the same time have a distinct
character, and belofigto distinct epochs. The propriety of this
assumption t^n dtily be iiiadje 'out by direct observation. If it
appear ihzi alluvial form^\Aox\& cpmmonly rest on diluvial i tha^t
the converse is never true ; and that the two formsttions laever
tllterfiate : then the distinction just alluded to is completely ma4%
Out, and rests oti exactly the same evidence as the order oi
i^tip^rpofeition of any known strata. We may further observe
that this concluiiion is quite independent of any zoQlQgicqi|
arrangements; When the ordfer of superposition has been once
made Put, we tnay then proceed to examine the zoological pheno-*
mena of each successive deposit. Before that time, organiq
reOiaiiis, however interesting in themselves, convey little infoniv;
fttion respecting the revolutions to which the earth's surface, h^i^
been subjected. It has been already observed that the wordft
Mluvial detritus were applied to certain materials brought into
their present situation by great irregular inundations. In wha(
sense all diluvial formations may be considered contempor^^oe-
ous ; to what extent, and in what manner, diluvial torrents have
acted on'the earth's surface, are simply questions of fact to b^
determined by physical evidence, and by physical eviden.c^
aldne.
The truth pf any physical' phenomenon can only be made oqt^
by physical evidence, and no appeal ought to be uiade to afxy.
other authority before that evidence has beep completely inyes-
tigated'. ft is then obvious that every conclusion respecting the
classification of formations, of whatever age, can only rest on tl^Q
evidence afforded by direct observations. For this rea^n, .^
have drawn up, for insertion in ihe Annak of Philosophy j^^
account of some of the alluvial '^nA diluvial de^o^it& wJiLpli t
have had an opportunity of personally examining. Part, of tb?,
saeeeeding statements may be considered unnecessavyi a]»4
) £05.]' of Alhmal and Diluvial Formniions. 343
iottui of tfaie fticts may be thought too unimportaiit to dauesrn
any notice. If, however, they should throw any lighten a dith
pttted subject, or should they in any way strengthen the chain
of evidence by which one of the most important inductions of
geoiog^r has been established, they will not be altogether with*?
oat their ose. I have the honour to be, Gentlemen,
Your most faithful servant,
A.SEnGwicK.
Sect. 1. — Alluvial Deposits,
All the principal vaDies of England exhibit in their higher
portions occasional examples of nearly horizontal deposits of
comminuted gravel, silt, loam, and other materials accumulated
by successive partial inundations. The nature of these alluvial
deposits a|id the cause of them are so obvious, that it is unne-
cessary to refer to particular iustances. If we descend from the
hilly and mountainous regions, and examine the courses of our
rivers near their entrance into any widely extended plains, we
frequently find their banks composed of incoherent materials of
a new character. They are not made up of thin layers of conw
minuted matter formed by successive inundations, or of silt and
tnrf-bog accumulated in stagnant waters, but of great IfxegulaE
ipftsses of sand, loam, and coarse gravel, containing^ through it»
mass rounded blocks som^etimes of enormous magnitude, ft ia
tf once evident that the propelling force of the rivers is entirely
inadequate to the transport of such materials as these. We
nay observe, moreover, tliat they are not confined to the banka
ef the rivers, but spread over all the face of the country, and
often appear at elevations many hundred feet above the level of^
any natural inundation. To such materials as these tlie term.
diluvial (indicating their formation by some great irregular
immdation) is now applied by almost all the English school of
geologists.
The livers which descend from the western moors and unite
in the great central plain of Yorkshire, afford a succession of
beautiful illustrations of the appearances which have been just
described. While rolling from the mountain chains, and uniting
with their different tributary branches, they leave masses of
aDnvial matter in every place where the form of the valley
admits of such a deposit : and after passing through the infe«
rior region and escaping through many ravines and gorges into
the great plain of the new red^sandstpne, they then rind their.
way through enormous masses of diluvial debris which often
mask the inferior strata through considerably extended tracts of
eountry. If we follow any of these rivers into the central parts
of the great plain, we may «till find (with occasional intefrup-
tMQ«) ti^ Muviui dftriiHs descending mtb the siMrfa^^e of the
b2
244 Prof. Sedgwick on the Origin [ApKit^
ground, often forming the channel of the waters, and, wfaereth^
kvel of th^ country admits of itj, sometimes surmounted by au
accumulation of newer alluvial materials. By the ordinary
action of the waters^ the two distinct classes of deposits some-
timea become mixed and confounded ; but 1 have never seen ai^
example where their order is inverted, or where, through any
extent of country^ they alternate with each other. The instances
adduced are not. exceptions to, but examples of, the general
rule. There is not, I believe, a single river in Englana which
does not afford a more or less perfect illustration ofsome of the
phenomena above described.
Perhaps the most important class of facts connected with
alluvial phenomena, and which at the same time very strikingly
exhibit their relation to all other deposits in this country^ are ta
be met with in the low marshy regions near the mouths of some
of our larger rivers. In proof of this assertion I shall proceed ta
describe some of the physical characters of the fenny tract of
country which stretches from the south part of Lincolnshire to
the base of the chalk hills of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge*^
shire* if a section be made through this regiou in a direction
which is transverse to the outfall of the waters, its profile will be
representedy first, by a line descending from the higher part of
Lincolnshire to the level of the fens; secondly, by a successioa
of horizontal lines exhibiting the several levels of distinct fenny
regions, interrupted here and there by extensive protuberances
of diluvial gravel ; * lastly, by an undulating line ascending
from tlie alluvial region to the top of the hills which form its
south*eastern boundary. If a section were made in a directtoa
transverse to the former, commencing at the south-west boim*
dary of the low lands, and ending in the sea, its profile would
be represented, first, by a line showing the descent of the higU
lands to the level of the fens ; secondly, by a long line extend*
ing almost at a dead level (except where it is interrupted by some
ofthe protuberances above-mentioned) to the eastern extremity
of the fens in the immediate vicinity of the coast; lastly, by a
line descending rapidly from the level of the fens to low water
mark.f The singular contour indicated by the second section
has unquestionably arisen from the continued accumulation of
aUuvial.sAt which has choked up the mouths of the rivers, and
raised their beds and all the contiguous country far above theii:
ancient level.!
T ...»
* During great inundations these diluvial hills resemhle islands rising oi^ of on.
inland sea. Most of the towns and villagea in the Isle of Ely are built, upo^ tl^em.
t: Thus ftora Peterborough to Sutton Wash below Wi&beacb (a dlsiaiv^ of .snore
than twenty miles), the tall of tiba. water is on th^ average thr^ indices apd.)^ li«lf for
^«ch' mile. Bol fisom Sutton WaaH to 2ow<.water.maik at Crabho]«v t|ir f^ iaf Qapre
tliaii thrue-ftetibreBch inUe.«^<&te Eennie^s Bepott on the riraiouag^^f; ul/B^^|^a%d
Level.) ■ '■': ':- •.'■':.-•.. "_ - :-■-.- V- "-•... r-.- - '
X Thtti* Tbom^y north fen is thirteen feet; Fc(d:lx>TOiigh low fei^twelteirett «ix:
1825.i
of Alluvial and Diluviaf Fofinatiofu» ^24&
It is not, however, the external Contour eo much as th6 inte^
iial structure of the district, which bears on the subject of this
paper. The whole of the alluvial deltd exhibits, as might be
expected, a great uniformity in the arrangement of its consti-
tuent beds. When the vegetable coating is removed from any
part of it, we may generally find below a brownish black earth
which is formed of a variable mixture of Common vegetable soil,
of peat, and of alluvial silt. The different qualities of fen land
arise out of the variable proportions of these constituents. In
those tracts which are p^nt up between high artificial banks
and upon which water frequently stagnates, the soil is almost
exclusively composed of decayed vegetable matter converted
more or less perfectly into the State of peat. In other more
favoured tracts, more especially on the sloping skirts of the
diluvial hills, the soil is of great fertility, and is composed prin-
cijpalljr of the accumulated silt of . successive inundations.
Materials possessing some of these character^ are in many
places accumulated upon the regular strata of the Country to the
thickness of nearly twenty feet. When they are laid bare by
a^y artificial section, we may often see various modifications
which are so far interesting as they throw light upon the ancient
history of these deposits. In one part of such a section we
may find the prevailing black earth interrupted by thin beds of
peat, each of which indicates the temporary residence 6f stag-
nant water. In another part of the same section, the prevailing
$oil is seen to alternate with layers of sand and silt tvnich mark
the eflTects produced by extraordinary land floods. Alternations
hke these are so common as hardly to deserve ahy notice. If
the section descend still further, we not unfreduently find the
whple series of alluvial deposits separated from the true substra-
tum (which in many places is composed of a stiff blue clay)* by
a very thin bed of li<2;ht coloured, unctuous, marly silt. This
raarly silt is, if I mistake not, of great antiquity, and must have
been deposited by the waters prior to the existence of any por-
tion of tne alluvial covering.
If all the soil and accumulated detritus wete removed from the
district I am considering, it is certain that the surface of the
ground would present many considerable irregularities. It is
further evident that such a surface must in ancient times have
inches ; Peterborough great fen thirteen feet two inches above the level wJiich ought to
form the base of the drainage near the sea. — (See Bower's Report of the New Drainage
Heir Bbston.) \
* lii an the central parts of the fens, the blue substratum . contains innumerable
t^(hietiH'6fme cliairaetanstic gtypluea dihttatm of the* Oxford day; but nterEly,
ankler ^iaHvtfittl knd diluviai detritus, there is a bed which eonta|ns tfage okrea dettoi-
^f^th^Kimmeridge.daf. If I mistake not, theoin»l««agfonMii|Bthu)s offb^^
tt teii&jreft dt^ ftns, where the two clftys are pitobablj broii^t inta immediate contacty
Mow Caipbridge) the tracts of fen land rest on ths gait or Folkstonft clay. .
1146 Prtff. SedgfdicU dm thk Origin ' [ A»ftll,
a^ppoft^d mmy rurieties of produotions which ait now so
deeply buried a$ to be reached only by occasional artificial
excavations.. This remark at once explains the variable thick'-
ness of different portions o£the fen lands, and the extraordinary
uppearances we sometimes meet with in digging through them.
For example : in excavating the foundations of the new lock on
.the tivtt Cam between Clay Hithe and Ely, they reached (after
pasfeing through ten or twelve feet of common fen soil) a bed of
considemble thickness composed almost entirely of hazel wood
alid hatel nuts. The wood could not, I think, have been drifted
from any great distance; and the enormous accumulation of
iiUts (many pecks of which might have been collected in the
ipace of a few square yards) seemed to be the production of am
ancient period when, year after year, the trees shed their fn»it
on the ground, and there were no inhabitants to collect tt« In
many other places, after passing through a thick coating of tnrf
bog and alluvial silt^ we meet with the branches, trunks^ atid
even the roots of large timber trees. Some of these may bmte
b^en floated down during, great floods from the neighbouring
high lands ; but the far greater number of them have unqtte»*-
tionably grown near the spots where we now find them. Exana-
ples of this kind are^ 1 believe, supplied by altnost all the exte»«-
sivcf fen regions in our island.
Lastly, 1 shall briefly notice a class of facts which^ although
admitting ofa very easy explanation, have sometimes led to erro-
jleous conoIusioiis« In almost all the marsh land^ which border
on the s6a, the a/luviurn is separated from the old subjacent
'strata by a quantity of marine silt, and sometimes by beds of
sea shells which appesr to have lived and died on the spdt
where they are now found. The extent of this marine deposit
towards the interior of the country plainly indicates the extent
to ^hich the alluvial materials liave been accumulated and
pushed down within the ancient line of the sea coast. But the
ease is not always as simple as I have here stated it. The
lower portion of the marsh lands in question Sometimes exhibit
several distinct alternations of marine silt aiid shells, tfitii t^trf
bog and other freshwater deposits. Facts of this kind were (if
I have not been misinformed) observed in some of the lower
parts of the Eau Brink cut which was lately completed in the
neighbourhood of Lynn. We are not to suppose that such
facts indicate any sudden change in the relative level of land
and sea » All the. alternations above described are beloW the
level of high-water, and naturally result from the nuann^* in
ChiQJbk tha.ien lands have been formed. We have only to recol<*
ot tkal in tW places alluded to^ the tides have fdr mtoy ages
IK^ti '^Win^ ^<fd fl(nHng atong a system of nbo^^ t<^fai6b Mf d
been perpetu%&y eziprpa<>bing. on the QQa4> s^nd pei^petmAjr
ISUL^v of J^lbivial itfid EHhvhl Foi^mations. 247
tthna^ing their inclination. Of such a state of thitigSi the occ»-
$t&n^ admixture of marine and freshwatet depddits^ and the
t>cCasiohal alternation is the inevitable consequence.''*'
Sect. 2. — Diluvial Formations.
Tt remains for me briefly to notice the diluvial formations
.which appear within the limits of the tract I have been dpscrib-
ing. They seem to have been rapidly and irregularly accumu*
lated by an inundation which acted with extrordinary violence ^
for they are partly composed of broken masses of more ancient
strata^ which are rounded and ground down by attrition^ and
which in many instances have been transported from distant
parts of the country ; and they contain no alternations indicating
(as in the case of alhivial deposits) the long continued and Irak*
quil operation of the agents by which they nave been produced.
They rest on the ancient strata of the country without the inter-
vention of any other deposit whatsoever, and in instances with-
out numl^er they form the basis of the whole alluvial detritus.
The true relations of the diluvial detritus are beautifully
exemplified on the j9anks of the chalk hills which skirt the
south-eastern side of the marsh lands above described. It is
constantly seen to rest immediately on the fundamental rock ;
to follow all the irregularities of the surface ; to rise out from
beneath all the alluvial lands, and sometimes to lie in scattered
masses on the very top of the chalk downs. From thence it
iday be traced, almost in a continuous mass, still further to the
«outh-east, where it is heaped up to an enormous thickness, and
overlies the newest tertiary beds which exist in that part of
England. From all these facts we are justified in concluding^
tbaij the diluvial and alluvial deposit!^ above described are tiot
only essentially difFereqt in their structure, but belong to two
.disitinct epochs ; the former class of deposits having been pro-
duced, by some extraordinary disturbing forces prior to the exist*
enee of any portion of the other class.
Were the order above given contradicted by the arrange-
ments of the superficial deposits in other parts of'^our island, we
Ihould of course be prevented from drawing anjr general conclu-
sion from it. But 1 beheve there is no incoi:^sistency in the
Qdider- of our superficial deposits^ and that the counterpart o^ the
^ 4 fioe Instance of this kind of alternation mi^ be seen in the lower Featowan
iir^atn-n^ork neat St. Austle. The diluvial tin ground (which is otktly ^Itty fctt
^^itmbl^el of high-water) is coveitd with a deposit (about seven feet tludi) of emt»
•fiew^ Tfgetable maUer, leaves, roots, and trunks of trees, &c« all of which have evi-
.4^t^]r P^^. 4n^ed intothcil present position by floods, or perhaps by iiieHide of <ihalf-
ftnAed turf llog. Over this deposit are i ^e^cission df m'Atine beds (4bdte i^kistf Hit
'didi) 'obvi<msry aocumnlated, while the lower pairt of the vsUey was an estuazj.
iimbtf^^^ibSkk iunuthn of ^pm^ tetttiiotng inttdies and trunks, of treM^ risas abOYe
,il^ Ifitel ^yl^^Ts^tf^ . vsd 1$ sBtqnotinted by comnioti' vqgetftbto woL Fer a detaMI
aocouni.w Iblt seetlony ttk Otol* Trans, vol. iv. p. 404, ^ ^
248 . Prof.Siet^u)Ukoa^Origiik\ [44^lli»
> > • '
facts above stated ma;^ be found in eyety coantry fi^rUcli jgiftrtir
j|«d|o?icir6iitn«tanc^dtfi^'thM which has been descriib^w . J^
fibjeDOw acl^ howevef/to make out a new arrangeoienit^ bujt U>
4d(Hifitai tin old t>ne ; I shall^ therefore, content myself wiib
referring to one additional class of examples.
. ,.Ia many part^ of Cornwall the flanks of the central cbau^of
)uus are covered with a thick deposit of diluvial gravel, wliiab#
after tiestmg immediately ou the granitic and schistose rocks (>f
the coiMltiy, and following their inclination^ often descends^ iqtp
Ihelowar partof the transverse valleys/ and from thence shelve
down below the level of the sea. Near the mouths of the^
yallieyB' the diluvium is always covered up by beds of a more
recent de^fl^Vu^ which in some places are nearly sixty feet thick.
Notwithstanding their great thickness, many large excavations
have been made through them for the purpose of extracting the
tin pre whiph has been washed down from the mountains at the
time, the diluvial rubbish was formed, and which (in consequence
of its great specific gravity) has naturally subsided to the bot-
tonji.of the formation. In various excavations of this kimf"
(proyincially ca|led stream-works), conducted in different parts
of the county, we may see in the clearest manner the true rela-
tions of the several superficial deposits ; and (as far as any thin^
can be proved bjr^in^le instances) the sections show; first, that aU
the diluvial detritus in that part of England originated in the
same system of causes which, having prodii^ced their effects
once, were never repeated;* secondly, that all the alluvial
detritus f of whatever kind, is posterior to the preceding j: .
because it constantly rests upon it, and never alternates with it.
By the examination of facts like these, we become acquainted
witb the natural history of such superficial deposits asr I have
been describing. The facts are in strict accordance with eyei^"
tiding which I have myself observed, and they are, I beUeve, iii
acesordancewitb the observations of all English geologists ^ho. '
have personally examined the evidence connected. with this sub-']
jeqt,. .We may therefore conclude on an induction fotinded oii'
9 very wide mnge of oonsistent observations ; 1 . That altiiviaf^^
de^ostt^ include a large class of formations which have 6ri^i^atec(
in causes such as are now in daily action; 2. That the ^ame'
ceipe.s bave acted during a k)n^ period ; 3. That duritrg thai ^''^
pei*iod the deposits have not been — *^— — *-^ *>- -^^ ^^^^■^^^i;^i^l•^
which has interposed any other c
4/^i^tdik^mat dqmits ^ssess. r-i-y.
preceding dassi ne^er alternate with tbem, andyfrom'th^iipptisr-'^
tioij^ eyidently bdpng to au older epoch; ,6. That:dtirifi|''^;^
epoch in. qufiistion, the c^tVuvio/ gravel was produced hjr tintk8i'''
^^MiSf^ftdCift dtjpciait importanoe and wm, I believe, fint nmarked by TowDBond
'm\a» '' Vimlicstion of Moees." (See toI. i* p. 297, &c.) I JM^TOf'^gggi'^ft'^
HBft4'^'^ of Alluvial and Diluvial TdrmaUons. 249
'Mif^ intiti<)ations ;. 6. I'bat the disturbing. Ibia^finrHth 'fnoi-
meed 'fliesg inundations acted on the earth's suifaoe afteritlie
dejposHioA of all the regular, strata^ ivith which <iv» fardrao-
fainted. . r
The separation of the incoherent materiajd, which are faea|)ed
<m the regular strata of the earth, into diluvial ^ttd.fmt*diluviai
defritkSf is, therefore, a natural separation, which isattsnctt
tlfe^ctiptive of the things designated, and foanded on the con^
iSttUit refations which they bear to each other. Moreo^r iv is
ttneonnected with any hypothesis whatsoever, ai)d 'm indep&t*
deftt of any argument drawn from the natuie of^the>Qrgame
Mttiains contained in different parts of the several deposks.
'■ ' ' . • '
Sect.S.* — Organic Remains in jillttoial Formatiims^ -
^ • ■ , • • ,
.7 ^^Qul4 not have dwelt so long in illustrating the preceding
conclusions, had I not known that the nature of the 'evidence on
which, they are founded has often been entirely overlooked ot
VU^ipderstood^ In the next place, I shall briefly consider the
qq^nic remains contained in the two classes of deposits, espe-
(^ally in thoee localities which have been already described.
tn© follQjving specimens were derived from the alitivial liebrih
wluch resjts. on the diluvial tin ground in various parts of C9ru*
wall^
, .1... A> human skull buried 36 feet in alluvium, fiora the Carnoii
siream-%Qork. 2, Horn of an ox 40 feet deep in a/tuiium, froni
the sap^e place.. 3. Fragments of a human skeleton, from the
V&i!^Qy9a,VL stream^work* 4. An ancient earthen vessel, formed
witfiout the potter's wheel, more than 40 feet deep in alluvidin,
^nd, ^bout 10 or 12 feet above the diluvial tin ground, from the
saupe, place. 5.. Part of a culinary vessel buried 24 feet in
fittuviuMf from the Levreau strearn^ivork. A celt and some
otlier mde works of art were found near the same place. To
the^prepeding might be added a long list of spoils derived frohi
ih^ idluvial region which stretches out from tne neighbourhood
of Cambrldsre to the wolds of Lincolnshire, such as various
spevJpiens, ^f trunks and branches of trees ; of freshwatier and
laqdj^jbelU-; of implements of human workmanship; 'of horns,
teejui]^ 4Mid Hometimes skeletons of animals which have beeii
ei^f^r driit^ iwto the marshes, or have perished there by acci^
den^t^^i; .violence, &o. 8ce. To which catalogue might be addedy
the ^e|gt9m^. of four beavers found near Chatteris m the alluvihl
bejl^^t^fe.pid W^st-water, a riTer which in former times pev-
fomed>^n|(i|9p<>rt^nt part in the drainage of the country, pert
wh^^^^^jjuj -^eqn chioked up for 200 or 800 years.* We loot in
vain into these lists for the bones of the cavern-b^'^rp, t^e, mam«^
liUfld
■1 Sociiiyj ▼«r.^.*'pl'11ol'''
fee J^ntf. $edgwkk ot$ the Origin , [A«f|*,
ipoth, tiitt byiqna, the ibioocerofii^ the hippopotaom^* and plMf
^uoiui^ki) the «poil(^ of which are found in almost miraculoiim
mbuadftnoe in many parts of the yirorld buried in the dd diluvial
deiritus, , .
. Whea we consider the great extent of the alluvial tract above
deacribedy and the various cuts and drains which have beoa
imde through almost every part of it : and when, we further
<$^^ider that the same tract of country is the growth apd acca*-
iQulation of at least 2000 or 3000 years ; the negative argument
hacoJVies Gomplete« and we conclude> almost with certainty,, thftt
4uriog this long, period not one of the several species of animals^
la9t enumerated existed in the neighbouring parts of our islantdL
Let tbese considerations be combined with the admirable details
and illustrations suppUed in the writings of Cuvier and Buck-
jiand^ and we readily extend the same conclusion to other parts
pfEn^and, and indeed to every part of the world, which has
Jbeen rigidly examined.
It may, however, be urged that no accumulation of negative
evidence can stand against the direct evidence of opposing facts.
Is then the preceding conclusion opposed by any incontroverti-
ble facts ? To such a Question I should not hesitate to reply by
a decided negative. Ambiguous cases may occur near the base
of a crumbling sea cliflF, or near the bank of a river which is
continually falling down from being undermined by the attrition
of the waters; or in the silt and alkivial rubbish of a valley
which for many ages has been modified and ravaged by succes-
sive floods. In such situations the spoils of alluvial and dilu^
vial deposits may be mechanicallj/ mixed together so as to rendet
it impossible to separate them.
^ A sober-minded naturalist who makes his inductions after an
Intended examination of facts, and who does not view all things
through the distorting medium of an hypothesis, will netver
derjve from such localities as these any argument for the true
firrapgement of spoils found in different parts of the superficial
^raveL The only way in which spoils derived from such situa-
tions can be classified, is by comparing them with similar
remains found in other deposits, the relations of which are
tjlearly exhibited, and which have been modified by no subse-
quent disturbing forces. Had this observation suggested itself
to pr. Fleming, he might have withheld more tnan half the
examples he has brought forward in the Edinburgh t^hiloso-
phical Journal (No. 22, p. 297, See.) with a view of overturning
thi^ distinction which has been drawn between the. organic
^remains of alluvial and diluvial detritus. In regard to the mam-
j|^9tb»|ie has not produced a single example of its remains found
an undisturbed alluvium. Some of his examples may^ perhapg,
jfi^-^Mp^imo^B : btit .Others are derived from localities w^ich,
he iSken the trouble to examine them himself, he WQttliji
J
1825.] of Alluvial And Diluvial Formations. 2251
have knb^if to be diluvial. A single example iil"givfefi'of HIM
bones ^of the hippopotamus found under a peat^bog; Btit the
fact is given without details^ and without the shadow of a piHiif
that the bones were buried in alluvium. The case of the gteat
fossil elk may perhaps be ambiguous. A gigantic ^nimai of
, that family would soon be marked out for destruction ; dr it
may perhaps have been exterminated by beasts of prcfy bef6t«
the peophng of Western Europe. All the spoils of this creature
which I have myself seen in situ do, however, belong to diluvial
deposits. The three examples of horns of the rhinocetos ftniitd
in alluvial marl-pita and turf-bogs, and preserved in the muiseadl
of Bdinburgh, seem at first sight to throw most formidabli^ diffi^
cuUies in the way of the received classification. ThrOitgh th4
kindness of Prof. Jameson, J have lately seen the specimen^ ift
question, and I know from the Professor himself that thei*e'ift
no adequate evidence to prove them genuine fossils. Without
this information, from their look and their condition, I sbotiM
not have hesitated a moment in rejecting them as spurious. It
is contrary to my present object to enter into any details coti*
nected with the examples to which I have referred. I do, how^
ever, unhesitatingly assert, that as far as regards the purpose
for which they were adduced, they are altogether without Weight,
and without importance.
Skct. 4. — Organic Remains in Diluvial Detritus.
The diluvium in the central parts of the fens of CambridglJ*
shire, or on the sides of the low hills by which the region \%
(kirted, is found to possess a great uniformity of character^ It
contains innumerable fragments of gryphites, echinites, sb^lk,
coraU> lizards' bones, and other fossils, all more or less perfectly
mineraUzed, and all obviously torn up from the regular strata of
the country by the same disturbing forces which formed thii
9lncient gravel. Among these fragments, and among toatidtfd
blocks of stone chiefly derived from the same strata, are mslxiy
minute fragments of bones, and sometimes entire teeth pf vario^Ui
animals, more especially of the horse, the oJc, the deer, dnd
various graminivora. Among these, the remains Of atkifmafd
(«uch as the mammoth and the rhinoceros) now unknovVn as th^
inhabitants of any part of Europe are by no meatis tmcomiHott^
To describe, or even to enumerate, such specimens iti detail
woiild be foreign to my present purpose. 1 shall only refer, hf
Way of example, to some of the org;ani<^ spoils derit'ei) from th<»
undisturbed diluvium in the neighbourhood x>f Csmbrid^ie)^
.l.Frfigiiients of the pelvis of a mammoth, from the gravel south of
St.' Ives, Huntingdonshire. 2. Grinder of the manunoth, frotta thd
^lii)luM ^h\c\i stretches from St. Ives towards 'th^ tffeftti^ Of
tlifeffinsY 3. Fragments bfa large mammofll's tuSk, fV^fliFpOfc
xmre. 4, A very large grinder of the mamnaotb,*
from tte grtiTel
I
252 ■P'*?/'- Sedgwick on the Origin [April,
b^s at HIpxtoQ. 5. Innumerable fragments of the bones pf
viM^iouft animaU from the beds of small flint-gravel, north-west
of Cf mbridge. 6. Eight or ten fragments of mammoth's grind-
.CMTs, from the thick gravel beds behind Barnwell. 7. Three or
four large and perfect grinders of the mammoth, from the fine
flipt^gravel south of Cambridge; along with which were found
several bones of the horse, and teeth of various gra9)inivora.
8. Many teeth of various graminivora ; humerus of a very large
mam^iioth ; several teeth of the rhinoceros ; horns and portions
of two enormous skulls of the urus or buffalo; an atlas (probably
belonging to one of the preceding species), in linear dimensions
•abput twice as large as the atlas of a full grown ox ; several
})erfeci bones of the horse ; fragment of the horn of the cervus
igiga^tem; &c. &c. all derived from the gravel beds at the north-
west end of Barnwell.*
Such are the organic remains contained in a small part of the
diluvium of this country; all of them differing in condition, and
maayofthem diff^ering in kind from the corresponding spoilsof
ib» aliwdial beds of the same district; and the distinction Is
rendered still more complete by the fact, that not one work of
human art, and not one fragment of a human skeleton, have yejt
l^een iliscovered in any part of the numberless excavations which
are conducted in the lower and more ancient deposit. Wlien
we properly estimate these facts (which are but the counterpart
of some of the admirable details given in the '^ Reliquiae Dilu-
vianse"), and consider how very small a portion of the superficial
gravel has yet been turned over even in the most populous par£s
pf our island. We are compelled to admit that animals almost
)vithout number must have inhabited all the lower parts of
Surppe before the commencement of those destructive opera-
tions which produced the diluvial gravel.f A further examina^
l^on.of the facts already stated leads us also to conclude, that
many pre-existing species of animals niust have perished during
the operation of the same destructive causes ; because we do
not find their remains in any more recent deposit. ^
It is in vain for any one to attack these conclusions by'
demanding how it came, to pass that one class of animals
perished during the formation of the diluvial gravel, and another
d^s survived it. The same difficulty meets us in classing
^qsny of the regular strata of the earth. The suite of fossils
4^ve)d from one formation may be widely different from tl^e
mite derived from another ; yet we know by experienbe thait
b|[>th suites may^ contain many individuals of a common ;specips.
> ' * MtMi of the flp^dmws fxim this VocsSitj are in the pos^esftion (yC«|. pke4, :jEb<}4 of
-¥ 'J3j^. c«iclp»ion had been completelf dempns^ated, in the opinioa of inQK flpo^^
'i3&' fidoi ifae tiumber, the natare, and die Gondition of the organic' t^eoiiW A'^tle
Mcftd witii t&e Kbkdale caTeni given la the '^ ReliquiiQ Dilnvianfp.**
1826.]^ of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations. 253
Still less are the conclusions shaken by th^ hypotheses, that the
ireapMs of the hunter completed the e:ttinction ofniakiysp^es
pf 'anhnals, of whose former existence we have no knowi^^iey
exceptthrough their bones^ which are buried in the bieds:6f old
diluvial covering. From the only physical evidence which tve
^taxk have on such a subject^ we beUeve that not a single hunter
had ever trodden in the woods of Europe at the time wheii the
mammoth, the rhinoceros, and the hysena were its inhabitdi^ts.
And the records of Europe afibrd no proof that such beasts ever
mhabited this part of the world in times within the reach of
history. Again, we know by direct evidence, which is rnde*^
Sendent of any zoological details and of any history, that the
iluvial gravel is of great antiquity ; and we know from Hit^tory
that in ancient times large tracts of Europe existed in the fotm
'of unreclaimed marsh or almost impenetrable forest* Uthler
such circumstances, are we to believe that a set of inhabitants^
savage, almost naked, and few in number, should have waged a
war of extermination with large and formidable beasts Kke the
liiinoceros, the cavern-bear, and the hyaena? The hypothesis
which attributes the extinction of such animals to the agency
of hunters in the early ag^s of the world is at once gratuitous
and incredible.
. Aa the general result of all the preceding details, we may
conclude that the separation of the superficial debris of the
earth into two cl^iShes {difuvial nnd post-diluvial detritus)^ fotmed.
1)y different causes, and during distinct epochs, is completely
made out; first, by the direct evidence of natural sections prov-
mgone formation superiorto the other; secondly, by thedistincit
.'suTtes of organic remains imbedded in the two deposits. The
'lower formation containing many organic remains which are
never found in the upper; and the upper also containing many
'which are not found in the lower. In tnese respects, perhaps, n^
t/io contiguous formations in the crust of tne eartn are sepa^
lated from each other by more clear and decisive characters. •'
• » . ' • ',
Sect. 6. — On the Causes of Diluvial and Alluvial Phenomena.
' The conclusions which I have attempted to vindicate in the
'preceding sections, however interesting in themselves, give us
^DUt scanty means of speculating on the causes which have pro-
'^6'ed IIiIb £f;7<vt7/<i/ deposits. It may be asked, by what forces
'tiete the diluvian torrents first put in motion Mn what direction
dtd'they svVeep over the earth ? On what part of the earih*s feut-
fatee have- they acted ? Did they operate almost simult^nebWIy
o^'ii all parts of the world, or did they act at intervals arid dlir-
4ag^ lohg ))eriod of time? What was the condition of thevgk)be
jpnor tu their action, and what are the modifications ;'ni'^* its
;i^{^V6ftl.7y^^Vraiter. p by tbem't .TQ.$oi9'e,;pf?.j|^^^
•iioB(^t-fei9^a|iswen oa&^be^given^ and to BOAfr<of ,ti^enfc:eaD^rw«»#(jlfe
08i .P^.StdgwickMikeikigh [4.Mi^
ft-ittcm^dtr omift^ in tkt pittftmt state of cmrinftinnattott. Il>
llMserer^mifreftt »aoy veU observed facte seem to point to ou
jM>«!i«Bioo^ 'tkatconclaaion mostbe ooneidered probable imtil it
ia/^oppcised by some other conflicting facts. One thing at least
iur oerteitty that no hypothesis eiui be admitted which is* not
btmifl oot by that series of facts (however imperfect) with whiak
WfB are ■ aow acquainted .
. On these grounds I do not hesitete a moment in rejeetine tJtm
hyipotbstm^ which allows the formation of alluvial deposits in
tbeananner above described, but accounte for all the dibeuial
pbenomesa by a'saccession of partial and transient inundatioBay
odeaaioned by the bursting of lakes^ and other similar cataateo^
pfaes^i'^: In the first place, the cause assigned is inadequate to
the e^cte produced. The physical contour and structar e of tha
teiHral and southern parte of England show the impossibility of
any large lakes ever having existed among our secondary atrata-^
aa^aUe. of- producing the enoroiousand almost continuous beda
al gmvel which stretch along the eastern coast. Several striking
fiiate connected with this question have fallen under my own
ainervation ; snd^ as fer as they go, confirm the general viewa
givan in the ^^ Reliquim DiluviansB.'* As the descriptton of
l^se facts will lead me into some details, I hope. to resume tbm
aHt^trrin the next number of the Annak of Phihsopbjf.
Secondly, the hypothesis is gratuitous. In many parte of
Sftgland^ whore there is abundance of superficial gravel, tbero
ia not the shadow of evidence to prove that any great body of
water was ever pent up among the neighbouring strata, so as td
form a lake which afterwards burst the barriers by which it waa
confined. Catastrophes of this kind sometimes happen in
niouateinous regions, and the effecte produced are commenso**
rate to the agents; but these efiecte have nothing to do with
tha^ great masses of superficial gravel even in the contiguous
distrtct8*t Thirdly, the feeble agente which the hypotfaesia
allairs would require an indefinite extension of time before thfiy
couM pkt>duce such effects as the earth's surface plainly exhibita«
But the quantity of marsh land and silt formed at the head f>f
many lakes, the extent of different deltes^ and other similar phe"- -
Bomana,. appear to demonstrate that all alluvial deposite hare
batfi oompleted within a very limited period.;}: The hypoth
is^ thetefore^ inadmissible, which makes alluvial and diluviifl
dfposite contemporaneous, and implies an indefinite period of
•* Xbia •CfMVis ne^Hy to agree wifh 6ftU981^e*fl opiiiiops, and is i$tiU ImIcI bf
geologists on the CojQtiDent.
^t" In consequence of the prevalence of local disturbing forces, such as tlM^ affifnded
toia Uie^tact, the gnat rdatBom ef the miperfidal detriiva cannot lie-studied to Mr mttdfa
adraniiige IB the idtimediBtie neighbourhood oi moantam chatiw, as in the lowct rej^ohs
oflh0«KthVnuiace.
f- .Webire tiiis eoadttsioo to Deltt« who devoted the labours Of many years ^ M '^oa-
iVBiflliOib Had his kbours laiminated hew, hehad don< pem unktn gwtogfi
ISa^JJ of Alki^iM iniDUuiml ^opmaiom. Bfifi
tiSne fi>r '.thiaiir fopowtioa. FouitUy^ ^ hypcAiMinasfdinfe aoi^
Bceonolnrfor ibe.diiffereni suitos efoi^oic/ivKiAhistfefniil-mJSiiiek
defiQflitk: Lnntlyi'it does not accountfor the coOfttodKfe otdeniii
tkm*ipG$itioa of alluvial aod diluvial • detrk* Had th^y-rbeoi
formed ia tlie way which the hypothmia implies^ Ihirf maftt
fioaieliiiieft have alt^nated. Each of these objecdont ttiight
be expanded and illustrated by many details ; • mt to • enter eft
ttom wDidd be foreign to my present purpose. ' * '
. The.-details already given in the precediag sections suffieieotljf'
SflEfdaio the origin of common alluvial fc^mations. Bofrftheii
em two dasses of phenomena exhibited on several ptrisof tii#
fiooet.Qf ourislandy which are intimately connected with th#
ftfesfiDt. inqairies, and do not always admit of easy eKplanatraoi
m. 1, Tra<»8 of recent marine deposits above the level ofMghp
water. 2. Bxtensive traces of ancient forests: in situations whieh
ftfeoonatantiy overflown at high<^ater. .»
•Phenomena of the iirst class ate generally met with tus die
banks of estuaries where the waters of the sea necessarily tmdefgie
gmtosi^iUations. By the extraordinary combination of a higb
spring tide^ and a hurricane blowing in the direction ef the eiur^
mnty whales and other marine animals have from time to time
heen atxanded on the banks of estuaries in situations 20 or 30
feet above the re^ch of -common floods.* This is tiot ofeili'
hypothesis :: we know that by the eombination of such eii^eitt*
stamps aathese, the sea has two or three times, 'Wkhin theism
600 yettrsi risen to an extraordinary elevation on the eoast of
]ioUitnd> and overwhelmed large and populous tracts erf' that
eiCHmtry. .
The existence of submarine (oresis i» not so readily accounted'
for. ^ome writers have supposed them to be the effects o#
enffthquakesy which. in ancient times have submerged large traole
(^forest'land bordering on the sea coast. Without fMreteedittg
ta tSLclude such agents in cases which without them admit ef no
eKplanationi I. think that in a vast majority of instances it t^
UAoeoessary to introduce them. The mean elevation of the t^ea
abpet every part of -our coast is unquestionably constant; bwK'
th^i actual level of high-water at any given place is tlependent M
tha Ytelocky and direction of the tidal currents, the contour -of
the-e^asi;^ and a number of circumstances which are entirify
lo€i^« In. proof of this assertion, it is only necessary to appeal
%Q the fact, that in extensive bays and estuaries, the sides of
^hich gradually diverge towards the open sea, the tides occa-
siottaliy ri^ (through the operation of a common liydroistatfcal
.• Typ exampiles of this kind are noticed by Dr. FZemitig in the last number at the
£duibm:gh Pbilosophical Joum»l, p. IS4. Such cases must be carefully dittingiiisbed'
ft9l9^,t^l^9^'/d»p0$il»; and from such aocttiBtt2atioi»'»f maitneahelis a* areMGDiQi
Ums erag-pUf on yarious parts of :NorfoUE, Sufiblk, and Etsex. These laltar ifislMwnr
iiiiq|[|\ffaii9qably.b«long to no natural mffriBeinnndadoa, and are, al kast^ at eld ai tfa^
iilM«laifii4i|.Uiat|wtQl;£qglamL. . ., ' *-..:
266 i?f^« SeJgwkk mtikeOrigim^ [At»«i;
Um) to ian devaiioa, which is many tunes grealer tiim ike mar
«f the aame iUde» om more open parts of the coast* ^ Any wt ctf
causes, which greatly modify the form of a deeply indealefi
•ooasty musty therefore^ ineTitabiy produce considerable local
e&ets iipoi\ the le?el of high*water.
Let these xemarks be applied to the eastern shoreaof Englia4»
We know that during the last 1000 years, the sea has madie
enormous encroachments on many parts of Suffolk, NorfioQc^
Liucolnshirey and Yorkshire ; not only modifying the whole cod«
tour of the coast, but at the same time forming chains of shoala
«md sa»dbadk.»by which the velocity and the direction of thd
tidal currents must have been more or less affected. ' Thew^alem
JbA¥e^ therefore, during successive ages, been propelled into &#
x^oessesof the coast by different forces, and up dinereat«systeiM
of indued planes ; and must in consequence have ascended M
different levels. Such efiects as these will reach their mfaximimi
on. the shoires of large bays and estuaries, like the Uumber and
the Wfish of Lincolnshire.
The form of the Wash of Lincolnshire must have been greaify
changed since the epoch of the diluvial detritus^ partly by Hits
degradation of the neighbouring cliffs ; but still mote by thd
encroachments of a/Zi^viVi/ silt which^has been pushed down into
it hy the waters of the Witham, the Glen, tlie Welianct, tiitf
TSfi]Ektf and the Ouse.^ If an undulating line be drawn through
th^e several rivers. a few miles above- the estuaries inwhicfai
they terminate, it may be taken as an approximation to the fcurai
of a part of the coast in very ancient times before the great waem^
mulation of a//iict7/ii/ matter. The country within this line tkett
presented a low undulating surface, gradually rising on every
side of the Wash towards the high lands ; and it was probably-
almost cpvered with forest trees, with the exception of a fMr
very low regions through which the rivers descended to the seaj.
and which were partially flooded at the time ofhigh-water. Su^i
in the present state of things, the ik}od*tides, B&ev filling tho
lower pait of the Wash, are pushed on towards the ancient lino
of coast through a number. of estuaries, the sides of which eoa*^
verge towards the interior, and on that account force the watels
np to a higher level than they could reach on a coast which Wa».
less indented. And after the flood-tides have been thus pu^he^
up into the mouths of the rivers, tliey do not now, as in formic
times, mix with the freshwater and cause a reflux, ex.teaditiff fiMf
into the interior of the country ; but after rising, almost at tmcei
to a high level,t they are pent up between artificial banks, and
soon stopped altogether by locks and other works connected
* A long Dote oontainiiig some detaUs connected with the drainaae of tliefcHtfatew
dttoag OD the Wash, arrived too late for the press, but wiU be affixed to the conHnuom
tioH or thia fKper,^EdiU '
f S«enote9, p.S44. ^
I
Ittfri]/ of Aihfvha MttBitmHU FomatUns. 3K^
witk Am totiScml dniaage and navtgation-of tH^ ^otmttjr* ' Itris
itmnat <»|teia Aat ia euch a state of thingg the tides eiinodirisie
to^tibo'lBSaofi tevd wbich tiiey* reacheA in ancietit time« r suidthe'
diai^« wili;^ I think, be i>reci«ely of that kind which wiiFltx^aiti'
the appearaace of submarine forests in inany places bof deil|i%
up0tt:tJie Wash. If through a eombtiialioii of eansefl tfttdl 'as,
lttKM4)eea mentioned, the tid^s on any part of the eoastrrse to k
l9vel only a' few feet higher than they did in anci tot times, tb^
wbole dimmilty we have been considering i^ onee vaAishes. '
Tlie condasiona which have been deduced from a cousMefti-^
tioti of certain facts exhibited on the coast of Linoolnshire, ratty
be extended to every country which is similarly cirenmststiic^d ;'
and it seems probable that an actual lihange in the height of lile^
tides -produced by a change in the contour of the neighbonriiig'
ceaatay is a»ong the most general and efficient caases whfch
hare* produced the phenomena of submarine forests. By thfi^
aMIartton :it b, of course, never intended to e3i:clude other agenfk
from their proper share in producing the phenomenon, l^re^t
tKfee*fpay have grown in many low tracts bordering on the sea
while they faaive been protected from the fiood-ttdes by artiflctm,
and sometimes, perhaps, by natural embankments ; and in sub^
8e^[«entages the embankments may hare fltited, and the forests
oMjf liaye been submerged by a Consequent incursion of the*
w^6«s. Pan lands, aftei being drained and brought under cul-
ttvalion, may have undergone a natural subsidence, and on that'
aoeQiint have been exposed to the chance 6f subseauent inun-
datioiis« T^iis at least was Dekc's opinion, foundea oh obser*-
vatftbiis made in various parts of Holland. Lastlj^, large tracts
of lowaUfeivial land may (after the natural destrtlction or the bar^
ricri by ^hich they were held in) be transferred by a slide to a
lower fevel ;: and in that way productions Once out of the reach
of^Ae high tides may become exposed to their constant attacks.
"O^ 'Ibe gradual: operation of such causes as haVe h^eti enume-
nUisd, the existence of submarine forests may in most instances
bcr'^tlitisfactorily explained without the intervention of earth-
qatkasiof other irregular disturbing forces.
ICh^i phenomena above described (vie. the existence olMand
pmdnctioiui'beiow, and of marine productions above the level of
nighMPrater)are after all things sui getieris, Which are confined to
aMMsllf^artef the eoast ; and, iniwever interesting in themselves,
thftlUJiid li^t whatever on the general classification of alluvial
ao4'4iir7im<tf deposits.
i f . .: < -iTohfcmttinued*)
i ,
...*'. • A,.
New Series, vol. ix, s
258
Corrections in Right Ascension of
[ApriIi
i l>'' i
Corrections in' Right Ascensioti of 37 Stars of ^he Greenwich
Catalogue. By James South, FRS.
r Pegari
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a Arletii
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;April 1
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Barometer.
Highest, Jan. 16. Wind E 30-6602
Lowest, Oct. 11 . Wind var, from W to S. 28-4089
Thermometers.
Registering, in the Shade.
Highest, July 23, Wind SW. 7^°
Lowest, Jan. 16, Wind £ «•. 29
Registering, in the Sun.
Highest, Aug. 26. Wind E 100°
JLowest,Jaa. 16. Wind E 20
Common, in the Shade,
Highest, July 23. Wind SW 73°
Lowest, Jan. 6. Wind E- .•.•...••!►. •»• 31
Wet days comprehend rainy, showery, foggy, snowy, and
diose in xirnich there was a fall of hail.
One of the pluviameters is situated on the top of a chimiiey
thirty feet from the ground, the other five feet only ; both are
apparently free from the operation of local causes ; but the lowest
mis been found, with scarcely an exception, to exceed consider-
ably the other, and in the whole amounts to more than two inches
in the year.
The journal consists of three observations daily, viz. from
8to9a.m«; 3 p.m.; and from 10 to 11 p.m.; and from the means
of those jperioas the barometer appears to be highest at the night
obserration, next high at the morning observation, and lowest at
three, or the noon observations. The means of the three daily
observations are always recorded,
January. — A very fine month. A few gentle hail showers, but
no snow, and scarcely ice enough to contmue 12 hours.
February. — Many days wet, but only two on which there was
a little frost and snow.
JIfarc/t.**— A very wet month. A heavy storm on the citglit^
the 9th, and morning of the iOth, of hail, rain, 8cc. Colder than
February.
April, — A boisterous and wet month, with principally ai^
easterly wind.
May. — A fine month, with much easterly wind.
June.-^Yery wet, stormy, and cold. On the 9tTi Ihero was
much thunder, lightning. See. with a variable wind frorti E to S
andW.
JiiZjf.-i-This was also a wet month. On the 14th there wae a
severe thunder storm, and the tide on the sea coast was observed
to recede suddenly below low watefr-mark^ and instantly r«tutn
with great velocity to ftdl tide.
yAifg:i(l^r"'^bwclai' apd, ligbUHBg on the day and evemog oC>
tiie 2d^ accKHQpt^ni^d with much rain*
.i$6p^ein^r<-**Many days of heavy rain.
■pctpber.'^^'B^mwiMy wet, having 22 days rain. The barov*
nii&ter fell very low on Sunday the 10th and Monday the Utb^
acQ9fnpanied oy a heavy gale of wind, with thunder and li^t*
.NQvember^-^A very wet and gloomy month. A vi<de9it hurri* ;
cane, on, the night of the 26th and morning of the 27th ; wind S
afKd.SJS. Rivers had overflowed their banks; the tide roaeto'
an Vd|)precedented height^ and much damage was done along the
sQ^Wn.cpa^t. ;
Jj(^j:j^b€r. — ^There were 24 wet days in this months and thA<
laoiiu^ing seven were so damp and disa^eeable as to amount'
alip9st to such. There were but two decidedly dry days £qt tbe>
nH>ntb. On the'4th^ there was a heavy thunder storm in the:
eve^iipg. A fine meteor was observed on the night of the 2iMk,
nb/^nifkfi o'clock.
AJt^gether the mean temperature of the year is much below^
the iwrajl standard.
, If there be added to tbe mean height of the barometter tiu^-
sum of (>121 in. for its elevation above the sea level, which ia
very near the truth, it will give for the mean height 29*8736 +
p-f21 « 29-9946.
It appears remarkable that there was not a calm day obsenred
fof. jthe year ; a few hours only of calm occurred at a tima. la .
tl^^ Qb^ervation, I consider it necessary that an eictensive sheet.
o^, water should not be rippled ; leaves of trees and long graati
s^iquld not be perceived to move^ and the smoke ou^ht to aacend-
peipendicularly> to indicate a cabn. This I believe to be 'Sfr.
Vfi^y f9ise circumstance for many hours in succession. ! i :
riM
Article IV.
SameEsperimintswtk Oxide bf Uramum and its CombiMti&m* '
-T :•; . By Jac. Berselius.^
\T^is> Transactipns of the Royal . Academy of Sciences fo^\18j^2,ji
cpptaui a copious memoir on uranium by M. ArfwedsoA,. wbiifl^.
h^. extended and at the same time considerably alte^red.piijLr;^
forai^ ideas respecting that metal.f^ Among the e^pqrin^pjjs.,
v^ichhe made with a view to determine the composUmix.of th^,
oi^ide, one gave $*56 parts of oxygen to 100 parts of uira^iuugu.
a^^jl;wo Ptbers ^'^4 .ai^d 6*37 ; on the contrary he founfl,, )a^i||^^.
out any variation in his resultsi that in ihe oxidiile, lOO parts of
f For ft tnuwtloii of M. Arfwedson*8 mctpciry oe^^wfaii^, y|i. j^.J^Sy^^^.^^^^l^^ . ^
d^mfHH^fle ^^9dmt>$iied with S-ggS pha^tts^ tfF'oM)l^g«i^i ^ ^Adli^ite
to the former of the above results, which M. AWWiWfebit c^ndl^'
ders as the most.accurate; tlie ratio' df the dxygen in the ok%le
and iokid^lle is as 3 : 2; according to the ktter,; it' is as S i*8;
A« the oxide of uranium readily acts as a weak acid^ it appeiti^''
to? me not unlikely that the latter ratio might be the ti^e'ofi^^^
and I thought it of importance to determine the point with pje^'
ci^on« I undertook y therefore, an investigatibrt of the coiflpo-»
sitiim«of thi^ oxide of urai:iium, in order by that riiedns to ieisci^i^ ■
tttifa its saturating capacity as an acid;* but the experitnehtttl^
determination was accompanied with so many difficulties/ tb^ i'
began to doubt its possibility. The oxide of uraniufn- W %ir
Iqudrate cannot be obtained artificially in a state df purity*
If we attempt its preparation by meaus of nitric add, ijb j]lii^fireis: '
iotb the state of oxidule just at the instant when we exb^l iWi
last portions of acid. If we precipitate it with ^.n iikfAiiH*'
combines with the precipitant; and when the latter is ofaftx?ed^^
nature, the compound may be ignited without tindergoing^^
deeomposition. Owing to the presence of ammohisi iii the
hydrate precipitated by that alkali, it is impossible to analyse it^
irith 6nc& precision, that the proportion of oxygen will be detef-
mined to within less than -r^-^ of the wfeight ot the Oxide. '
I next hoped to gain my object by analyzing the carbonated
oxide* 1 therefore precipitated a solution of the nitrate of oxtde*
of uranium with carbonslte of ammonia. No eflfervesctoce took
(ddce at the commencement of the precipitation, and the precl-' '
pitate, on b^ing collected upon a filter, appeared at fir^ i^.
admit easily of a complete edulcoration ; but it speedily becaoe
whiter coloured, and at the same time 'so much of it'peaised'
iMo solution, that it imparted a distinct yellow colour to tlie
filtered liquid. Tliis liquid became turbid on the application- ei*
heat, and acquired a light yellowish milky appearance, but many
days elapsed before the whole of the oxide of uranium subsided
to the bottom. The residue upon the filter dissolved in acids
without effervescence, and was therefore hydrate, instead of
c^cbiiiiatp of uranium* Thinking that this would profepeouM'
liariy serviceable for my purpose, I ignited a quantity in a suit-*
aljle. apparatus^ in which the es;pelled gas was coUecti^' ov|?r
mprcury, and the water by muriate of lime. By this means' I
dtetenjfiined with precision the weight of the oxidule and of thy\'
Water; but the gas greatly exceeded the quantity of oxy^^hl^
wBibh ought to have been evolved, and proved to coatain i -
• Before commencing this investigation, I examined the. oxidule u^ tlje^aine^A|f.
liet as hud been done by M. Arfwlson, by reducing tf with "iyi^tblen gwsy and^mv^
H<wnpdrti'<rK)dutaniam + 31** oxygen. : ' ^ *- "" ' ' ^'^
Jfc ' Bifieliu$ on Urmiiam. ^ [A^iri i^
ixngeihet, utod were retttlned by "Ike h!fdfMLi3&%
^cl stat^ tt carbonate of arnnionia.
'' I now examined Hie oxalate of the oxide. By subnAMih^
Akaak to distillation^' I decomposed it in one experiment iul6
^OMfttillic uiraniuni^ carbonic acid, and water ; and on the SQppo<>
fition that<)ne»fourthof the oxygen of the carbonic acid had
%fieen previously combined with the metal^ it would have fotiowed
that the oxide is composed of 100 uranium + 6*14 oiygenl
B«^t' in another experiment, I obtained a residue of oxidute of
wtoiifm, and totaSy different proportions of carbonic acid and
watet^. /In both cases the oxeiate had been prepared with aii
Midls' purified in the manner recommended by M. Arfw^dsoi^,
and'pi^eipitttted by a long continued ebullition from its soltitid^
iH earbonate of ammcttiia. I shall return to the consideraiidn ef
this aalt. I now ignited a mixture of determinate quantities of
AQOxidule aild of nitrate of lead, with the expectation tyffotin^
ing an uranate of lead ; but by this treatment, only a siMH
portion of the oxidule combined with an additional dose of oxy*
g^en. I mixed the two substances together therefore in the
state of solution, evaporated the mixture to dryness, and cal*
eined the residue ; but during the evaporation, the nitrate of
lead crystallized in the finst place, and the salt of the oxidule
concreted into a mass over it; and during the ignition, the lat-
ter salt first underwent decomposition, and the unequal mixture
of oxidule of uranium and nitrate of lead which remained,
affimied the same unsatisfactory result as in the first expert-
mtoTMt. I now dissolved a determinate quantity of magnesia in
nilm acid, expecting, with its assistance, to preoipitate a solo^
Itein of mtrate of Bie oxidule, by m<eans of an excess of caustic
aflttmo&ia ; but both in this experiment, and wh^i I mixed u
detsrsudate quantity of magnesia with a solution of a detentti*«
Batft quantity of the oxidule in nitric acid, evaporating the m»*
ttore to dryness and calcining the residue, the results wbiohl
eblnined w^e equally varying and undecisive.
I next had recourse to more indirect methods. M. Arfwedscm
bad found 4hat oxide of uranium gives with sulphuric acid and
potash a double salt, in which its oxygen is to that of the potash
as 3 : 2« I determined therefore to examine this salt, and was
the more induced to do so by the uncommonness of this ratio
between the oxygen of the two bases. I mixed a satntated
solution of the oxide with a smaller quantity of sulphate of
potasfe than was necessary to form witn it the double -eah^'dnd
eotttmitted the liquid to spontaneous evaporation. looiKiidereft
Ittnot improbable that if the oxide of uranium coiztatns 3 atoms
cf oxygen, it mighty like alumina and the- oxides.of iron oad
intenteiMrae, form a salt crystallizing in a similar manner .Mth
fiumf- which would have anbrded a decisive proof .of lits^atBtaido
eonaiitaitkm. But no such sait cootd be^ obtaiacd^^ ttddt'thii
wluch had no relation with theipct^h^dr.ou.s V^gfftvuB^^Qf ti^p
fatty J^ieai;^ until it began to undergo Cusipp^.g^v^ Qj£0*(^;j2 grm«
Jo£,p9re waters The residue afforded a turbid. aolMtiopipii w^lM
in c^o^sequence of its being partially decoa>pos^d ipto |l §ab 9^94
h§mfmr »alt, but the liquid wa9 rendered trantpitreAi h'S ^^djb>
UonotdL few drops of muriatic acid. The oxid^e of ur?ai»iim{«f||
l^ecipitated with ammonia, and collected upq^ a filter ^,%nd,gi
It ifi soluble in pure water, it was washed with a weak. sqIi^^
Df.sid ammoniac. Ignited, it weighed 0*623; grn)..apd,h^,ai^
4|iiiied a green colour. The filtered liquid w^ Qvapprati^. ^
dj^ness, and the residue was calcinedi in order to ^p^:,^
ammoniacal salts. The sulphate of potash ^h^ch rei»a]|M#
vrdghed 0-3515 grm. Admitting that the o^yg^n of jt^ iW^^
is to ttHit of the oxidule as 3 : 2, and that the ^fic^ncy lAi^t^^
axudyais eonsisted of sulphuric acid, the comppsitioii pf th^fiajji^
l»oarding to this experiment, would be ; .:i. . t
ConUinlng oxygen. Percent.,
:' Potash... 19-.00 '.•.... 3-23. ..,.^1 15-833 i
i. Oxide of uranium . .. 63*40 3-31 •. 5S-833 V>
... Sulphuric acid 33'40 ....... 20*04 , . , , . .! 27*8^4 »
vWater 4-2Q 3*73 ..,.,. 3*6Qa,.,
120-00 ■ ' loo-ooo;'
'* Another portion of this double salt, prepared from a ioludon
containing an excess of aoid, appeared to possess exactly dii
saine crystalline form with the preceding, but its yellow colour
was considerably paler. On being analysed l>y the sapie pro^
cel»» with the one employed above, with this exception that
after the separation of the oxide of urahiiim, the sulpnuric acid
wasprecipitated by muriate of barytes, it yielded 6*5 percent^
^f water, 50 per cent, of oxidule of uranium, 82 per cent, of sul^
phate of barytes, and 27 per cent, of sulphate of potash. Tbis
IS equivalent to
J . !. * Coatainiug osfgen.
i' Potash .14*60 ........ 2*48
<^ V Oride of uranium..'.. 50*84 ........ *2-63 (2*6iS?)
0' -Sui^dric acid 28-20 ........ 16*92
r- Water. 6*50 6*78
T'Jr
^ilFhis^ eicperiment demonstrates thatthe quantity of oxygen ^
HsBtiawst m both bases, and' that the salt was mixed imh a
portioiiof.anacrd salty which dififered fromt it also iii containiakg
i'lttrger pf oportion of waiter of crystallization; ; ' * '
T^^M. Arnrsdson found the ratio bet^ea ihe^ 6kygenKof>:diflf
jCKCMteiof nrtmiom and ofthe potash to be-n^at^^tasSbSL'^'HeiuUr
itfiroi^apiiear'totiii^ sait-'cootainedti porlioll offsuiiplifltedff
mo ULsBtrielius oa UrJAiitkh. [^ufekei,
•tpttUivlByithd^ilkone •e^p^vMly as he fotttid nkoM .eii^dU«jjtf
*«ftlni€tiBg aittlphaie «f iifaliittin from which wiwiiotAeicafe
miA tibe dait iwWch I 4Mialyzed. Tbetqueoas 6olutiom:ot*«biiy
4it)t gave ft yeliotr precipitate with alcohol^ but the supeimtekt
4imiawis«oloarleBa. . 'l-i
:•/ X< nowtpiepared ^ d<mUe muriate pf oxide of iiraotttni;atiil
|i9tairtly wiiictt daay be obtained crysialltied by Elowly.evaj^Utt^
^ag^a* liquiid ooAtainii^ an exceBs of the mariate of oiade mf
imominkj - The crystals are sometimes four-sided piiams witk
-cMiqbely tnmoated extremities^ and sometimes fottr*>8ided.rhoai^
boidsl4abies. I intended at first to have analyzed it by xedix>>
tlm in bydiogeii ^gar, but I found that the water of crystaUi2»>>
4il6if <eantiot ii^ expelled, without carrying along witbit aportiiA
of: the atsid) after which the salt is no longer completely salubte
im water. It was necessaiy^ therefore, to peiform the analysts
m the kumid way. 1*5 grm. of the crystals^ previously dticd^ia
.the state of powder in A temperature of 130^^ dissolved in.watar
jWiihomt leaving any residue. The solution, precipitated with
Itftnate of silver, gave 1*61 grm. of fused muriate of silver. The
elacess ef; ail ver was separated* by muriatic^ acid; the olide of
uranium was then precipitated by ammonia, and washed with m
eolutioti of ^ sal- ammoniac. • It* was converted by ignition itoto
.0*82 grm. of'oxidule. From the remaining liquid, after the dia^
aijpation of the ammoniacal salts, there was obtained 0*412 grol.
01 muriate of potash, = 0*2606 grm. of potash.
' If the defielt be regarded as water of crystalliaation, it will
Icdlowfrom this analysis tliat the salt is composed of
Potash 26*06 containing oxygen 4*43
Oxide of uranium . 83*46 " 4*47
Muriatic acid .... 30*75 saturating capacity 9*05
Water 9*73 8*93
By ^periment. By caleulatioii.
Potash 17*37 17-32
Oxide of uranium. . . 55*64 55*98
Muriatic acid 20*50 20*11 * '
Water 6*49 6*59 . '
•ji>
100*00 100*00 ' ''-•
• ■ -■- "■' ^
I have stated my results in conformity with the older ^bepf j|
res|)ecting the coustitution of muriatic acid, that 1 migi^b^^le
to employ that acid as a standard. It is obvious tli^t .))Qt^ t^'
bftses contain equal quantities of oxygen, and thajt the sf^ti^P^tii^
Opacity of the muriatic acid is exactly equivalent tpttie Q|^f4
of the. two bases.. I'he difTerenqes. oetw^eA the. ei^perioij^lj^
BS..S?^^Ml*ted resulfe are trifling/ aAd'Ai^y.l?e«ailgiy.i^
\e unavoidable errors of observation. I consider the result of
m»4 . Mv^BtrieU^s m^rikiMt. \&^
'VkhyMym4*vk^ talore deokive thuii-ttiat of any Df^ thii^reettdfii^;
#Dr«f'dM ^exidle' of orimiAm w^m^bevmoe^ciMfcstilatsed;^
diffet^ni-qQintity of muriate of sttrer ooglilytiii hav^ 'bbM
oiMMiedv Ify for example^ we mippoae tkat thd ummottiiifi^llili
experiment had been combined with 4*96 inst^Mt of'4'47 pe^ttlft
iif .oxygeBy the c|tiantity of-muriate of silirei' ought tO'hAve beeh
V6Migim. ; but the difierenee between this ana the^exp^rmlMi^
ialasBidt greatly exceeds what could possiUy be oo(si0i6ned^by
any^eivocB of obi^rvation* Indeed if the oxide of lirannmi^coii^
^uaed 5 atoms of oxygen^ it is not probable that<it(c6tddfliiWi%
exiBtsd. associated with potash in the abdve^m^itioMd'i^dhikSbiodi
"wb^ue the oxygen of the oxidule is two-thirds that of the poUHiil,
liut that the oxygen both of the oxide of uranium "and idf^tte
potash would;most probably have been the same : stM^ oi^ihts
mp^osition, theire ought to ha^e been reoeiired h67 ^tmi j^
miiriate of silrer« The proportions which, next to thwi^ iM^buM
approach most nearly to Uie analytical resulb, would be^>i4i4lk
tt&' oxygen of the oxide is to that of th& potash as S-. : 4;'tillt
thib womd presuppose still greater differences both in the qulML
Iky of muriate of silv^, and in the reiative proportitosof tfo'
pcilaah and oxide of uranium. ...:•<>
. '.Since the quantity as well as the number of atoms of the oinr^
gen may in this manner be regarded as-known, the* inft^rmsKa^
tl«t8 acqmred may be apj^ed to the analysis of other compoiliidlt
of uranium.
v The oxalate of oraniom gave, in one experiment, from 2^67
grm. of the desiccated salt> 0*363 grm. water, 0-5835 grm. clkf^
Donic acid^ and 1*7335 grm. metallic uranium. This approaches
to the neutral oxalate of uranium, combined with a quantity of
water of crystallization whose oxygen is thrice that of the oxide.
By calcolatioii. By ezpenment.
Oxide of uranium. . . 70*76 69*00
Oxalic acid.,,...., 16-73 17-99
Water 13-61 ........ 13-01
Another quantity of the oxalate which I subjected to, analysis
appeared to ne a subsalt, in which the oxygen of the oxalic acid
and of the. water was the same, and each double that of the
oxide. But the tendency of oxide of uranium to combine with
a different base is so powerful, that I do not consider this es^e^
limetit as in any respect decisive.
'^^Xj^'lxt^^te o{ oxide of uranium is readily soluble Id bfcafr
femill^'of ^^ota^b, and the soiation after some time deposits an
iWfertliittftidn'of leitton yelloW coloured ciystals, which constitifte
a^ttoUWcP^iilt; e6rap6sed of carbonic add, oiide of Ui'auium, aijdf
pmi^.^^hett these crystals are ighited, they^ive off wkef
^^WiMt afeid, andusstime 4 tile red colour. Watet fextra'cil
i. A. -.. ^ ^-i. 4^ . .J y
ffottt ibe r^^idue cftrbcrnat^jdf pqtfish, and thore reioaiwM^uiifM-
tobk ppwder ali^o of a tile red colour^ which is a araoatft of poJtf^*
a&b.' 1*97? ^o). of this compound dissolved ia muriatic iai>i4j
mnl Dr^cipitatecl with ammonia, ^ave 1*686 grm, os^idule^ i^:.
1*716 grm. oxidp, and 0*4 grm. muriate of potash, = Q*253 gro^.
pot^ush. The oxygeri of the oxide of umnium in this sa)t.wft%
dierefore dophle that of the pptash. . • * :
TJranate of potash, ignited in a current of hydrogpeQ.g4il^,.
undergoes only a partial decQmpgsitiop* After this treatmtux^ ^
it still continues completely insoluble in water, but acids disaoltV^
from ituranate of potash, in which, therefore, the oxid^ is com^
Uned with a still larger proportion of potash* The ifisolabU
residue consists of metallic uranium. . «
As the uranate of barytes when precipitated by ammoQii| v
from a solution of a salt of the oxide of uranium, mixed with. «^..
salt of barytes, is always accompanied with a variable quantity^.,
of uranate of ammonia, the proportion of which depends intm
great measure on the relative proportions of the precipitanty-and.
of the two salts in the original solution, I considered it preferable ^^
to form th^ salt by adding barytes water to a solution of mtrat^
of oxide of uranium. The edulcoration of this precipitate is ai| .
wacoqamonly tedious prbcess, and 1 remarked that after haviac
\eex^ repeatedly boiled in fresh quantities of water, it still partM :
ynih as much barytes as at first. In washing a few grammes o< ;
tlie salt, I expended in this manner several gallons of wat<c
before I felt satia6ed that it had ceased to give off a sensible { .
quantity of barytes. Thus prepared, the salt has a flame yeUpyt^ ,
colour, but it becopies pomegranate red after ignition. I decomt^/:^
posed it by solution in muriatic acid, and by precipitating th'^].
oarytes by sulphuric acid^ ^nd the oxide of uranium by ammpnfa^! j
From 2*1 28 grm. of the ijgnited salt, I obtained 0*451 grm,.Q^ ^s
barytes and r677 grm. dfoxide of uranium. The oxygen of tji^j,|
barytes was, therefore; rather more than one-half of tnat of uva,^..
oxide of uranium ; but this excess is probably occasioned bj^^,.
the difficulty of washing- odt Completely the last portions of tW.jJ
barytes. In the experiment in which M. Arfvvedson fouA4i^te^^.
oxidie of uranium combined with the smallest proporti9n jc^, ,
barytes, 100 parts were combined with 16-9 ps^rts of th^ jpartli^ ,j
which^ by virtue of its affinity, prevented the oxide {rqm bei^ ai
decbitiposed by ignitio^. The oxygen of the barytes iii^^t^iiia^* j
compound was, therefore, one-third of that of th§ oxi^e; .p^.,,1
uranium. . ^ . .. i » v-.-f*-^'/
Hence it would appear, that when the oxide 9f uranium pi^^j^.^i
yunMes, it combines with bases in such a proportioa .t^|i[t.it^i^j,f
oxygen is thrice that of the base, and that when the base predo*
mmates, the oxygen of the oxide of uranium i? twi^ci^ 4^at^/pj^it)l^i*
basi^. .jprom ili^e ph^omena which take place duriiig tbfe^ttraW.
ill ' ••; !•; ihui
Itl^> M. Xhrmui QH UFomum. 373
_ umaiate pf potash with hydrpgw |a», it i^ obviow^
ttei eomponnda exiat containing a still larger proportiDa ol
From. these experiments it foll0!W8; a^ Hiat the (]^uantiti«a o£
mfffin ooinbinea with aranium in the oxide and oxidule tyrc^ ta
Me mother in the ratio of 3 : 2. b. That in the neutral doubja,
salts which oxide of uranium forms with other bases^ that relatieu
by preference takes place, in which the oxyge^ of both bases is
eottfil; although it Inight have been expected that the oxygen
9r tj^<^ bxid^ of uf asium, as is the case with almnina* aAdthe,
Q^dea of iron and ipanganese would have been thrice that pf th^ ,
fjil^ne base with wmoh it is associated., c. That Qxide i^f
WffminiB, when acting as an acid, contains either thrioe or twice
thp Qiygen of the base. In the first pase the oxide is sugici^nt *
14 fai^irate th^ base; in the second^ the soluble base. exi&As in.
^jioeas.
yf0 siee also, that in the analysis of a substance containing ,
u]!%nitiiiii we are exceedingly liable to be deceived by the pf apert^jn
which tb^ oxide possesses of parrying down with it during ito^
precipitation s,ll insoluble bas^s; aller the oxid^ has beei^
igbited, therefore, we ought never to n^iglect, as M« Arfwedsofi
isoommends; to ^x^mine whether any portion of it be soluble in .
dilate muHatio acid, which infallibly detects the presence of a ^
foreign, base,
Vijanium has a very weak affinity for sulphur. Rose ^haa <
ibowp that the sulphuret may be prepared in the dry way by
im^tttng the oxidule in an atmosphere of sulphuret of carbon. Iti
we'^nipid way it may be obtained by precipitating a salt of the
oxtd^ widi hydrosulphuret of ammonia. The precipitate is
Usek, and is poluble m an excess of the hydrosulphuret^ yielding >
% diurk brown coloured solution. Washed and dried, it forms a
blaclii heavy mass, i^hich has aU the appearance of a ipetallio
Stt^buret, but if it be digested in muriatip acid, it proves to boa
melTQ mechanical mixture of the oxidule (which passes intojiolu«,.
tioii) and sulphur. The same spontaneous decomposition and ,.
ahi^orption of oxygen from the atmosphere take place, when the
newly precipitatea and still moist sulphuret is allowed t0|remaia ..
for 'a few hours upon the filter. If sulphuret of uranium prepare^
it) %0 hutnid way, and still mixed with a small quantity of. its > .
solution in tbe hydrosulphuret, b^ exposed to the air for a numr
bef of days, its colour gradually changes to a beautiful flame .
yeUoW' The same compound may also be formed by diffusing
the hydirated oxide through water, and passing through the mix*^,
tur6 fi' otrrrent of sulphuretted hydrogen gas; but if after the .
". ' ' , " : • ■ ; J « ' '.
^ Vkasi^ M. Aih(^dium*B expentnent, m vbich 1 '087 gnp. of Qxide of uraniitt|n coi^f i
1iUMdlirit|i'0*i1S$ $na* «f oxid* of lead, retainecl lu oxjfgen in a red liest, it might l)^ ^
condndcd that the oxide pf uranium retains its oxygen in a red heat, when combined
$yk sqttsmlcjr^ of bSB^ H^Meoiiygiiiit ^ man i^iMt on«<4iStli «f t)ia Askk^f SMnittin*
Nw StfiUf sou ix« IB
3S( MjiS^diu».o».JUMfAnM. [JV^AIl,
bbointeAdnee^flieigat; kibeoomeflr deeper, and/^M #n«Hy^Qbl;$ln
tbe ordinajry dudL coloared sulphuret. This flame jreHbw
coloured substance appears to be a compoand of okkkr taiaA
toljfifaamtof uranium, an oxjsulphuret: mariatio acid diitilves
h,' and oeoasiOuB the disengagement of sulphur and STdphutettid
bydrogenrgaSi^ - «
' / Native Compounds of Uranium. \^)
t ' Uranium occurs in the mineral kingdom in yery few differont
states of combination. The only ores of it with which we^afe
acquaicited are:!. The omdule, in the form of 'pitcbUende,
. tneehamcally intermixed with various nvetalUc sulpburetB ^add
isrsieniuretsy and with silica. From some of Klaproth'is ex!pm««
meots, in which the silica was obtained in the state of jeflV^ it
: would appear that this mineral is occasionally a silicate of vom-
dule of uranium; a circumstance which still requiiies to'be
satisfactorily established. 2. The kjfdrated oxide, forming beatt-
tit'ui light yellow coloured masses, of a pulverulent texture; and
eidy weakly cohering. When heated, it gives off watery and
assumes agreen colour ; a proof that it contains no fixed saline
basis. 3. Oxide qfutatnum^ forming a dark yellow, sometimes
brownish yellow coloured compact mineral. Igbited, it ^es
off water, but as it does not become green coloured, it tis
obvious that it must contain a fixed basis. I have detected^nnt
. lime and oxide of lead, and as I have been unable by meanaiof
the blowpipe to recognise in it any trace of phosphoric aeid,' I
; have reason to reffieirci it as a mixture of several- uranatesy^^fr^h
pr<4>ably vary bo& in their number and in their relative propor-
tions. 4. The minerals styled uranites (uran mica), frotn Autan
and many other localities, and from Cornwall. '5. SulfkiaB3oF
xmde of urauiunif which occurs very sparingly in Joaefaimdithai.
.fRMu an examination, chiefly by means of the blo^#pipey:to
« whieh I had an opportunity of subjecting a smdlapeciiii€9ri^$ I
^ find it to be a subsalt composed of salphuric acid, anadieaxidfes
of uranium and copper. The latter oxide is probably an /easen-
: tial ingredient in the mineral, as is the case with the double
V phosphate from Cornwall. > /- / ol
. .tl shall now relate the details of a minute investigtttibn which
I have made of the uranites. from Cornwall and? from) A^utuo,
which, on account of the similarity of their crystaiHneffermvJs^e
been heretofore erroneously considered as constitutia^Jithe
' same mineralogicai species. The localities of tbist minevftlnre
numerous, although it is never found expert in very iafetmaider-
t :able i}uant!ties; as, for example^ in Cornwall^ Atttuki'iJohaiin
^/ Qeotgenatadt, Eibenstook, Zinnwald^ BodetnatSj £oc. tBeB{;(tttflnn
s 'jwaa:ilbe ifir^t person who analyzed it. < The ^ itf p^cimeni wUohehe
' Ke^uiliddvhatkpeiied^to' be Ae cupvtoa^' vaml^s^rl^nitiijpiMLilall,
rih^'liiffvtapdrnBeats to oomider it KOdiwoaiid ofmiivittfeietBoidly
vidiliiiinfl^.«ni oxide of copper. Hence Werner applied' to itetiie
iVBUMUfif chalccriite.
i^^Klajirath, who examined the mineral in 1790, f(Cniiid?4bi|tfit$
tMhitioii in: nitric acid m not precipitated by a fiolutiondf aiher,
and that it contains oxide of uranium, which he had tfienireoeQftfy
discovered, together with a (juantity of oxide of copper, which,
however, he regarded as accidental, because in other specimens
it w<aa totally wanting. The mineral was now regardeid'lis a
^crystallized oxide of uranium. j >.
, i Gregor afterwards, in 1806, examined a uran mica« ia w^ofa,
t'bestdes oxide of uranium, he found lime, oxide of lea4,aBdft]i^oit;
aad-in 1815 a green variety, from which be separated 74^4'per
i<c0ttt; pf oxide of uranium containing a traee.of oxide ofle«d/8t3
per cent' of oxide of copper, and 16*4 per cent, of water. The
*:Oxide of copper he considered by far too abundant to- constitute
j^mere accidental ingredient.
• More lately, in 1819, I undertook an. examinatton of the
' Qraqite from Autun, in which I found so considerable a propor-
tion of lime, that it was impossible to regard it as an aocidMM
constituent. The result of my ansdysis was lime &87, oxide^of
umninm 72*15, oxide of manganese and ma^esia 0*80^ water
. 15*7, gangue 2*6 : hence I concluded that the mineral is a ura-
' mte oFlime with water of crystallization. As I did not possess
) a«i^Gient stock of the Cornwall uranite for a regular analyste, I
1 eiamined it before the blowpipe, and finding that it coatatned
t! copper, that it gave off an odour of arsenic in the redooittg
•^flfine, and that the globule of copper obtained with the assist-
isnce of soda was white and brittle, I concluded that the^een
VcdowF is occasioned by the presence of arseniale of copper. .
; i.lEowards the close of 1822, Mr. Phillips discovered pnos^pho*
rip^id in the Cornwall uranite, while treating it with a oau^lic
i ^UEali, in order to separate the ar&enic acid, which I had staled
•-.tlftioonsititute one. of its ingredients. This induced him to make
•.i»aew> analysis of the mineral, by which he found it compesediof
•dxide x>f copper 9*0, oxide of uranium 60*0, phosphoric add
16*0, silica 0*5, water 14*5. He found also, that although the
•imiaeral is not altogether free from arsenic acid, the proportion
^!jelL^isi:ingr6diedt is so inconsiderable, that it mav be safely
-^fittglficAed^ .la consequence of his having employed erroneous
utouipbersfor.the basis of his calculations, Mr. Phillips was^led
itoicegard the mineral as a mixture of 72*2 neutral phospbfktecof
-i^aainsO'with 12*3: phosphate of copper, by which these: sfiill
n.Tedweiin^ iii]fappronriatecl an excess of phosphoric acid. .The
avatctfibe rogarded ^s shared between the two pboapbat^iiii
:<'iBilchia/manner^ that the salt of uraniuBi coifttaiaa ^ WMiilhe salt
iia£0i]f»pQt)2iiit(QMiA ^ Oaiibr whole, be ccm^eIl^both3tb0^;i(^r'-
T2
im M.Jkrtilm en^nAiuA [AM&6i
Hiihrttrloito^ Mtl OmU ntUch I ftcalyzedy to cotfMl eBSMrta^or
]liMti|>bateafosnieof-aranitidi. " > * ^
- JEbid^8iftteq(i#ot ol Mr. Pbillips ia^nsed ine to 'tiMiytte llid
Aniuii nmnite atiew. J\n examination by the biowpif^ initatittjf
4Me0tad pbosphoric acid, whose presenee was so mtiefa llie
iMre iiolooked >for by me, beoause when in my earlieF aiiafyftis i
dilUledf the ooneentrated sohition of the mineral in muriatic acid
ndtbeteahely with a view to the subsequent precipitation of 1^
]im6 ^by mal^hturic acid, it did not become in the least tafl»d>
i|ltli#a§h one would have naturally expected^ that the phosphMe
oi liDde ;should have precipitated.
* Tlmt eo iavge a proportion of lime and oxide of copper should
ftaaittttte an accidental admixture in the mineral, when, as
Miig mote powerful bases than oxide of uranium, they ought %e
ifaare with it the phosphoric acid, appeared to me extremi^l]^
uftlikely s I thought it much more probable that the two HAue^
Mlsate isemorplious double salts, composed of an equal mamber
of isimple atoms, but in one of which the lime is replaced by
Wide of copper. With a view to ascertain this, I undertook «n
tttalmis of iM»di.
(A.) Uranite from Autun. — ^It is very difficult to determine
Ihfe* water, of erystallization in this mineral with accuracy, partly
beteuse in consequence of its foliated texture, it has a peculiaY
tendeeey to absorb hygroscopic moisture, and partly because it
itttaiiis only by a weak affinity even that portion of water whi<^k
exists in it in a state of chemical combination. In an attempt
Hrkicb I made to dissolve the mineral in boiling acetic acid, I'
Hsimd tikat not a trace passed into solution, but it acquired by
tills treatment the same brown colour which it possesses aftev
tbe^ water of crystalltzation has been expelled by ignition. Whea
dried ifi a pulverised state in a temperature of 68^, it gat^'ivr
aauiay experiments between 14*4 and 15*33 per cent, of waiter:
irithout this previous preparation, it gave as much as 17 per oenti
Ibe water thus expelled reacted as an alkali, and had the odau#
oi ammonia. It was not precipitated by nitrate of silver, but it
left by spontaneous evaporation traces of a crystalliaed sslty
whieh was probably fluate of ammonia, for the neck of the retoit
was distinctly corroded in the place where the water had con«
densed at the commencement of the operation. I saturated
H^h muriatic acid, and evaporated to dryness, the water expelled
ftom three grammes of uranite, but the residue of sal ammoniac
ilpas scarcely sufficient to produce a sensible alteration on die
Mance.
I analyzed the mineral in three different ways : — * ' '^
1. The Ignited powder was dissolved in nitric acid, th& s^^
tioii was dAuted with alcohol, and a miixture of sulphuric -toid'
Wd alcohol, was added, so long as ai^ gypsum precfpitated tke
IgffiHim was» in-ndisd mkh idcoho)^ drnd/ igoitedy m& ^vrnf/M^i
VtU^ MiSei^XtHmti^JhMm. Wl
forfiMltti&'Wkilher.it bad earned dam(H> ta^ p6l%iai»Jof lodrici
«f uranium, it was dissolved, witb the aesistanee orf ^^ BqSialg
kdaty^ki dilute inuriatio acid^ by wbieb a white' pMrdar^cMmsbti-
«ie *o{ sulphate of barjtes> rematned tuidiseMTed; Thei'Msd
•efaitftad was preei{Htated • oeither hy ammoiita nor b^- tri^
pnisstate of potash : the gypsum had therefore ^ceataiiied> m
oxide ef uranium. The alcoholic solution was evapdraited' to
dryness, and the residue was strongly ignited with DarbottalRk^of
soda; the fused mass was then digested in tvater, tvbioli
extracted phosphate of soda> and left a compound €f«sideltf
uranium and soda undissolved. The latter was dissoived itt
muriatic acid, precipitated with oa.ustic ammonia, waslied with a
solution of sal ammoniac, dried, ignited, and weighed. Mnmtw
acid did not dissolve from it a trace of oxide of uranhim^ Ite
alluEdine solution, on being saturated with muriatic acid, let fall
a mioate white coloui^ed precipitate, which |>roved to be amixv
tiure of neutral phosphate of oxide of uranium and phosphi^ irf
oxide of tin. The filtered liquid was boiled> in order to expet
the carbonic acid gas, and precipitated by a mixture of ammoaiar
and muriate of lime ; the phosphate of lime was afterwardi
washed, ignited, and weighed.
3. The nitric solution of the ignited mineral was precinitated
wil^ a slight excess t>f aeetate of lead ; its yeUow colour oy thit^
treatBsent became much paler, but did not completely disappeai^i
The precipitate, which was a double phosphate of tne oxides of
kad and uranium, and which contained the whole phosphorie
4eid of the mineraJ, was washed,. ignited, and weighed, it wfU
the^ dissolved in nitric acid, the solution was mixed^with ralhiei'
more sulphuric acid than was necessary to precipitate Ae oxid^
of lead, and evaporated until most of the nitric acid was dissu.
pated. Alcohol now added precipitated the whole of the snl^
phate of lead, which was washed, ignited, and weighed. Tbir
remaining liquid contained phosphoric acid and oxide of tirafiiatiii
together with some sulphuric acid. Potash separated from it
die oxide in the state of uranate of potash ; the precipitate was
dissolved in muriatic acid, and the oxide was again thrown
down by ammonia, washed with a solution of sal ammoniac,
and ignited. The quantity of phosphoric acid was deduced bif
Subtracting from the weight of the double phosphate that of the
oxide of lead contained by the sulphate, and that of the oxide of
uranium which was equivalent to the obtained quantity of
axidide. The original solution which had been precipitated
with acetate of lead, still retained about one-tenth of the oxide
of uranium. The excess of oxide of lead was removed by snl-
phitffetted hydrogen gas, and from the filtered liouid. The
<>xide . of uranium was precipitated by ammonisu The barytes'
n/Asiiiow separated by a few drops of sulphuric acid, and the
rMAmngiUcfuid, after hiving been evaporated neariy to^ dryne^s,
^^'intxed with alcohol and an additional qnantitv of snlphoric
acid, by which .means d^ whole of the lime was obtained. iatiie
state oi* iul^hate. From the acid alcoholic liquid^ diluted- wHh
water, sub|^osphate of ammonia precipitated a minute portion
of a mixture of magnesia and oxidule of manganese, in the form
of tti«* dcmble ammoniacal subphosphates.
3. The. baiytes was separated from the nitric solution of tiie
igiiited mitieral by sulphuric acid : the liquid was then conoen<-
trated, and the lime was precipitated by a mixture of sulphuric
acid and alcohol. The filtered solution was freed from alcohol
by evaporation, and decomposed by ammonia. The precipitate,
which was a double subphosphate of oxide of uranium and
ammonia, was very cautiously calcined (in a high temperature
its. colour js partially converted to a green*), weighed, and
decamposed by ignition with potash ; and the oxide of uraniona
was afterwards isolated by the process which has been already
described* Its weight, deducted from that of the calcinei^
phosphate, indicated that of the phosphoric acid, I found to nty
surprise that subphosphate of ammonia still detects the presence
df .magnesia and. oxidule of manganese in a hquid from which
phosphate of oxide of uranium has been precipitated by
ammonia.
: The following are the results of three analyses of 100 parts of
the ignited uranite, performed according to the three foregoitig
methods :
A.
Barytes 1*84
Liuie 6-76
Magnesia \
iOxidule of mangan. 3
Oxide of uranium . . 71*25
Phosphoric acid. . • 16' 75
Oxide of tin 0-06
Gangue 3-35
• • . .
• • • *
• • • •
B.
c. .
]f«M.
1-83 ..;.
1-72 ....
1-80
6-84 ....
6-56 ....
6^
•
0-23 ....
0-22 ....
0-23
70-05 ....
69-98 ....
70-48
18-87 ....
, 16-44 ....
17'36
""^~' • . • »
"""" • • . •
0-06
2-S3 ....
2-40 ....
2'99
(2-60?) •
1
100-00 100-36 97-42 (?) , 99*39
■ • * « «
. Admitting that the mean of these three analyses appf paph^
rarest to the truth, and that the water amount^ to 14*9. p.^
iCent. (which however includes the fluoric acid and ammoiiii^jx.ii
^ill follow that 100 parts of uranite are composed of . \ n^^
* This 4?con^poad0n does tiot take place wich the double wbialt <)f Iii9^;, .,r d
/ I
yrf rr/."'.b /rVC'V-T;' : ^f ^?
:>.:". ! ,1'JVi
/
1
,-■•'■ '
••./•; r,h\'-f lH''.Oi}\ilSh
T^\h
^ 4
1
^'^ftfjtes. .......... 1*51 containisg oxygen 0" 160 .. l V
'■'E?mfe . ; .'. 6-66 1-686 . . I .^
-^^^^y l0-19 0-07
' Oxiameofmangau. J
Oxide of uranium. .. 69-37 3-128 ..2
* 1f>ho8phoric acid .... 14-63 8-193 . . 5
Water... 14^ 13-246 ..8
Qangue. 2*70
Rubric acid
!Adimonia
\ ..
* •
'*" >TrfLce
\''-
99-06 ;
■ -f' ■ - ■ ' • '• ■ " ■'••>■•.
.:^Jit.:fi>Uows from this that the oxygen of the oxide of uraniumiifs
4J(^uhie that of the lime ; that the sum of the oxygen of all tK^
Vasqs is to that of the phosphoric acid as 3 : 6 ; and that the
(^gen of the water is eight times that of the lime. The: quanfr
tity. of water actually found rather exceeds this proportion^ bijLt
the slight excess is probably in combination with the salts of
l^me and barytes^ and with the fluoric acid and ammonia. TIu9
sialt is, therefore, composed of 3 atoms of subphosphate of lime
^in the same degree of saturation as in crystallized apatite),
4 ^toms of subphosphate of oxide of uranium, and 48 atoms of
water, mechanically intermixed with very minute quantities of
the phosphates of barytes, magnesia, and oxidule of manganese.
...Concentrated sulphuric acid developes the fluoric acid more
decisively than ignition, but the quantity is in both cases so
inconsiderable, that it cannot be regarded otherwise than an
^it>cidental admixture, as indeed appears to be the case with it in
^ the native phosphates. . '
j^^.(6.) Uranite J'rom Cornwall. — The small stock which I po^
g^Sied of this mineral permitted me to subject it only to a sjng^
S|i^alysis; but my results agree so closely with those of Oregor
and Phillips, that a repetition of it would perhaps be stiper-
ftupus.
T'^Cftie gramme, previously pounded and dried in a temperature
of 68**, lost by ignition m a small glass retort 0*1505; the
t^prtfefd water was neither acid nor ammoniacal, and was in all
wpects pure. The yellow coloured residue was fused witk
^rD^ynfdte of soda, and the acid and alkali were extracted with
water. The oxides thus separated had a dark green colour, and
left by solution in muriatic acid and supersaturation with car-
bonat«K^of ammonia, an insoluble matter, weighing 0*007 grm.
which contained silica, alumina, and a distinct trace of tin or
lead. The liquid was concentrated until the whole of the
ammonia was expelled, the precipitated oxides v^jet^ iVkfcw^^-
aol red in muriatii; acid, and the cop^t vi^'a VSkwvw ^owa. \2P^
%
«0 MiBtt%kliMimUfmim. [ILIKII,
l^vM^retted hyArogeti gti8. The eulphnret of copper ' weighed
li^i^et xamiiag 0*0^ grm. . Dissolved in muriatic acid and
.^0f»«xed with muriate of Darytes, it gave 0*028 grm. suljAaie of
barytesy = 0*0096 crm. sulphuric acid ^ consequently the ^tide
of copper amounted to 0*0844 grm. The liquid which had been
treated with sulphuretted hydrogen was boiled in order to expel
the excess, of gas, and precipitated by ammonia. The precipi-
tate, washed with a solution of sal ammoniac and ignited, gave
0*692 grm. oxidule of uranium, =x 0*6025 grm. oxide.
• The alkaline liquid, which contained the acid of the uranite,
waik supersaturated with muriatic acid, and precipitated by sul-
Ciretted hydrogen gas : some sulphuretof arsenic separated,
too inconsiderable to be weighed. The portion of green
uranite on which my original blowpipe examination was made,
contained a eoDsiderably larger qtlanllty of arsenic acid : as
this acid is isomorphous with phosphoric adid, its proportion in
differetit speciikienfe will probanly be liable to grdat Tariatiotm.
•The uratiite .was therefor^ composed of
Atom.
Oxide of copper •.♦... 8*44 containing oxygen 1*702 . . 1
Oxide of uranium. . . • • 60*25 3*175 • « 2
Phosp. ac. with ars. ac. 16*66* 8*72. .• 6
' Water... 15*05 13*24 ..6
Gangue 0*70
100-00
, . Ilere we find the same multiples as in the uranite from Autim,
jiifith tk% (difierence that the lime is replaced by a quantity of
oxide oi copper, containing the same amount of oxygen. The
.qusintity of phosphoric acid is rather too high> because thsre is
included under it both the arsenic acid and the necessary loss
pf the analysis. This uranite contains also fluoric acid, perhapn
more abundantly than the specimens from Autun, but the \\v^
and barytes are wholly wanting.
.;, Both these uranites aie therefore double subphosphates.of
Sixide, of uranium, the one with oxide of copper, and the -Qtbeo:
(with lime. As lime and oxide of copper, according to J&iit^clie^
lich's admirable discovery are isomorphous, thev ijuu^t^ wMl^
combined with an equal number of atoms of oxide of i^f^niu^,
phosphoric acid^ and water, assume the same crystailioQ fcHrm ;
IM^idt. therefore, the two minerals will be considered a^.iflQi^U^^
%, tbpsd who confine themselves to the crystalline form, if^ as^
^fi^ii^ni a Q^ineralogical species, aitbougjb. this aii?f^pgeXQej9^
with.rpierenqe to their compo&itioM, iserroineou^*, ^ uu : ..iu7,
i;s'?Afi'ib«y deserve to b^ distitiguished bjr difibrbilt' tttlitli^ t
;;]|i^poft»fd'C«ll tke Corawall vatiety cAa/eo/i^^/ the^ trppeHftttoti
>t1iWglt-fe hftd previouftl^ i^ceived from Werner^ atid k> i^l^
r.fitete lo the yellow Variety the name of uranitti
1.', ■
... "'.
Article V.
Observations on a Safety Hood and Mouth-piec£, invented by
I, John Roberts, for enabling Persons to enter Apartments m
Cases of Fire, to eject Measures for its early Extindtion, andfor
the Removal of Goods, Papers, Sfc. By W. R. Whatloo, 'Esq.
■' FAS.&c.
(To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.)
GENTLEMEN,
I DO myself the hoDOtir of offering you, for insertion in your
highly valuable iourhal, some short observations on a recent
invention brought before the public in this town, by John
: Roberts, a poor working miner, of St. Helens, in Lancashire,
which, after being submitted to the test of experiment, has
answered the expectations formed of its apparent utility in the
highest degree.
The construction of the instrument is very simple, and consists
of a hood or covering for the head and neck, made of strong
leather, and closely adapted to the upper part of the body ;
into the front or face part of which is inserted a sight piece of
^lass, set in a projecting square tin socket or frame ; and a
mpoth-piece, to which is attached an open tube, constructed of
i$piral wire covered with leather, descending to within about
iaine inches of th6 floor, steadied by a strap and buckle rotind
^^tte leg, afid havitig tt Its end a large funnel or trumpet-shaped
ifiijpittiittg; of tin, crowed tvith strong flannel or horse-tug, and
'teHfefblty lined on its inner surface with a layer of spOrige.
The principle upon which its merits appear Entirely to fest, is
"ibeftcmty afforded to the Wearer of respiring freely a much less
^^nre and a cdinparatively cool atmospheric air, in placids
lifted with smoke and vapour, arising ftom (he CombustiOii df
"ftktilfter of any kind, and deleteridits, m a greater or lUs^ degree,
^MHeitiittial life.
' *^'T6 render the hood fit for immediate ns^, hothitig miore is
iife^ssttfy than to moisten thoroughly the flannel and spbnge it
itt'To^ei^end with water; taking carfe to free it ftoni afiV supijrr
#8*^ quantity of fluid w*hich it mav hate imbibed, and wnicfe
would otherwise int^ifetie with the free passage ot kit thtoiigli
ihe instrument, and impair its usefulness. The Tsvto&^x s>^ S^
tfptnti&ii is to enMt tke wearer to'Vkdl^^ V!t!k!^ '^xt tt^stii '^^
lowest stratum of the apartment, where it is always the lea»ti I
impure, to filtrate and cool it by transmission througU the ItreatlMi I
ing funnel, and thus to deprive it of the amoke and charcoal,i) I
giten off by the combustion, with which it ia strongly impreg^, ]
nated. 1 ]
JVI
No. 1, Roberts's invention as given by himself.
No. 2, The same, with the suggested improvements.
For these purposes the principle of Roberts's instrumant.U
well adapted, and its construction well imagined and !uvei)ti^
but several important improvements might be made whjo
would go far towards the completion of the machine, and Wbw
immediately suggest themselves on a bare examindtion, of, a
its application to experiment. \. g
The hist alteraUon 1 would recommend is the insertion orl
screw joint into the upper part of the tube, at about two or tl^tfi^
inches from its origin, furnished with a washer of leather, i
made air-tight This simple addition would secure two im
ant advantages : Urst, it would enable the person using tli^
to relieve himself from exhaustion and oppression on co
out of the apartment, by the instant admisiiion aud respiratijfiii A
pure atmospheric air, without incurring loss of time by rensosiflf
the whole hood, as is the case on \1'5 'gt?»«t»\. twasypi^wWi "^
^k^f^fl jt'wi^M prevent tin dahgeV frdth w'gudde«'%)^lifttA^i8f 1
tlljfr'H[>rfea»t aria neck (already in a stjlten^f pr6ft«€f '^iraj>if«lte|(^
ftttii 'ft high temperature to coW air/ causefd by^ettiftg-ltteen
dliiHift id loose the 8t.raps and buckies by ^hich the i^c&ln^^M:^
fastened round the shoulders and chest, ' rii.a
The second alteration would be to insert a shallow oblong
concavo-convex gla^^ instead of the square and socket at pre-
sent in use ; by which the man would be enabled to see on all
sides with much less difficulty, and without any change of pos-
ture ; while, at the same time, refraction would be prevented by
the thinness of the medium, which cannot be the case wiUi a
plaino-convex glass, as by some gentleman has been recom-
mended. Over this sight-piece might also be advantageously
fixed a strong leather peak, to protect the eyes from the glaring
light of the fire, and the glass from injury by falling bodies, or
blows from above ; and in lieu of the simple water for the im-
mersion of the breathing funnel, a solution of caustic potash
might be substituted, which would neutralize the carbonic acid
gad and wood acid, suspended in the smoke (the contact of
which last is so severely painful to the eyes), and thereby, in a
still greater degree, effect tlie advantages for which the machine
is hitended.
In the experiments of Friday last, made before the President
and Directors of the Manchester Fire and Life Assurance Com- -
pany, and a number of scientific gentlemen, the apartment in
which Roberts remained 24 minutes, at a temperature of 130^
Fahr. was a foundry drying oven, filled with smoke and vapour,
given off by the combustion of damp cotton, waate wet hay, and
sulphur, the least exposure to which produced intense smarting
in -the eyes, and an excessive irritation on the lungs, and would
probably have destroyed life if it had been continued but for a
few minutes ;* while to a person wearing the apparatus nothing
more occurred than an acceleration of the action of the heart
from 70 to about 160 per minute, attended by afree perspiratioix^
fiyer the surface of the body ; wiih some sensation oi exhaustion^
fi^ifl 'giddiness in those unaccustomed to the experiment.
'JlFfe chief excellence of Roberts's instrument is its simplicity;
fBf it CJlri niever be admitted that an invention however efficient"
in ^he purposes for which it is intended, if it be complex in its'
c&ristruction, arid difficult in its application, can be at all coin-^
jSifstyi^ in value to one so plain in principle, and so intelligible
misyiiiiky^: as his is. . ^ ;'. : ;
T^R tfaii^^ freewise be borne in mind that the machine h not;
inVfiiteti^'fo^ scientific persons, or for those who ate famtlitfif'
Aiui tm^r^nated with wood acid and
sotiie essential oil.
Wtibi^jitrmeDfc; ;bttt for men of iofbrior eaoaoities.i^iA 419
fldwciaiion, iwho^ ia the fulfilment of even plain direetioDa in t6e
bi)|ir. of danger and hurry, are often likely to misundersUuMl
tbeii meaning, and defeat their intention.
^ T^in^ therefore these circumstances into consideraticm^ i&Ui
my opinion that the invention is amply equal to the purpoiM
for which it is intended, and highly deserving the confiaeae«
and encouragement of a liberal public.
.. Robei?t8 has received from the Manchester Assurance CcHBiit
{mny a premium of 50 guineas, and their permission to use oay
dOj^i^ments respecting tne invention which have been laid before
the/ Board of Directors ; and I should feel myself at all tiskea
f«»inpUG9ented by any application for further information, or
indeed by any suggestion likelj^r to forward the poor feUow%
int^rest^ or to make the invention more generally known md
MtifuL I have the honour to be, Gentlemen,
Your very obedient servant,
W. R, Whatton^
Surgeon to the Mancheater Fire and Life
, Assurance Company.
Mi^ht not talc be advantageously substituted for glass for the
tighl«holes» as the danger of tne latter substance's breaking froia
andden exposure to intense heat would thereby be avoided ?<^^
Edit.
Article VI.
Chtmcttl Examination of two Specimem of the Soil of tht Ctivetii
of KUkhch. By M. Chevreul. (Communicated by the Rfev.'
* W. Auckland, Professor of Mineralogy in the Uhirerslity*
of Oxford, &c.) To which is prefixed an Account of tht Cnve^
ffom the ReliquicE Diluviana. ■
i. I
^' The cave of'Kiihloch is more remarkable than the rcwtjf
ftf being the only one I have ever seen, except that of
Kirkdale, in which the animal remains have escaped disturbanci$>
by diluvial action ; and the only one ai^o in which I could find-
the black animal earth, said by other writers to occur 30 genet:
eally, and for which many of them appear to have mialakea* thar
diluvial sediment in which the bones are so universally* imbeifcf/
d^» The only thing at all like it that I could find in, any of tto
other caverns, were fragments of highly decayed bone, which
occurred in the loose part of the diluvial sediment in the caves
df Seharafeld and Oailenreuth ; but in the cave of Ktifak^dtytfiit-
Ifi fer otherwise. It is literally true that in this singl* ettVl^rtl^
(the size 8iiia proporti6ns of which are nearly equd! to ffep^^ p^
iim kaHmmt •of a; hrge chur<th)/there ere bu&di«dt^«|r«klMdi
df black «jttiiiial dust entirely covering the wholeflodrto'tfd^prii
Waeh miMt average at least six feet^ and whioh/ if vre maltipiy
this depth by the length and breadth of the cavem^ wiH M
feUQcito exceed 5000 eubic feet. The whole of this Hiafl» has
beaa .again and again dog over in search of teeth and bonttftf
vhioh-it still contains abundantly, though in broken fragnlentBi
The state of these is very different from that of the bones w«
fad in any of the other caverns^ being of a blaok, or, mofe pro«
perlyt speaking, dark umber oolour throughout, and many ef
them readily crumbling under the finger into a soft dark powdet
leaeinblsng raummy powder, and being of the same nature<wiitll
Ae. blade earth in which they are imbedded. The quantity i«f
anioBial matter accumulated on this floor is most, snrprisiiifg;
ind the only thing of the kind I ever witnessed ; and many
hundred, I might say thousand individuals must have contributejl
their remains to make up this appalling mass of the dust of
deatfa« It seems in great part to be denved from comminuted
and pulverized bone ; for the fleshy parta of animal bodies pro*
duce by their decomposition so small a quantity of pennanfint
earthy residuum, that we must seek for the origin of this mass
pBUcipally in decayed bones. The cave is so dry that the Uack
•ardi lies in a state of loose powder, and rises in dust under thtt
feet : it also retains so large a proportion of its origii^al animal
matter, that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an enrich^
ing manure for the adjacent meadows.* The exterior of this
eaveni presents a lofty arch in a nearly perpeudicular cliffy
which forms the left flank of the gorge of the Esbach, opposite
the castle of Rabenstein. The depth of the valley below it is
1^ than 30 f^et, whilst above it the hill rises rapidly, and
SQipttimes precipitously to 150 or 200 feet. This narrow valley
q|r gorg^ is simply a valley of denudatiop, by which the waters
of the Esbach fall into those of the Weissent. The breadth of
the entrance arch is about 30 feet, its height 20 feet# As we
advance inwards, the cave increases in height and breadth, and
near its inner extremity divides into large and lofty chambers,
both of which terminate in a close round end, or cul de sa^, at
ttedistance of about 100 feet from the entrance. It is inters
sMted by no fissures, and has no lateral communications coa«>
neetiBg it with any other caverns, except one small hole close
tai^' its inouth, and which opens also to the valley. These
ciNniqistances are important, as they will assist to explain the
peeuliaply undisturbed state in which the interior of this cavern
d:-. • '. ". ■ '•.
•<* ^'Ifttv^'sttiteil that the total quantity of animal matter that lies withi* this ckvem
iiUi^iitaB >oim]]Mlte4> at te«;th«ii fiUOO cttbk feec ; now aUovidg «i»» cabie feet of' 4utl'
•|A|^M[}fpi^ '^ indlYif ual.Ariiroal) we tbaU l^\e. in this tjstigle vault the Mmaiftf qf
ttiMM znOO bears, a number wliicn may have been supplied in the space of IQOO Vett^
has rematned, amid the diluvial changes that have afifected lo
sieny others. The inclination of the floor fur about 30 feet
'iliearest the mouth is very congidprable, and but htUe earth u
^lodged upon it; but further in, the interior of the cavern is
''mtirely covered with a ma.^s of dark brown or blackish earth,
''through ivhich are disseminated, in great abundance, the bones
- '&nd teeth of bears and other animals, and a few Bonall angular
'fragments of limestone, which have probably tttllen from the
roof, but 1 could find no rolled pebbles. The upper portiuODf
this earth seems to be mixed up with a quantity of calcareou
loam, which, before it had been disturbed by digging, probably
formed a bed of diluvial sediment over the animal rematas ; bu^
aa we sink deeper, the earth get» blacker and more free from
loam, and seems wholly composed nf decayed animal matlir.
There is no appearance of either stalactite or stalagmite having
ever existed within this cavern.
" In some of the particulars here enumerated, there is an appa-
rent inconsistency with the phenomena of other caverns, but the
differences are such as arise from the particular position and
circumstances of the cave at Klihloch : the absence of pebbles,
and the presence of such an enormous mass of animal dust, are
the anomalies I allude to ; and both these circumstances indicate
niess powerful action of diluvial waters withia this cave than in
any other, excepting Kirkdale, To these waters, howeverj we
must still refer the introduction of the brown loam, and the
formation or laying open of the present mouth of the cavera;
from its low position so near the bottom oftbe valley, this moulh
could not have been exposed in its present state, and indeed
must have been entirely covered under sohd rock till all the
materials that lay above it had been swept away, and the valley
cut down nearly to its present base; and as the cave ends
inwardly in a cul de sac, and there is no vertical fissure, or uiy
other mode of access to it, but by the present mouth, if wecan
find therein any circumstances (hat would prevent the adminsion
of pebbles from without, or tiie removal of the animal remains
from within, the cause of the anomaly we are considering will
be explained. That the throat of the cave by which we
ascend from the mouth to the interior is highly inclined
upwards, so that neither would any pebbles that were drifting
on with the waters that excavated the valley ascend this
inclined plane to enter the cave, nor would the external ciureuts,
however rapidly ruahingby the outside of the mouth, have povver
to agitate (except by slight eddies in the lower part of the throat)
the fitill waters that would fill the body of the cavern, and which
bang there quiescent, would, as at Kirkdale, deposit a sedimeDt
tmtn (he mud suspended in them upon the undisturbed Temains
of whatever kind that lay on the floor. From its low position,
it is also probable that t\ie vauVl ^oxiaei \Ve is^t^t^x. \tc«&s of i
1
ifztaoaUrft: mig^ of ioiitibijl^dl oanee^im iviHUioJiiftuMfMiYiftl^Biil^
jftliow of aotedUttviaii bears withdrew d2«iBaerves.fr0iii.th04Mr-
bileat cotB^any of their fdlows, as Ihey feit8ickoes8'ai»i.-iiaath
aMVoachkig ;. the habit * of douie9licated • beasts, and birda^to
.Ame tihetBtselyea.an the approach, of jdeathi rendess it pdrobaUe
iihdit wild and savage ankaala also do the same; The umisiial
Jtote. of decay of the teeth .and bcm^ in Uiis Uack earth iDa]f(4>e
Attributed to the exposed state of this cavern, arising 6oai;it8
t'iarge month and proximity tp theiextenial atmosphereand tb-lbe
rftb^nce of that protection, which in closer aod deeper eaues
^tlbey have received by being secluded, from such exposure^ -pr
,»imbedded in more argillaceous earthy or inverted wttfai'Md
iienlitely sealed up beneath a crust of stalagmite/'— <£iedUtifi(i^'f
xBiiifuuK DUuviana.) . ... i
». * ^t
... Analysis by M. ChevreuL
; ' Mr. Buckland transmitted to me through Mr* Uadenvo^
r two speeimens of the soil of the cavern of Kufaloeh^takenlat
different depths in order that I might analyse them ; this oavera
.Goutains a great number of fossil bones, belonffiog to oamm)-
>ix>us and herbivorous animals, which Mr. Buckland caocWM
i:«wre'not transported by. water into the situation in which tbay
r^are.now seen,' but that the Kiihloch cavern was the ha]uat of
'^ianHVorons animals which died thene^ and their fossil bonea.are
"HOW found in a state of greater or less decay according to Ike
/idegre&of exposure to the atmosphere that they have undersoile.
I -}f&te letter A denotes a specimen of the soil taken at the depth
^6f two feet, B one at six feet below the surface.
-' \ Both' the specimens are, in great measure, in apfdveiuknt
^Jstate^ - containing small masses which easily crumble to pieces ;
vdieir cplouf is orange brown, pretty much like that of some- beg
•HTDK oresr {mines dejir hydrattes limonemes)'y the colouf resides
M jiMMH|^iy.inr the finest particles, as is evident if we agitate like
-f liiwcimefis in water, and decant the fluid before it has beecnse
l;fae£(r; the pulverulent particles remain suspended, wbde ft gm*
jinilar aamdy matter subsides of a yellowish grey colour; when a
f«ehi{kD8tt hai^ fermed from the muddy water 'whioh had been
gdflaatttedrfiiF^ itis found to have a fine orange yellow colour.
2iTfae«pemmea A contains a -saaHer proportion of pulverukair
,?|^ai(tkcles('liian B, and is fAso less coloured.
i9v/^P|revious trials having shown that the matter soluble in water
(fwaffUn^part'al^rable by the action of heat, like organic aub-
] atil»c&B^I.flnilNttitted both specimens to two series of experimeiits^
.titeid^termtne fifst the. natare of thie- substances indestructifala by
erliftaty ahdibecseiidly thai; «Kf 'the matter defrtmclible byitfaiat f^^eit.
§ I. ^-* Experiments on the JndestrueiiKe SMter dfeal^ I^Hitf^^
^perimen($ on Specimen A.
1» 2 giummes,'*^ exposed to
n temperature of 212^ to 250^
lout 0*185 er. of water.
2. The dried matter, heated
ia^fi^oktiBa- capsule, first ex-
lidedL ta amnmiiaeal, oUy and
hjiMlrocvailia odour; it then
kMidm )akmih, pyrophorus at a
seAK<K]gr<iied >heat, and^gave off
aiilpburous acid, and after*'
wards ceased to glow. It lost
ia thiS'C^erati<m 0*165 gr.
3. The calcined matter
weighed 1*650 gr. ; it dissolved
in part in weak nitric acid,
with -effei^eBiDeiioe; the resi-
duum, weighed 0*228 gr. ; it
wa3 sandy and coloured, it was
tepar ated by the filter.
I. $andi/ Residuum,
4. Ignited with potash in a
silver crucible, the fused mass
yf^» not coloured green; it
wf# .dii§4^ed ift watf^ and
muriatic acid ; by evaporation
9pd water 0*1 1&9 gr* of silica
w^ separated from the solu-
tion.
^, Tb^ liquid frpni wbi^h the
silica had b^en separated gave
% jprec^ipitftte^ which, by means
orpotash> afforded 0*026 gr.
9f Silumiupy and 0*013 gr, of per*
Qsidepfiroa.
6) The ammoniacal liquid
miy^ed with oxalic acid ga^e oxrr
alate of lime, equivalent to
Q*006 gr. ofUme.
II. Nitric Solution.
7. Precipitated by ammonia
and the precipitate washed
Mxperin^e^t$ oh §>pmmmi^*4,
1. 2 ^ammes IcNit at^^'-
same temperature 0^210 ot^
water.
2. Same phenomenai as 'th«
preceding (2) : the loss «& 0^3
3, Same phenomena ; sandy
residuum t^ 0*237 gr.
I. Sandy Re^idmm*
4. Same phenomena vBtUe%
== 0-186 gr.
5. Same phenomena ;" ald^
mina ;;= 0*04 gr. ; peroidde of
iron S9 0?013 gr. ' ,
♦ •
vw-
.' v..
6. Same phenomena; iim^
= 0*02 gr.
II. Nitric Solutiottt!
7. Sam^ phenomeita; .pt^eir
pitat« =9 0^*>a5fpr. » : .
M
.'T r;5i<l
catciued, exhaled a slight sul-
pbiirebQS odour; it had a red-
qMi yellow colour, and Tvreighed
U^o gr.
a. Precipitate of No, 7.
8. 0*2 gr. of this precipitate
gave no indications of manga-
nese by fusion with potash.
The residuum dissolved in nitric
acid, and treated with solution
of potash, gave no alumina to
the alkaU.
9. 0*225 gr. of the samje pre-
cipitate, treated .with sulphuric
acid and alcohol, gave a resi-
duum and an alcoholic solution.
10. The residuum consisted
of sulphate of lime 0*275 gr.
magnesia 0*010 gr.
11. The alcoholic solution
was mixed with water, and
slowly ooncentrated, and the
residuum diluted with water,
precipitated by ammonia, and
filtered.
The JiUered liquid evapo-
rated to - dryness left phos-
phoric acid, whose nature was
ascertained by means of oxide
of silver and oxide of lead.
Tkii precipilaie dried in the
aijt> weighed 0*1 gn; heated
to 212"^ water and ammonia
were disengaged ; it dissolved
entirely aiter calcination in
weak sulphuric acid ; the solu-
tioo, treated with boiling sub-
carbonate of potash in excess,
yield flocculi of carbonate of
magnesia, and peroskide of iron ;
the alkaline liquid probably
contained {Phosphoric acid ;
neHtoafaed by nitric aeid and
evaporated to dryness, a mi-
nute portion of matter remained
of a itg^t rose eolottr*
New Series, vol. ix. u
^mhim. »»
\ '
f J
• »
' f
r *
a. Precipitate of No^ 7.
8. 0*335 ^. of this p#ecipi- '
tate gave with potash ^ a sdnsi^^
ble quantity of oxide of oniii*-^
ganese ; the alumin*, if it Cdft* ^
tained any, was in exti^acMly
small quantity. .>.'>-
«:, •(■
9. 0*3 gr. of piecipitote (7>
similarly treated.
10. Residuum wboMyttma^d
of sulphate of lime =s 0*^2&gPi
11. Alcoholic solution f stmi^
larly treated.
Filtered liquid^ same results.
. Precipitate dried in the air.
= 0*075 gr. exposed to 212^
gave off water and ammonia ; ^
carbonate of potash took up
phosphoric acid, and left a re- '
siduum consisting of magnesia,
peroxide of iron, and oxide of
manganese.
090 if* CkiDfwPi Chimcal Examination of two {A^jiil»
We may conclude from these
experiments that the precipitate
consisted of the phosphates of
lime, and magnesia, and of per-
oxide of iron, probably united
to phosphoric acid.
(. Solution of No. 7^ from which
the Preajdtate (7) had been
Hparaied.
12. Oxalic acid separated
0-362 gr. of lime « 0-872 gr.
sulphate of Ume, which, when
dissolved in muriatic acid, gave
no cloudiness with ammonia,
but the solution assumed a vio-
let rose colour.
13. The liquid which had
been precipitated by oxalic
acid was mixed with carbonate
of potash, and evaporated to
dryness ; the residuum, treated
with water, gave carbonate of
magtiesia, « 0-130 gr. of dry
magnesia ; it contained a trace
of silica.
14. The solution from which
the magnesia had been separat-
ed contained 0*014 gr. of sul-
phuric acid, which was sepa-
rated by nitrate of barytes ; it
contained no phosphoric ucid.
15. It is very probable that
in the specimen A, calcined,
1st. The 0-014 gr. of sul-
phuric acid were united to 0-0 1
of lime.
2d. That the 0-362 gr. of
lime precipitated by oxalic
acid, minus 0-01 gr. and the
0-130 gr. of magnesia were in
the state of carbonates.
According to the preceding
experiments, the specimen A
contained.
We may conclude from thescf
experiments that the precipi-
tate (7) was fonned of the
phosphates of lime and m^gve-
sia, and of the oxides of iron
and manganese, probably unit
ed to phosphoric acid.
ft. Solution of No.l ffromvjhkh
tlie Precipitate (7) had been
separated.
12. Oxalic acid threw down
0-270 gr. of lime ; the lime
combined with sulphuric acid,
and then dissolved in nitric
acid, gave no rose colour with
ammonia.
13. The liquid which had
been precipitated by oxalic
acid gave 0-06 gr. of magnesia,
and 0*02 gr. of silica.
14. The liquid from which
the magnesia and silica had
been separated contained 0*616
gr. of sulphuric acid, without
any phospnoric acid.
15. It is very probable that
in the specimen B, calcined,
ist. TheO-Ol6gr. of sulphu-
ric acid was combined wij;h
0*011 gr. of lime.
2d. That the 0*27 gr. of lime,
minus 0*011 gr. and the 0-60 Jf
magnesia, were in the state of
car Donates. ' .
According to the preCediiij?
experiments, the specimen' p
contained,
.■^ '■
}i^k} Specimem of the Soil of tk€ Cavern of KUhlach. 391
TV^aterj and matter yda-
tile^t250^ *. 0-185
lUatter volatilizec} by
pQQibu^tioi; and a i^ed
heat 0-166
R_„j„ f Silica* .•.,.. 0*159
^* J y J Alwnina. . • . . 0-026
S!f,!^ I Peroxide of iron 0-013
^^^^'^ I Lime 0-005
Phosphates of lime ^
11 .1 » pagnei^ia > .0*605
%K.* v\r
iron
Wi^t^r, an4 m^-tter Yola^ \
tileat250^ ,../..•,. Q'%}^
Matter volatiJi2e4 l>y
combustion and ^ rea
heat 0-200
Q^^^, r Silica. •••,.. 0'186
^^^^J^ 1 Alumina ft-040
Peroxide of iron O'0 1 3
ti^xe...., .^,. ft-00?
Phosphates pf UiQQ
magnei^^*
resi-
duum.
t't r>'
— '.I a. , »
iron
Carbonate of lime. . . • , 0-624
- — ■ magnesia ,. 0*268
Sulphate of lime 0-024
maQ^aa§se
0-036
. . f « . •
Carbopate gf hoje, , « . • 0*459
^ iu ■■ i^Hgii^sia* 0»]24
Sulphate of lime «••»«* 0'027
gilica, ....,., ,.. 0^020
1-974
l-oss f.M..;. 0-026
Loss
T-?
2^000
1-920
.90
2-000
16. The loss must be rather greater in reality than is indicated
JB the preceding tables, because the carbonates of Ume and
IBAgnesia must have lost a portion of their carbonic acid by cal-
cination ; but the effervescence produced during the solution of
the calcined matters in nitric acid (3) and (3), proves that the
whole of the carbonic acid had not been volatilized by the cal^
cination. I should add, that I looked in vain for fluoric acid in
the soil of the cavern of KiihlQch.
§ 2. Series of Experiments to determine the Nature of the Matter
of Specimens A and B which is alterable by Heat.
•JExperimentson Specimen A.
17. 10 parts of the specimen
A were treated at least 20
(ipies with 100 parts of water at
each . operation. The ^rst
washings were made at the
temperature of 140® to 176°
Fahr. ; the last were at the
boiling point. The washings
Inixed and evaporated left an
orange coloured precipitate
weighing 0-66 parts. The
matter insoluble in boiling
water will be examined in Arti-
cle 2. v2
Experiments on Specimen B.
17. 10 parts of the specimen
B treated in the same manner
gave a residuum weighing 1*33
part, which differed from the
preceding only in being of a
more red orange colour, and
containing a httle more deli-
quescent matter. The matter
insoluble in boiling water will
be examined in Article 2.
Jf. Cfiei'reuii CIteinii'al ExaimmUton of two'' [AfwZ]
18. Tile aaalogy apparent between the, two residues of 'tlQ
specimens A and B, and especially the small quantity of tB?
Bubiitance which I was possessed of, determined nie to mix tbenJk.
I shall relate the experiments that I made upon these residiiea,
which 1 shall describe as the soluble matter of the soil of the
cavern of Kiihioch,
19. The soluble matter was four times treated with ten titnei
its weight of cold water. The washings were evaporated (t
dryness, and the residue was treated with alcohol ; the alcoholij
aolution was evaporated, and the residue treated with fresh alco-
hol : by these means the soluble matter was divided into a/n^
holic extract, and residuum insoluble in alcohol, which last wifi
added to the matter undissolved by cold water in the four wastf-
iiigs above mentioned.
30. I shall now examine successively,
;,„ As. 1 «» maU,r,fa, ml soluble in -s , ^, , ,,,. '
, boihng water d,ud,d Mo Ud] re.idu^m »«J#
,,U Att. 2 the m,un of the soil v,,d,.-t ;„,„^j ;„ ^,„j„,^
solved in boiling water. j
Ahticlk ]. — Examuiafiim of the Matter oj'f/ie Soil of Kiihloek
dissolved in Boiling Water.
1. jtlcoltnlic Kvtrarl.
21. It contained an organic principle of a red orange colour,
BD acidulous ammo niacal salt, traces of phosphate ofmagnzsis,
of chloride of potassium, and of a salt of potash, the acidof
which was of an organized nature. This extract was deliquei-
cent ; by distillation it yielded a very acid product, the stroi^
smell of which resembled ihat of the hydrocyanic acid ; haviogj
only 0*03 gr. of alcohohc extract, I could not make any fuith^S
experimenls, '^
2. Matter iusolnbte in Alcohol. "I -J
,.1.22. I subjected it to the action of cold water in the modoj
' 4^oribed in my Coiisideratioits sur fAimlijse Organique 'et iflffl
,sea< Apf}licalions, p. 1 19. The first solutions were of an orat^gu
colour, and the last yellow; from these solutions there W'eniM
obtained, first, some lamellar transparent crystals; secondlyjm
some smaller crystals in fine needles, and of a straw colour."' ^
1st. Lamellar Transparent Cri/stals.
,. 23. They were slightly coloured, but thecoloyrwaa imegdaHy
I cTistributeci ; there can be no doubt but that if they had'" been
perfectly pure, they would have been cnlourless ; they suSferfed
no alteration by niRaus of concentrated sulphuric acid ; potash
disengaged much ammonia; they precipitated sulphate- 'of
barytes from the nitrate ■, rtievi 'ttrj %\\^V^ reddened KtBWis .
paper; the precipitate whvc\v tVe-j o'iNe w'Co. ■a.c.'A'i.^e. lAX-aftJ
l^^Ji. ^Spfii^ip^^ns.ofthe Soil qf the Cifn^m of Kuhlo^h 293
examinecl with the blowpipe gave. a small quantity of pl^Qsp^ate
only ; .lastly, the solution of these crystals precipitated neither
o^ailate. of ammonia nor acidulous nitrate of silver. '
24. When exposed in a glass tube to a gentle heat; they
deci;epitated and effloresced, losing water and some ammotiia ;
at a higher temperature they yielded ammonia, mixed with an
hydrocyanic odour, a little sulphuretted hydrogen arid sulphor,
and a large proportion of sulphite of ammonia, which cryiStauized
as it cooled in long needier; this salt was recognised by lis
taste ; by the sulphurous gas which was evolved by muriatic
acid ; and lastly, by the yellow precipitate which it gave with
sulphate of copper. The residue of the distillation was entiri^ly
soluble in water ; this solution when concentrated was Tslightly
acid ; but when strongly calcined, it became slightly alkanftie ;
nevertheless it did not effervesce while dissolving in nitric acid ^
this solution precipitated platina in the state of a double salt of
potash, and with tne nitrate of barytes it gave sulphate.' I con->
elude from these experiments that these lamellar transparent
crystals were sulphate of ammonia and potash, a doubre salt
first described by Link in 1796.
Crystals in Jim Needles y and of a Straw Colour •
25. Examined with a glass they appeared to be formed of
several kinds of substances; unfortunately I had too few to
attempt a separation of them.
26. These crystals put in excess into distilled water of the
'temperature of 52°Fabr. gave a solution of a pale yellow colou^r^
eoQsisting of water 199 parts and 1 of crystals. This solution
.was rendered slightly turbid by heat ; gave an abundant precipi-
tate, of sulphate of barytes with the nitrate, and of oxalate of
' Jime with tne oxalate of ammonia; it gave no chloride, of silver
with the nitrate; lastly, these crystals were not altered by ^i^-
phuric acid, and yielded ammonia with potash.
. 27. 0-1S7 gramme of the crystals yielded by distillation, first,
..ammouiacal water, having an hydrocyanic smell; secondly,
.^ttlphur;, Bdly, sulphate of ammonia; . fourthly, a residuum,
lwl>;ch, after incineration, weighed 0*122 gramme : this dissolved
in .x^jitfric acid without effervescence, except a few .flocks of
silica ; ammonia precipitated 0*007 gramme of a matter which
appeared to be phosphate of lime, magnesia, iron, and manga-
nese ; there remained 0*1] 2 gramme of sulphate of lime in
/aQl«tio^
,1 ,M,28<., It is evident that the yellow needle-form crystals coiitaii^ed
''^;terg^ prpportion of sulphate of lime and a small quahtity of
liy^towoolouring. principle ; but was this sulphate sitnply mixed
IcwU^'jd?^, sulphate of ammonia and potash, orwas.incpmbinatipn
^jwiAbitbeilLMlphatQof amin mixed ^fth ^«
i * I
29. As to thett paft of the matter insoluble in aloohol whidh
wfti n6t dissblVfed by obld water (22), it consisted of sulphate of
linne^ phosphate of lifne atld magnesia, 6ilica,and yellow coloui^
infr principle.' •
dO. It i^ dot impossible that there were other sabslanees
b^lde^ tbdse which I have mentioned, in the matter of the soil
of KUhtecH^ fiiOluble in boiling water ; but the small quantity ©f
the substance which I possessed did not allow of iny iuscMaifiing
whether kiiy diich fedlty existed in it.
AittHiXE 11. — Mxamnation of the Matter undissolved by Soilmg
Water.
91 • Ti^% portions of the specimens A and B- undissolved by
boiiil^gwiif^r w^re both separated by means of levigation (eliH
tiidtitin ?)int6 pulverulent mattef and sandy matter •
&Si The pttlverutent matter of specimen A differed from that
of S in being of a lishter colour; they were both of an amber
tint, and were mixed together.
33. The sandy portions of the two specimens being perfectly
similar in their physical properties, they were also mixed.
1. Pulverulent Matter.
34. It did not sensibly impart colour to cold water, but gav0
a (flight yellow tint to boiling water ; it was repeatedly treated
With boiling alcohol.
3d. The first alcoholic washings filtered while hot deposited
a fidcculent substance on cooling ; the washings being mixed
Were evaporated nearly to dryness, a nearly colourless substance
Ivas obtam^d Which was partly fusible ; it was treated with a
hdt solution of potash, and this liquid was afterwards filtet'ed^
36. This alkaline solution was neutralized while hot by mtiritHi >
iv6 acid ; some drops of oily matter were obtained which solidi-
fied oti cooling : this substance appeared tb be stearic or
roargaric acid $ for it was dissolved by hot solution of poiaih^
and which, when milted with cold water, deposked a pearly
substance.
' 37. The residuum insoluble in potash (35) was treated with
hbt alcohol and soitie flocculent azotized matter {matiire azoUe)
Was separated, and a fatty matter dissolved which melted into^.
perfectly limpid and colourless drops, and solidified like bees,
wax ; this substance, wh^n boiled with a solution at potish,
formed an emulsion rather than a solution : it is probable Ihlttf'
it Gdnsisted of fatty saponifiable and saponified matter, sihcl
sotmi which was not saponifiable.
88. llxe pulverulent matter which had been Walked With*;
U26^: SpeeAnem ^iheSM ofihe O^n&pn ^ JKuhkch. Wat
ald0hoipr6diiced'a brisk cfffervesoence whea treated ivi^kwei^
hot muriatic acid. The solution was filtered when colcj,. a,ad
tb^ mutter remaining upon the filter was washed with water
ua^I'hitrate of silver showed that it contained no muriatic a^d;
the filtered Uquor resembled muriate of platina in i^olour. i^\^
washings which contained a notable excess of acid were slightly
Gcrioured ; while the latter which contained none were of i| deep
colour^ which proves, that the colouring organic matter wlxe^
uncon^ined, is more soluble in pure water, than in that which.i»
acidulated.
39« The muriatic solution upon the addition of a little water
deposited a red crystalline matter, resembling that ofdeutoxide
of manganese ; the solution was filtered, and the red powder
washed.
When subjected to distillation, this red powder yielded an
acid water, and afterwards oily ammonia ; a sulphurous product^
and afterwards a quantity of charcoal which left only a trace of
non-efifervescing ferruginous ash, probably containing alumina.
This powder, when heated in the air, burnt, giving out sjpatks
like the charcoal which is set on fire by nitro*sulphuric acid.
The filtered tnuriatic solution was mixed with muriate of
barytes ; there was no sensible precipitation in 24 hours; never^
theless I filtered the liquor twice, and evaporated it to dryness.
The residuum when distilled gave a sulphurated product ; and
when it was calcined with nitrate of barytes, and the whole again
treated with nitric acid, sulphate of barytes was obtained. The soil
of Kuhloch, therefore, contains some sulphur which is not in the
stute of sulphuric acid^ Is it in that of an hyposulphate, or of
sulphuretted hydrogen combined with organic matter? oris it in
combination with organic matter without being in the state of an
acid? These are points which I cannot decide.
40. The matter undissolved by muriatic acid (38) was treated
with boiling alcohol> and the solution filtered.
41. This solution did not contain any sensible quantity of
fatty matter, for the residue of evaporation was totally soluble in
cola water. This residue when distilled yielded an acid water, .
a'trace of sulphurated product, a thick brown matter, some sabr
carbonate of ammonia and charcoal.
42. The residue undissolved by alcohol (40) consisted of
silica, alumina, magnesia, peroxide of iron, a trace of oxide of
manganese,* yellow colouring matter, some alcoholic extract
f. JHAtHig burnt this residuum, I obtdned a cinder, which was partly dtssolred by
n^^acid without effervescence. The solution was predmtated by ammonili, and the
piramtate consisted of alumina and peroxide of iron, xhe filtered solutioil win ^ a
pmi^&broke colour, resembUng that of the sulphate of lime obtained from thei^todmeft
A (1^) ; at first I attributed this colour to mtuiganefie ; to determine this I evaporated
tl^^i|qbiti4n t» dryness, and obtained a blaok powder mix^ with nitrate of magnesia ; the
latter dissolved In water, but the former did not. The black powder oofltatfied iron and
a trace of manganese, but the small quantity of cameleon obtained by heating the powder
in potash, induced me to think that there was another matter which escapea tne.
2^6 M. Cheortuti Chemkal Ktarhitfaiiony Sfc. [Atiii t ^
rSiy and azotized organic matter, which had prbbabty sufierecl
AlfeVation. ' I have every reason to think that the two lafit sttb*
stances f6rmed a kind of take with the alumina and pefO^de ©f
iron. The residuum heated in contact with the air burnt like a
pyrophorus, land the cinder which it left was much less coloured
than itself. By distillation it yielded a slightly acidulous warier^
oil, sulphuretted hydrogen without sulphite of ammonia, carbou*
ate of ammonia, a product possessing the smell of hydrocyanic
acid, but which did not produce prussian blue ; and lastly, a
bulky black residuum.
. 2. Sandy Matter.
43. The nature of the sandy matter was analogous lo that of
the pulverulent matter, with this difference, that it contained a
larger proportion of phosphates, and a smaller proportion of
yellow organic matter, alumina, and oxide of iron. It burnt
iVheii heated in the air, but not so well as the pulverulent m$A^
ter. By distillation, it yielded ammoniacal water, sulphuretted
^Rydrbgeti, carbonate of ammonia, and a black residuum whjch
ivas a pyrophorus when heated ; the strong smell of the product
ot^asioned an examination for hydrocyanic acid, but none was
found ; the small quantity of the matter did not allow of any
examination for cyanogen.
Conclusions,
I. The organic matter of the soil of the cave of Kuhloch, de-
structible by fire, is formed of
., 1st. A fatty acid, which in my examinations presented the
^pjroperties of stearic or margaric acid. 2dly. A fatty matter
•which was not acid. 3dly. An organic ucid soluble m wat^t".
^4thly. A yellow colouring principle. 5thly. A brown azotized
flatter.
^,^ A; portion of the yellow colouring principle and of the azotSzed
[jOQia titer is certainly combined with alumina and peroxide of irtWi.
Tt is probable that another portion of the organic matteri^ is
. lilipatQd with the subphosphates and the subcarbonates of litiie
and magnesia ; it is also probable that in this latter part, there
ia, proportionally more azotized matter than in the former. ' '*
, J, xKere is more organic and pulverulent matter in the spetiitnen
taken from a depth of six feet, than in that from a depth of dttly
two feet ^ ,:: ' V ^ : : /^^
,, Ij.,Ther^ is in th^ fedit'iome chloride of pota$^i4to- tod
^nimoniaco-suipliate of potash I Consequently the fehlbrlft^* t)f
.pptassii^m and the sulpbate bf jpotash arisitig^from the dedeliii^-
sition of the kuiinoniaco-sulphate of potash by h^at,'wh»%h
could not)3^^qo\lect.e(ji.i|i the pro^pess adopted in .the analysis of
the incinerated soil, must augnient the loss occurring m the
vsis.
\89&i i Sir H. Davy oti CapptK Sheqibtue.^ -; / 2j^2
iv>41$, The proportions of sulphate, of .lime ifidic^tfd ,Q$) aad
(J60 il^ the ashes of the soil, are not so great ^s. those whicH
really exist in it, because, during the calcinatio^i, a.pprtion 6?
Bolphuric acid is decomposed.
h iV. It is probable that a portion of phosphate of magoesia U
combined with phosphate of ammonia.
1 1
Article VII.
Additional Experiments and Observations on the Application of
> . filectrical Combinations to the Preservation of the Copper
Sheathing of' Ships, and to other Purposes,* By Sir Hump^hry
;^ i)ayy, Bart. Pres. RS *
I HAVE already had the honour of communicating to -tfee
Royal Society the results of my first researches on the iaodefl>i;>f
|:rteyenting the chemical action of fluid menstrua, such ae salitie
solutions, or sea water containing air, on copper, by the contact
of more oxidable metals.
For some months I have been engaged in a series of new
experiments on this subject, so important to the navigation and
commerce of the country : and through the liberal and enlight-
ened views of Lord Melville, and the Lords of the Admiralty,
who desired the Commissioners of the Navy Board and of the
Dock Yards to give me every assistance in their power, and all
the facilities which our magnificent. Naval establishmentdi at
.phatham and Portsmouth furnish, I have been enabled to con-
duct my operations upon a very large scale. At this advaticed
peariod of the session, it will be impossible for me to give more
ifii^n a very short notice of experiments which have been trie4
under a great variety of circumstances, and the details of which
fwpuld occupy some hours in reading; but I cannot dfepiiVe
jnyseif of the pleasure of stating the satisfactory aiid conclusive
;^|iature of the results, many of w4iich have even surpajssed niy
/.fl^pectatipns.
H, ..She^ets of copper, defended by from ^-^ to -y-qW P^^^ of tteeir
surface of zinc, malleable and cast iron, have been exposed, i&r
aR.^Py weeks, in tlie flow of the tide in Portsmouth HarboUFi^atid
\rth^^: weights ascertained before and after the experiment.
\Vhen the metallic protector was from ^ to t-^, there was "iio
hj^orrp&ion nor decay of the copper; with smdler quantities,
\(SUf^ »^ (koxxx -g^ to ^^, the copper underwent a loss of weight,
-dpfei^^ T^i^ g*^^^^*^*^ ^^ proportion as. the protector' was sttialM ;
jj5iip4yaS;:a,prQQf of the umversality of the principle, it was fotkiid
«i ■ . .^ . ' - ■•■-•.•
^.'(T ./.!!'►* From t}ic Philosophical TrUTitactbti«!ox*\%^
'■ ': \ : .■
SM Sir H. tkt'Dy bu Copper ShealMng. [A^idi^
thi^ even ^^-^ part of cast-iron saved a oertain proplortibn of
the copper.
^I%e sheeting of boats aaid ships, protected by the oentaot of
zibc> east and malleable iron in different proportions^ oompftred
witli' those of similar boats and sides of ships unproteote^dy exfai* •
bited bright surfaces, whilst the unprotected copper undierwend
rapid corrosion, becoming first red, then green, and losing a part
of its substance in scales.
Forkinately, in the course of these experiments, it has been
proved that cast iron, the substance which is cheapest and moat
easily procured, is likewise most fitted for the protection of the
copper. It lasts longer than malleable iron, or zinc; and the
plumbaginous substance, which is left by the action of sea water '
upon it, retains the original form of the iron, and does not
impede the electrical action of the remaining metal.
1 iiad anticipated the deposition of alkaline substances in *
certain cases upon the negatively electrical copper. This ham
actually happened. Some sheets of copper that have been
exposed nearly four months to the action of sea water, defended
by from ^ to -^-^ of their surface of zinc and iron, have become
coated with a white matter, whichi on analysis, has proved to be
pfincipaliy carbonated lime, and carbonate and hydrate of mag*
nesia. The same thing has occurred with two harbour boats^
one of which was defended by a band of zinc, the other by a
band of iron, equal to about ^ of the surface of the copper.
l%ese sheets and boats remained perfectly clean lov many
weoks, as long as the metallic surface of the copper was ex*r
posed 2 but lately, since it has become coated with carbonate '
of lime and ma/nesia, weeds have adhered to these coating.,
ai»d inseots collected on them ; but on the sheets of copper, de-
fended by quantities of cast iron and zinc, beariug a proportion >
below ^i^, the electrical power of the copper being less nega-
tive, more neutralised, and nearly in equilibrio with that of uie
mfenst^oumi no such effect of deposition of alkaline matter or
adherence of weeds ha^ taken place^ and the surface, though it ^
has undergone a slight degree ofsolution, has remained perfectly^
cleam : a circumstance of great importance, as it points out the<
limits of protection; and makes the application of a very sirifltl/.-
quantity of the oxidable metal more advantageous in fact tiiain
uM of a larger one.
•The wear of cast iron is not so rapid, but that a masaiof twoo
or three inches in thickness will last for some years. At leas^o
the consumption in experiments which have been going OH-fpi^l
nearjy four months does not indicate a higher ratio. This* lansl '
however depend on the relation of its mass to that of the oopf >
per, and upon other circumstances not yet ascertained (such, as
tejpperatiire, the relative saltness of the se^i and perhaps th^
*t''"'
182&} ' Sit H. Dm^ oh Copper Sheathing. $89
rapidity of the oootton of the shij^ 0 ciroumstaDees in relation -to
which I am about to make decisiye experiments.
' ' Mtay singular fkctB have occurred in the eouiM of- th^id
r^Mfrn^h^K^ I sbaU mention s^me of them^ that I hliv« cionitm^
by repeliied experim^nti^> and whieh have C0nne:&ioii9 witft
^en^ni science.
Weak soltttiotis of ealt dot strongly uponoopper; strong ofi«e^
as brine, do not affect it ; and the reason seems to be, thatthey
contain little or na atmospheric air, the oxygen of which seems
necessary to give the electro-positive principle of change to
ntenstnia of this class.
I had anticipated the result of this experiment, and upon th«
same principle of some others.
Alkaline solutions, for itistance, impede or prevent the action
of sea water on copper; having in themselves the positive ele^
trical ento^, whicn renders the copper negativei Lime vtrat^r
BW&i, in this way> renders null the power of ftetion of copper tik
sea water.*
The tendency of electrical and chemical action being always
to produce an equilibrium in the electrical pdwers^ the eigetey
of all combinations formed of metals and fluids is to occasioii
decotnpositions, in such an order that alkaline^ metallic, and
inflammable matters are determined to the negative part of tb#
condbinatton^ and chlorine, iodine, oxygene and aoid matters to
the positive part. I have shown in the Bakeriaa Lecture fof
1806^ that this holds good in the Voltaic battery. The eame
law apph^ to these feeblef combinaUons. If copper in contact
trMi east iron be placed in a vessel half full of sea water^ and
hvnag its surface partially above that of the ivateri it ^ill
baoome Mated with earbonnte of lime, carbonaie of magoesiiii
and carbonate of soda ; and the carbonate of soda will griutualiy
aeeaoiDkite till the whote sutfao^ in the air is covered with ita
ecy^taia :->^^^and if the iron is in one vessel^ and the copper ftftttH
ing WB^Ate with il in atiather ; afid a third vessel of sto watei ia
etoelrioid oonnexton by asbestOi^ or cottoiS is intertti^ilil#, tht
watbr in this intermediate vesi^el continually beooiMA lend
Bi^e; and nndoubtedly^ by a continuance * of the prooMSi
nliolit be rendered fresh.'.
"1 nhall not take up the time of the Society by referring to
some obvious practical applications of these researches^ to ik4t
preeervatiem of finely divided astronomical instruments of bitMa
by-iro»^ of instruments of steel by iron^ or ntkt t my friend Mr.
IH<{^ has already iugenionsly taken advantage of thislM^ tif^
^^mnstano^, in inclosing finely cutting instruments in bundles M
oasea^ liwfed witii zinc, and many other such application^ WtU
oecuC« .1 oaanott oonclnde, without mei^tioning pattienlarly mf
^I uh ai pre^nt engaged in applying this prindple to experiments on tbe presc^A-
fkoa^iOiimtl and y^tabte substances.
300 Jtfn. IlQr9faU0u Ccpper Shefithing. [Ap^i^jI*,
ebUgfttkkOB i0' Sk Byaip Martin, the Comptroller^ c^nkjl S^ir.Rpb^it
Sfepptttgs, the Surveyor of the Navy, for the iutei^st they ba^^
taken, and tbe seal they have shown in promoting these
tesearohes ; and without statioj^ how much I owe-, to the care»
gUention^ and accuracy of Mr. NoUoth, Master Ship-wright, and
Mr. Goodrich, Mechanist in the Dock^yard at ,Portsmoutb« in
^uperiolendiag the execution of many oi the experiments.
Article VIIL
.1
.»
^tate of the Copper on a Ship* s Bottom with Excess ofProtectim^
and of the Cast Iron Protector^ after a Voyage to the West
' Indies.
' Wfi have received the following communication from Dr.
Traill, of Liverpool, who states, that Mr. Horsfall is the owner
of the vessel mentioned in his letter, and adopted Sir Humphry
Davy's method of defending the copper sheathing of snips'
bottoms, immediately on its promulgation. Dr. Traill adds tnat
the surface of the protecting metal to that of the copper some*
what exceeded the proportion assigned by Sir H. Davy, being
from -pj-g^ to T-fg- of the whole copper surface of the ship.
( The first fact mentioned in Mr. Horsfall's letter has been long
known* Mr. Daniell formed a similar substance artificially^
eight yeais since, by immersing a cube of grey cast iron m
diluted inuriatie acid (see Journal of Science, vol. ii.) ; and in
Uie same Journal (vol. xii. p. 407), .mention is made! of. a ca^
iron gun, which by long immersion in sea water was incrusted
to the depth of an inch with a substance having all the exterior
obaraoters of impure plumbago. As to the state of the Tickl^'^
bottom, it is obviously owing to the copper having. been ^jrer
protected. (See Annals of Philosophy, vol. viii. K.S..p. 364s.)
ft is M;ated in the place referred to, that the. requisite proportii^
of defending surface to that of the copper, as far as. bad theu
been ascertained, is somewhere between j4^ and -r^o-f tJie prti-
portion at present adopted in the Royal/Navy,. we believe, Mfifi
not exceed 7^. In tne preceding paper from the Philosophical
Transactions, our readers will observe that on sheets of j^oppcfr
defended by quantities of cast iron and zinc in a less proportiQii
than-pfo-^^ deposition of alkaline matter or adherence iof,weed^
ook place, and the surface, though it had undergone a «ljigbt
4Jfegree of solution, was perfectly clean, '^a circuinstaiakee. ^qf
great importance, as it points out the limits of pmUction^iatA
makes the application of a very small quantity of, the oxidiaabb
Hietid more advantageous in fact than that of a lai]ser Qne«? "
Mr «^ Horsihirs letter is a candid statement of atfair^eiciieri-
^esilt;- and 4;he result, as far as it can foeleanDt> ia the slivtiagii^f
IBBCrfj Mr: Honfdtl on Copper S1ieat/Up%. 3©l;
tIii>*lA!%o1e of the copper. Whether in short'Toyages the iuilke«»
t^km of ^all barnacles is a. disadvantage which more than com*
.^^Sisates '\h\H saving, we; are ignorant ; bat if so, a smaSett
mi&ntiiy of protecting, surface must be used; and the exact
pHc^ortidns for different vessels and voyages will be knjown after
a few experiments. Sir Humphry. Davy is still earnestly piir*
suing hiis inquiries on this important subject ; and, we belie?e>
has discovered same new and interesting facts with respect to
the conducting powers! and electrochemical changes of metals in
saline solutions ; which enable him to preserve a considerable
portion of the copper without any great consumption of oxidable
inetaL In the experiments now going on, a nail of zinc or iro^
iS| we believe, placed umler the copper, and in contact with it;
and the moist paper upon the wood of the ship in wliich the nail
is placed preserves the electrical circuit with the sea water ; so
tbat there is no appearance cf protection on the outside^ thos^h
eiich sheet of copper has its own protector of -gJ-g. 6r ^4^ itis
strrface. •
Extractofa Letter from Charles Horsfall, Esq, to Dr. TrailL.
' - M • ' *
Liverpool^ Feb. 19, 1$24. ..
'. " The Brig Tickler arrived here from Kingston, in Jamaica,
about three weeks ago. ,She had been out on the voyage from
this port to Jamaica and back, not quite five months; previously
40 her sailing she had been new coppered. Bars ot cast iron
lliree inches broad, and one inch thick, covering about lOOtb
jl^art of the surface of the copper, were placed upon each side.^
the k^el from the stem, to the stem, and fastened on wi(h copper
^^k^-'iiails. Tiie Tickler went into the Graving Dock tonday^
'feftttended before the water had quite left her ; and immedisitc^
/on the iron on the keel being visible, I went into th6 dock to
itfKJafonfue it. The usual crust of red rust appeared upon it, bi|t
Jim^'lipplying a ship's scraper to it, I found the iron quite soft> $^
iiaei def^th of nearly half an inch. A. quantity was acrapedoff
^i^ich had nil the appearance of black lead, and on handlipg* U
^^Mfte^ the fingers in the same way that black lead does^ and
4]C)0am(^ (ptite hot in the space of*^ a minute or two; th&ii:in^r
itttt#t' <^f the iron -bar, or that next the copper, being quite ha<4*
4[>fn^p^d a smalt quantity in paper, and put it in my poQk9tt;
■ytk^on^ taking it out again, in about a quarter of an hom^ it had
^ec^c^fi^' very hot, and smoked, and soon assumed the appeampee
W'rust^ particles of iron. The bars of iron had been very little
^&iced in sUbiE0;ance during the voyage* i v-
" With' tesupect to tfat? copper, soch part of it as waf; oqt
'is^Jilned ^itk b^raat^s ^ppeaared bright ; and; as.&r afi^Iii^uld
yadge^ftoid stichf ftt^ intq^eDtion cf it, as ^erfiect and 0n)iij)e;f|S
302 Cot. Beaufoy^s Astronomical Observations. [April,
when it was put pn ; but / never saw a ship's bottom more thickly
studied with barnacles^ nor any that were more difficult to scraM
off. They were all rather small. It wa« only on the lower part;
of the bows, and about two inches above, [and four inches below
the iron bars that the copper was not covered with bamaplesj
excepting the upper part of it which had been Uttle un^ev wateUp
'* Several vessels are expected to return from the East and
West Indies in the ensuing month, having had wrmight iron
applied in the same manner that the cast iron was in the Tickler.
(Signed) Chaeles Horsfah*/'
. .■ . ^
Article IX.
Astronomical Observations, 1826.
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS.
Bmhey Heath, near Stanmore.
JUtitiide5lo 37' 44.3// ^orth. Longitude West iajdme V 80*aS".
JMtarch 4. Emersion of Jupiter's first C 9h 07' hS" Mean Time at Bushef,
satellite... J 9 09 16 Mean Time at Greenwi^.
MiiMh 4. Bmeniion of Jupiter's second \\\ 34 54 Mean Time at Bushey.
«at«UU^ . , , ,..^19 36 14 Mean Time at ascenvid).
]klarcb U. En^ersion of Jupiter's first (II 02 24 Mean Time at Bushey.
satellite ^11 03 46 Mean Time at Greenwich;
Observed Tnmstts of the Moon and Moon-cuknin^ting Stars o?fr the MUdIp Wire 9f
Ihe Ti^ansit Infttnipttcnt in Sidmal Time.
1885. Stars. Transits.
MifrdhS — lOLeonls.. 9^28' 0|-37"
3.~4S«yl»nt .^. .....,, 9 41 S6-93
3.— ?QS ^taiit , , 9 46 43-33
3.-14 Sextant 9 47 41-12
3.— Moon'ij Rrst or West Limb 10 0 17-74
, .$.—43 Leonb . , .10 1^ 54-18
3.-r-.S5Sextfipt,... ;.. 10 34 IS-QiS
4— 35 Leonis. . ^ 10 46 45-72
4.— 62Leoni9 10 54 42-09
X lA^r.^^ 5Fii9tor WestLimb.. 10 38 45-33
^•~^*^"* ? Second or East Limb. 11 01 03»29
4.— 69Leoms 11 04 51-66
4.--4Leonis ....11 07 49-64
-". • <
1826,} Mr.Badamson « Scarlet Sub^ehrimatf of t^ai. 9i03
» * * *
Artici.£ X.
»
Cfe a Scarlet Sub-chromate of Lead, and its Application to
'Painting and Calico Printing. By John Badams, Esq.
(To the Editors of the Annah of Philosophy,)
O^NTIiEMEN, Feb. 16, 182^,
. ^ < '
It was announced by Dulong in the Ann. de Ghim. so long
ago as the ye^r 1812, that by boiling together carbonate of lead
and chromate of potash in excess, a red sub-chromate of lead is
produced, containing exactly double the quantity of lead in the
common chromate. Ten years afterwards, in the same journali
Grouvelle announced the existence of a red chromate, and gavt
several processes for preparing it, but made no mention of
Dulong's discovery. It is remarkable that neither of these
chemists, nor any subsequent writer, appears to have noticed
the important uses to which this substance is applicable.
Having made a variety of experiments upon its properties, as
a&st colour in calico printing, and a durable pigment for artists
in oil and water, I wish to give publicity to the advantages
which, I think, the arts will derive from its adoption.
Grouvelle's method of preparing red chromate of lead coBsints
ia boiling the common yellow chromate with potash; for pracr
tical purposes this is much more conveniqnt than Dulong's pr(>-
cess, and gives a very fine colour. By some unaccountable
blunder, however, the ingenious author of this formula so com-
pletely mistakes the nature of the substance produced by it, that
every step he takes in his analysis to explam the compositioii
of the red chromate, only tends to involve it in deeper obscurity.
But he must speak for himself.
'^ J'ai analyst comparativement le chromate jaune, le rquge^
et le plomb rouge de Sib^rie. Tous donnent exactementle m^me
rapport entre racideet V oxide, Ce sont des chromates neutrea:
seulement le chromate rouge contient une petite quantite
d'alcali, qui m'a paru etre de 1 a 1'5 ;" and yet in the very neait
page, the. autlior contradicts himself, and says, in summing up,
" II suit de la que Talcali parait etre. combine a de I'oxide de
plomb, et que cette combinaison unie au chromate de plomb,
donne lieu au chromate rouge, qui contient ainsi unpeup///s d* oxide
de plomb que le chromate neutre."
Grouvelle then goes on to assert, that he finds a little alkali
(lime) in the native red lead of Siberia, though, as he admits^
this very ore becomes yellow on being powdered, which, if it
really contained lime, it ought not to do.
I shall now endeavour to show that the whole of this analysis
is erroneous.
(A.) 100 grains of scarlet chromate of Ipad m^de by Grouyell^'ft
process, were digested for half an hoiir with con9tant stirripg lA
304 Mr. Badama on a Scarlet Sulfi-c/irotmie ofiLeaA [Ap«{i|.,
very, diluted acetic acid. The red colour gradually but tPtdlly
disappeared, and was succeeded by apure yellow. This yellow
powder, carefully washed and dried at 300*^, weighed 60 grains,
and proved on examination to be common cliromate of lead.
Here then we have red chromate of lead (said by Grouvelle to
contain exactly the same proportions of oxide and acid as the
yellow chromate) resolved nito 60 grains of yellow chromate and
40 grains of some other substance, which we shall see, by the
next experiment^ to be oxide of lead.
. (B.) The acetic acid holding in solution 40. grains of th^
origtDiil weight of the red chromate employed, was perfectly
colourless and transparent ; and, on being <^ently evaporated in
ai water bath, shot entirely into crystals, bearing.the well-knp^wn
<jiaracter of acetate of lead. On redissolving these crystaU, in
water, and boiling them with an excess of carbonate of ammonia,
a dense white precipitate fell, weighing, when dried, 46 grains
?c 38'46 nearly of oxide of lead.* ,
(C.) To ascertain whether any sensible portion of potash
origidaily entered into the composition of this red chromate,
the ammoniacal solution was evaporated gently in a large platina
crucible, and gradually exposed to a red heat : the whole resi-
due sublimed, leaving only a scarcely perceptible stain pf lead
.lipbn the surface of the crucible. A little water now boiled iu
the same crucible did not affect the colour of turmeric paper in
•the slightest degree ; hence no potash whatever can be bus*
pected.
On repeating these experiments, I feel satisfied that the
40 grains of loss sustained by the red chromate in Experiment
(A), were entirely due to oxide of lead ; and that 100 grains of
.red chromate were resolved into 60 grains of yellow chromate
and 40 oxide of lead. But 60 grains of yellow chromate a.re
composed, of 40'98 oxide of lead, and 19*02 chromic acid; hence'
it cannot be doubted that yellow chromate contains just half the
proportion of oxide in the red chromate, in which case th^
atomic constitution of the two chroniates of lead will .be
as follows : .
«
Yellow cliEomate. Red chromate.
Chromic acid , . 19*02 1 atom Chromic acid 19-02 1 atoiia
Oxide of lead. . 40*98 1 atom Oxide of lead 81-96 2 atoms
Or 100 parts consist of
Chromic acid 31-7 Chromic acid 18*84
Oxide of lead 68-3 Oxide of lead 8M6
100-00 100-00
In order further to show the true composition of red sub-
• The difference between 38-45 and 40 is owing to die imperfect predpitatioii of
^de of lead by carbonate of ammonia. ^
i9S6il Mr. 'Ikrilam m a Scarhi SiA-ehrdmaie oj^ Lead, ^08
chrotnate of lead, as I may now venture to call it, T took 60 gr««
of yellow chromate and ground th^m Vith 40 grains of oxide of
lead, adding small quantities of hot water from time to time,:
they united mto a rea 8ub«-chromate; ,
Uses,
^ ^ • • • »-«
1 KaVe endeavoured at some length to clear up the theory of
ttie tw6 chromates of lead, because one radical error of the
nattit^ which Gtouvelle has committed, leads to endless mistakeii
and di^appbititments in the practical operations which ati
foahded upon it. I have before alluded to the advantageous nti
of sub-chrotnate of lead in giving a permanent orange scarlet
u^bn cotton. The mode of its application to calico printing
#ill be obvious to all who know the principle upon which yellow
chromate of lead is made fast; and no intelligent calico printer
Win need any further information from me, as his own practice
itk Axing tlie yellow chromate, added to what has been here said
*df the nature and preparation of the red sub-chromiite will,
readily suggest what is necessary. I shall only remark that,
liitrale of lead and an alkaline solution of chromate of potash,
Wffl give hiin the colour. He may accumulate, besides, some
ihsoluble salts of lead in the pores of the cloth to give stability
t6 the tint, and may modify the operation by various means, but
in all cases the colours must be neightened at last, by passidg
them through boiUng water.
Scarlet sub-chromate of lead is extremely beautiful when
^ound up with oil, and possesses great body as a pigment. It
19 not degraded in its hue, like vermilion, by admixture with white
lead ^ it mingles with other colours, and shows no si^d» after k
long exposure, of any change by time. • As a water colour I dar^
npj yet say that it has been tried sufficiently to authorise a posi-
tiye de6laration that it will not blacken, but several pieces of
c^s and thin paper painted with, it, and hung upon the wall&
or inhabited houses, likely to influence the colour of salts of
lead, have not in some months perceptibly diminished in br^ht*
^ess. Should a longer experience confirm the promise already
given, I shall be happy to make it known to artists, as they hav6
notMug fequal in colour to red Jead which they can trust in theit*
dfinntigft for a month even, and no tint would be a more desira*
ble accession to the pallet, than a bright andpermaz^nt scarlet,
or scarlet orange.
New Series, vol. is* x
306 Proceedingt^ IFhUoMphicul Societies* [Ai^ftiii,
Article XL
Proceedings of Philosophical Societies,
..J'.
ROYAL SOCIETY.
March 3.*— The reading of Dr. Williams's paper on the
IVfaternal-fcetal CircutatioQ^ was resumed and concluded. This
essay gave an account of the different speculations entertained
on the nature of the medium circulating between the uterine osid
timbilieal vessels, and considered the evidence brought forward
in their support to be unsatisfactory. It then stated, that it had
occurred to the author that it might be practicable to arrive at
moire satisfactory proofs in favour of one or the other of these
speculations by observing the phsenomena which would present
tnemselves in the foBtal vessels on injecting oil into the maternal
vessels, while their irritability was yet active. Experiments
were consequently instituted. From their result, Dr. W. is dis^
posed to CO nclude^that the maternal anid foetal systems in the canine
~ t^pecies, are parts only of a common miinterrupted sanguife^
rous system. From analogy, Dr. W. also infers the communi-
cation between parent and foetus to be similar in all viviparous
animals ; and remarks, that if his conclusion and inference can
be admitted, that we shall have reason to doubt the validity of. the
doctriiie of the maternaJ-foetal circulation as tau^t by Dr.
Harvey, together with its modern superstructure. Tor tnat if
his, Dr. W.'s, experiments and deductions be correct, we can no
longer subscribe to the hypotheses of there being two independ-
ent sanguiferous circulations in the impregnated state, and to
that of the placenta being an organ of respiration or aerations
'Dr. J. R. Johnson, FRS. coinmunicated Some further Obser-
vations on the Genus Planaria ; in which he stated that Mr.
Daljell, of Edinburgh, in a work on the Planariae, havir^ ijus-
serted that an individual of P. cornuta accidentally woimtfed
' near the head produced a new head from the incision, he dOn-
ceived that the verification of so curious a fact would be' inter-
esting to the Rojral Society, and accordingly took one hundred
' of the animals, and made an incision in the side of e^h ; but
one of them, however, produced the new head: in tte'^hsater
number, the wound healed, and in ^ome preternatui^l eitcres-
\:ences only were "produced. Dr. J. proceeded to iietdil-&ei|ae
farther remarks on the reproductive faculties of theiftteitlfiiitee,
' and to describe P. nigra, of which a dmwmg wsl8'Mfaexe<^d<^It
-'has the abdominal proboscis like the otbei^; <;.'oS .iQ ^d
'-^ March »0^— J. H. Green, Bakj. wa&adniilt^ja^tlWloiW of ifce
'8o<!ifiefy ; ' -and - Mr; H^rddhet commfutilcaled': a"" pttfW dftntitied
IthMrovemeiltfl on Leslie's Pboiometer;'% <Wp^lcM«^'^)M
R^ct6r-0fthe Academy ofTaih. - V - ^d^ j^ b-^ns^^bt
J
March 17. — ^The names of Dr. J. L. Tiarks and Dr. J. Richard*
son were ordered to be inserted in the printed lists of the Society;
and the Society for promoting Animal Chemistry communicated
a paper by Sir £. Home^ Bart. VPRS. qntitled Observations on
the Influence of the Nerves and Ganglions in producing Animal
Heat.
% > M^rch 24« — Major C. HamiUon Smith was admitted a FfsUow
,;0f ihe^So^ety; and a paper was read,'} contaioing EesuUs of
J lileteorobgical Observations taken at the Madras Observatory;
< W John Goldingham^ Esq. FRS. These results areforaperiod
: i)ftwenty*six years^ extending from 1796 to 1822; andaregiyen
^ in 9. variety of tables^ with explanatory remarks.
In consequence, of the approaching fast and festival; tlie
. Speiety then adjourned over two Thursday s,. to meet again on
>Apnl 14.
- ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.
• Feb. 11. — The fifth Annual General Meeting of the Society
Wtt9 this day held at the Society's rooms in Lincoln's Inn Fields,
for the purpose of receiving the Report of the Council upon the
- i»tat;eof the Society 'is affairs, electing Officers for the ensuing
year, &c. 8cc.
•v The President, H. T, Colebrooke, Esq.. in the Chair.
: The Report, which was read by Dr. Gregory, and ordered to.
.-•he printed for distribution amongst the members, commenced
• by: expressing the. gratification felt by the Council on witnessing
jLhe. growing prosperity of the Society, and the increasing
i^ev^idence of the utility of its institution. It proceeded to state,
ojtb^i for the purpose of still further alleviating the labour of the
piiactical astronomer (the Society having already published in
-idCQLi.p!art2, of its Memoirs, tables for facilitating the computa-
. rMoa of the apparent places of 46 principal stars), the Council
-ajbad deemed it desirable that tables of precession, aberration,
hc4i^. nu^&tioi^^ should be computed, embracing, 1st, all st^rs
-r^boYt^ the 5th magnitude; 2nd, all stars to. the 6th magnitiide
. j4tifju«»ive, whose declination should not exceed 30^ ; and 3d, all
h39tPEr9.to the 7th magnitude inclqsive, within 10^ of the ecliptic ;
i>jf<ud/tbat a considerable portion had already been computed-
::Uf¥i^rjthe superintendance of Mr. Baily and Mr. Gompertz^and
< would be: fptrthwith .published, accompanied by an explanatory
Mrfi^ffii^^ drawn up, al the request of tne Council, by Mr, Baily.
/f>MDiJRilpott then noticed, in terms of weli*-merited panegyric, Uie
'iyej^i^yaliiable^ collection of astronomical tables lately published
by Dr. Pearson, the Treastuner ; and it will be no littf^ »|%tifica-
i/ilido tcttb^scieotifio world to be inforoouE^, that tb^ taUefjcon-,
;i64lHttte TSS^i a^ pa.^1; o£ a compte}i€^^f$ trfii|t]^aj,^oa J^raq^ieal
I^ti^onlm^ iijpisiti wbicb^Pfv reftrsoa;ia^^ll,rgi;\g^ed,v li then*
%d¥erted to th^ visit of Mr. H,ers<^)i tk(^^<^^kfftftm^ff^¥iJ^
X 2
Son ProutSingtxf P%iid%<if^^l Societies. [Al>i^l4
Italy Ahd ^i^Uvf A-dm whioh, be^des othi^t rery i^on^iAemW
. l^naflts, iVe 8d6iet^ hf^d derived increased fa^ititieis of c6ijSii5«f
ttication ^Ith lh6 continental afetrotiomers, nearly the wh^e df
Arhom th^'St3rJety had Aow the honour of numl>eKn^ amongst
ite AjS^bdlaled. The RepofI contained a liist tribute ofrfesp^ct 16
the memory of the late Major-General John Rowley, of the
Royal Etigmeersy PR8. and a ttiemb^r of thid Society^ of whtc^
h^ ^a& a cordial jfVietid from itii tc^ommebceitient. After alludinj^
to the acquired stability and acknowledged utility of Ihe institu-
tion, which might justify an application to the CroiH^li for Hi
Charter bf Ihcorporatioin, the Report stated that the expediehcV
of such an applicatiou Wbuld most probably engage the coAsi^
deration of the Oouhtil for Xht ensuing year. It concluded by
stt^tiuously advising ci^hcert aud co-operation^ obs^rving^ ttiM
though much had been done to advance astronomical sciei^ce/
and much was in progress, much yet remained to be done. ^' Oa
the tetrospect of tte past, however, your Council derive confi-
d^Uce Vvith npitA to th« fatuTe. Let this zeal, activity^ and
taleht bf %e Meiiibers ai^ Associates for th^ next ten yeati^but
keep pacie with the i^fforts of the last five, and the moftt intdt^
efttin^> briihatit, and beneficial reaults mky unh^itatingly b^
anticipated.'^
A hst of thie p^pJBrs read at the brdinary meetings, fbUowedfby.
a hum^VbUs list of benefactoiis, ahd t gratifying statement Of tibie.
Society's finances, Was then riead, after which the Membbrs i>re-]
s^t probeed^d to ballot for the Offic^re for the tosutng ye^^
When th6 following We^ deblardd to have been duly elected :
Fhj««rf€W]f.— Frahbis Bally, Esq. FRS. and LS.
Ff€&-Pf«^'«fe7tfs.-^Charlb^ Babbage^ Esd. MA. FRS. Ltodfe.;
Rbv. Jbhtt Brinkley, DD. FJIS. Pres. RIA.MdPrbf. Ast. t^niv;
of DubKA ; DaVies Gilbeft> Edq. MP» VPRS. and FI^» ; Gebi^S,
fiiirt of Maccl^sfibld, FRS.
ft^ite^-^.-^Rev. William Peateon, LL.D. FRS. /!
Ste;n?f«irie5.— Olinthus G. Orbgoi^, LLl). Prof. MaA. R6%V
Milit. Acad. Woolwich ; JohnMiUingtbti, JBsq. FLS. Prbf.MbcK
Phil. Roy. Inst.
Fordgn ^cMary.^J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. MA* FRS^ 3^.
and E.
Cozffici/.— Captain F* Beaufort, RN. FRS. ; Major T. Coftiy '
Roy. Bng. LLD. FKS. L. and E. ; Henry T. Colebtxx)ke, fed.,
FftS. L. and E. aiid LS. ; Bryto Donkin, Esq. ; Rev. Wil^ajji
Dealtry, BD. FRS. ; BfenjaMin Gotnprtz, Esq. FRS. ; St^iH^^
Otbbmbridgb, Esq. FllS.; BdWard Riddte, Es^*j Iticht^
ShfefepAhank§, E*ti. MA.; Edwa-ra.lVbtightbn, Es^» ^.ff^l?:^
and E. ■ /*' ,^ .u
The SodetY afterwards dined together at Ih^ Fj'^ttiiififl^^
TfeV#A, tolsfcferate their fiftti ^nivettary. ■ " -l'^ ,
^i
i^Ctti of Frjiuenl\Qfer'i larcr^ I^efrf^^ijiuff TeJjBspifljpie " f^ft the
^ ^ryatory of th^ Imperial T/niyer^itv j^vP^rpjit ;?'. ^c^f^kviim
^q in a letter from Vmt StfuvQ to I^auci§ Baily, V^^, rr^fii*
Ipni. Prof. Struye reoeive^ thjs t^leaew^e ip Ifpyf ag^lj^^r la^t*
\M YfhB hs^ppy to find that s^tboHgli it l^ad trfiv^Uedi ]paor€^ t)ian
'10 Gemi^ii inile^, \t^ »eyeral pnyt§ h^4 Ww so cfirefvliY,-pftpJ^e4
(at iPiOQe of them ha4 89staii^ed the ^ilighte^t injpiryp Wl^fip. ip
t fl^rpeqdioular position, tb§ height of pe object gl^f^ ii .1.6 (e^t
4 m. (Pari^ measure) frQm the floorji 13 feqt 7 \n. of whi^h belqpg
to the telescope itself; sq that th^ ^ye<-gla99 st^i^d^ ^ feet. >f i|i,
from the flppr^ The diametei^ of the objectoglaset ij^ 9 Pf ris
iprte* (ahout 94- i»che^ fngj^h)* Tb^ Weight of 1^^ whofe i«^
Biri^enl; ^ %bout 3Q0Q Ri^gsiai) ppund^. It is ^o coai^jb^upt^
Ihat it m^y be uftefd as an e(]^uatoria|. The ujpp^r, pai^t ctf ,th^
i^^^^m.ent coi^si^t^ pf the tube^ with itc^ a^is ot motioQ^ twp gra^
^ated circles, aad a yari^ty of levers s^nd cpaotQirpQipeaj(.p(9hi
4u^iDg the mo9t perfect equiUhnvm ia every directipQ» 9a4
|ravi^9g ^^gfiiqst ail fricqpn. The dechnatioi^ circle i^ diyided
^Q||i 10;' tQ 10^4 but by meaiis qt the Veraier naay be rQaA o^ iq
^'\ The instrument may be turned, in decIinati.Qft with th^
fifiigeri %nd round the pol^ axi^ with still less force*
^Q qiQlt perfeet laotion ro^u^d the polar ^sii is produced by
i^9m f>f elQok'-yfprk, which is the principal Ceature of thit
^tJTMMOQtj and the gref^te^t triumph tor the artist^ the mechec>
lyiin being as simple ^ it U. iA^e^iQua. A weighty attached U^
% jpr^efition Qopnected with the ei^dlesfii sprew, overcomea th^
tictioQ pf the mecbiue. The clock yibral^ng iu a circle rmn--
to^f the.mptie^, by moving an eudlep acrew coioii^ected with ^
4e^i^ wheel i» the i^bove prpjection. The weight of the cloqliv
a^LW^^s tbiLt of the friction apparatus may be woui^d up without th^
tjp^tip^ being interrupted. When the telescope is thu^ kept ill
motiop* the star wiU re^iain quietly in the centre;^ eveuwhiu
i^d 700 timea« At the ^ame time there is not the least.
,^T wfi^veripg of the tube, and it aeems as if we. were ob^
4#H^hg an immoveable sky <
.But ti^e artiat haa done 9till more ; he has introduced a bai^d
<m a graduated dial of the dock, by which the motion of the
%j^r ^ai^ be instantly altered ; so t)v»t a star may be brought to
ij^ ppij^t'pf the field of vision to which it may suit the obeervei^
t^6iprry^)t, eccordinglyasit ia reauired to make the course of the.
iniiruu^§nt go faster or slower uian the motion of the heavens ^
id'jti^ce placed, it may be kept in tjiat position by returning
ii^^ to )ts< original ppsitionv The same mechanism i^ also.
[^0 make the motion of the instrument coincide with that of
]^Qon,
^stfument has four eye-gl§issesj the lef^t of y^hich,
3 10 proceedings &f Philo^ojMeai Societies. [ Ai ttti/^ *•
Mv'SlMtV^ hfiLS^ GOmpftfed the power of this telesciope 3ii^1i
SohH>ill0t^s<2S^fe6t feftectbr, by means of which that astronoonee
saw f Ononis, tweWe or thirteen fold ; whereas Sdruve cfeaHy
asoettaiti^the existence of sixteen distinct Mars.
Thill instrument is furnished with four annular micrometers of
Fra^ietthofe^'s oonstniction, and an excellent net^micrometer of
the same artist. By means of these it appears that the probable
erjrof in the tn^asurement of some minute distances of y^"^ and
under^ did not exceed the 18th part of a second. The expense; -
of tills inrstniment was about 960/. sterling.
There was also read a paper on "A New Zenith Micrometer;"
by Charles fiabba^e, Esq. FRS. &c. The object of the inventor
in this instrument is to supersede the necessity of extreme accu-^
racy in t^e divisions. The principle on which this instrument
d^pend^may be readily comprehended by imagining a paraltelo^ '
gram/' admitting of free motion about its four angles; to be '
placed' with two of its sides in a horizontal position, anddie^.
whole in a vertical plane ; and a telescope to be fixed at right-
angles to the lower horizontal bar of this parallelogram. Here
eyery motion of one of the perpendicular bars of the instrument
round its upper joint will not change the angle which the tele*--
scope makes with the meridian ; but will merely remove it into
a new position in which it will point to the same object in the
hiea«l^ehs. But if either of the horizontal bars of the instruiaeiit
be lehgtheihed by a very small quantity, this parallelism of tbe'^
telescope will no longer be preserved, but any movement of the*
upright bars round their axes will not only remove the telescope
from its position/ but will cause it to form a very small angle*
with its former direction. The magnitude of that angle w^ '
depend ou the alteration in the length of the arm of the parall^*
logram, 'and also on the angle which that arm makes with its'
firat direction. The minutiee of the construction depend upott
thesB considerations, but cannot be rendered intelligible witboBt'i
a diagram. The arc which is actually measured in the heaYen» '
by means of this instrupoient is determined by a formula, iu^whic^:^
the sum of three arcs is tak^n fromthe seihicircumferen^e, one.
of them resulting -from the actual observation; the otlier two^^
ivdm a bosine and a tangent, ascertainable by computationft^dm
the -theorem kself. * In an ejictensive use of this microoieidis^
tables may easily be formed to facilitate the computatidhi ♦ ? - ,:it p
. .; : . . ■ ■ \ ■ ^ :n
GBOLOOICAL SOeiETY. j', vsr!
Jc/it. 21.— A paper was concluded, entitled <*0n a t^^jdebt
Formation of Freshwater Rock Marl in Scotland, with Refi^aA^^
on Shell Marl> and on the Analogy between the a^ciel^^^^^
modem Freshwater Formations ; *' by Charles ^ lifelli^* -^E^.o
Sec. GS.-' '-' ' ' - ■ ••— ^-: ^■■■-'^ '^-^ '^-^"^ ■
182&}:/' . Oeoli^cal Sockiy. X \ 311
: ^e rock marl described in this communioatioa b 'aa Qicjbi^ruily
cofiipact limesloney in part of a crystallioe 8tru<lltur^,; sind. iffi"
vetfsed by numeroua irregular tubes or cavities.
'As a principal part of its geological interest is (Jj^riveddrfaiii
its recent origin^, the author has drawn a brief sketch <^. the
physical structure of the county of Forfar, in oicder to Q^fp}^^
distinctly its position. . , .. -
' ' Those strata are also enumerated in' which limest^Mio^is iWif)A>
aad its remarkable scarcity in Forfarshire pointed oirt.; - j ?
The districts to which shell marl is confined ace DeM'PQQ^-t
dered, and it appears that deposits of this nature .ar€^ jacoimi(i|i-
lated only in lakes in two formations, viz. the inferior or transition
sandstone, and the old red sandstone. .. I
The Bakie Loch, in which the rock marl occurs, lies in^ a.holn
low in sand and gravel. This gravel consists of the broken ajQ4
rounded masses of the primitive rocks of the Grampians, whicli
are heaped in large quantities upon the old red sandstone i(%.th0
TaHey of Strathmore.
The succession of the deposits of sand, shell marl^ and rock,
iikri, in the lake of the Bakie now drained, is then described.
The shells and plants enclosed in the rock are the same as those
in the soft shell marl, and are all still living in the waters on.the
spot. Among the plants are the stems and seed vessels ^ of
Chac8By the latter being fossilized in such a manner as to present,
a perfect analogy to the. gyrogonite of the ancient fre^wa(:er
formations.
Mr. Lyell then considers the probable origin of the rock marl^
which appears to be derived from the subjacent shell marl^
through which springs ascend, charged with carbonic acid.
Some remarks are next offered on the shell marl of Forfarshirp>
and some which the author has examined near Romsey, in,.
Hftmpsbire, is described. The subjects of chief interest witli
regaitl to the shell marl are, its slow growth, the small proppr*-
tioirof full grown shells, which are found in it in Forfurshin^,.
the greater rapidity of its growth in the vicinity of springs, it$^
i^aodunee in a part of Scotland in which limestone is vei:y rar^^'
audits scarcity m the calcareous districts of England. :< ^
v.The; question, is then considered whether the shell marl b^,
e^lusirely derived from the exuviee of testacea, and the various
ar^ments.for and against this hypothesis are entered into.
In conclusion Mrf Lyell takes a geneml view of the analogy
between the ancient and modern freshwater formations.
;.Sotl| of these may be described generally as cQnsi^ting 'of
thi^/.1si^ of calcareous, argillaceous^ and arenaceous xxiads^
t#g^Ii|^r;Wi^ strata of sand and clay, to which the <^oasqtic}ated
b^[be^r ^pontbe wholebut a small proportioUf.
The shells and plants contained in both are referable 4o the
same genera,
9^12 Proceeimgi of PMhsophic^if Seckiies. [A»%
Tbe bqiiies ahd ^V^etons of quadrupeds ^le found lii|][i#<i^at
va,ri6us depths in tlie marls of Forfarsmre as they occur iu the
lower freshwater formatiou of Paris.
Of the four desiderata meutioned by Messrs. Guvier tad
fiiTongniart (Sss.on the Env. of Paris^p. 56), as being r^quaaite
to complete the analogy between the deposits of lakes now;
existing^ and those of a former world ; three are supplied by tb4
lakes in Forfarshire, viz. 1. A compact limestone ; 2. Vegetableft
Converted into the substance of their caloareous matrix; o^LargQ
beds of yellowish white calcareous marl.
The rock marl of Forfarshire closely resembles the 'traver^no
9f Italy, part of which is a recent formation, but part ha^ be€t£i
provedf by M. Brongniart to be of a date probably as ancient w
thje upper freshwater strata at Paris.
y The only difference remaining between the ancient and the
inddern freshwater formations is, 1, The absence in the latl^r o(
^ilic^, which is only knowu as a modern deposit from water eon^r
hected with volcanic agency; and 2. The small scale on whicb
the recent accumulations proceed*
If these differences are ascribable to a higher temperatum
prevailing where the ancient freshwater rocks were forQied^ thef
iQay perhaps disappear when the hitherto unexplored tropicA
regions of the glooe are fully investigated.
MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
The fifty-second Anniversary Meeting of this Society wa»
held on Tuesday, March 8, at the London Coffee-house^ Lud^^ule
Bill : W. Shearman, MD. President in the Chair.
The Officers and Council for the year ensuing^ are :
President. — H. Clutterbuck, MD.
Vice-Presidents. — H. J. Cholmely, MD. ; J. Johnson, MD. i
Sir Astley P. Cooper, Bart. FRS. ; and W. Kingdom, Esq.
Treasurer.--^. Andree, Esq.
Librarian. — D. Uwins, MD.
Secretaries.'^T. J. Pettigrew, Esq. FAS, FLS. ; and T. Calla-
way, Esq.
Foreign Secretary. — L, Stewart, MD,
Council.--^. Walshman, MD. ; W. Shearman, MD. ; Q, Dar-
Upg, MD.; T. Cox, MD.; J. Barne, MD.; J. Russejl, ^l>,\
J. B. James, MD. FLS.; E- Morton, MD.; G. Drysdat^,
]p, Sutleffe, B. Brown, J.Dunlap, W. Lake, K. Johnson, S. Ash-
;wetl, E; a. Lloyd, J. Handey, E. Leese, H. Edwc^rdei W^ D,
Cbrdell, J. Amesbury, W, Burrows, S. Wray, H. B. €>. fKBier,
M. Gossell, T. W. Chevalier, G. Langstaff, J. G. TWirntoi>,
H. E^ensleigh, J. M. Mugglestone, J. S. Smith, R. W« B^mf--
fiel^,ll. ihen, K. Blick,, M. Ware, Esquires. -T
J Tq deliver, the Oration in Afarch, 1826,~J, H^l^> MD.^i^'-
3fcg6if^«K---J. Field, Esq, ! , ^rr u..^v
^
Jfi^Jiif 4,^ Uoyd deliverer! the AoiwmJL QwSJw- , 'ttg PhJj^^
f , . the " Coastitutional Treatment of Qr^nic visea^g^.*^
eTeliows and their friends then dinec} together ^t th§ i40Q4<>i^
Tw€a5n^ I^udgate Hill.
. In conformity with the will of the late Br, Aptho^v Tp0)ef*
«n^ th^ Society offers the annual gold inedal, v^ue 2Q guineaff^
^xf the best dissertation on a 8iH>jeQt proposed by ihepo^i foe
which pri^ the learned of all countries ar^ ipyited aa pap^ip^teii
The subject for this year is '* The Nature and Treatmet^t of
Carcinoma/' '?
. I. Each dissertation mui^ be delivered to the {tegi^trar m the
I^tip or English langi^age^ on or before the Ut of !Deceniber«>
,. 2t With It must be ddivered a sealed packet with someino^^^
or device on the outside, and within the author's n$ime. ai^f
d/Mignation, and the same motto or device must be put ot| |h4
di89efl^tion| that the Society may know how to ftddress tH^
aniCjce^sful candidate, .4
, 3» No paner in the handwriting of the author^ or wjth bi9
name affixea, can be received ; and if the author of any pap^r
shall either directly or indirectly discover himself to tb^ Cpm^
laitte^ of Papers, or any member thereof^ such paper wiU be
^i^cluded fr ofiQL all competition for the medsJ«
4« The prize medal will be presented to the j^uccessful candi-
date, or his substitute, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Society
in March, 1826. '
. ^* All the dissertations^ the successful one excepted^ wiU be
returned, if desired, with the sealed packet, unopened.
%* The subject of the dissertation for the year 1826-7 is
" Contagion and Infection."
Medical Society^ s House^ JBoU-^eourty Fieet-ttreety
, March 17, 182$.
Articlb XII.
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES,
Chemistry.
L Qi^ndensation of ^ Mixture of Hydrogen und Oxygen by pul^
f\ verulent Platinum^
ci JONibenilnar has iMBcertained that moi^ as well as £2r2M>latinum
catlffjei^ the, mutual condensation of these two ^ases. Th§ ^ffe^t
^intbQtht ca^es is equally complete; the only difference being in
-i^ lenglh of time necessary to produce it. ,
The best method of performing the experiment is ^o ignite at
the tKJtlom 9f a glass tube closed by fusion at one extremity, a
Suantity of the double ammonio-mutiate of platinum, or to
ecompose in i| a solution of platinum by means of a rod of sdnc.
Ine\thet.6^e, athiia ffljn of platinum is deposited updntlye
interior of the tab^, and adheres with considerable firmness, it
a tbbe tkus prepared he filled with a mixture of hydrogen and
oxjgen(or fttmospberic air), and inverted over water, the. whole
of tfae by^o^en will be condensed into water in the course of a.
few hours. A similar result is obtained by placing a it)a9S.^f .
spongy platinum well soaked with water into a receiver filled^ i
witb the mixture of the two gases. He next examined what
would be the effect of moistening the platinum with other
li(|uids. With alcohol the experiment succeeded equally as well
as with water ; but not the slightest condensation took place
when^ the spongy metal was imbibed with nitric acid, or wiJSh
liquM ammonia. He ascribes these differences excludv^ely to .
the gasisotis mixture being absorbable by water atid alcohol, iiat-
not by tfitric acid or liquid ammonia : in the former case ODly>
the ^ses would be conveyed into immediate contact with tbe^
m^td« Dobereiner concludes with observing, that the exislende
of 86ine peculiar and independent property in the platimim'is
taCfre decisively evinced by the present experiment than by any-
other which he had heretofore made. ^
Theffte experiments suggested an easy method of depurating
hy^ogen from minute traces of oxygen. All that is necessary
is to enclose it in a stoppered phial, a portion of whose interior <
has been coated by the process just described, witha tfiinificrus^i.
tation of platinum. The oxygen will by degrees undergo coa^
densatlon. — (Schweigger's Neues Jornalfur ChemieundPhysik^
xii.60.)
Mineralogy.
2. Sodalite,
• Ix
A mineral, obviously intimately associated with sodalite., h^a
been examined by Wachtmeister. It is found on Vesuvius
incorporated with the garnet described in p. 71. Its colour is
whitCi and it is in an imperfect degree transparent. It has a
grajnular texture, and is brittle. Before the blowpipe it me)ts
without giving off any water: it is more fusible than albite or
icespar, but less so than mesotype or meionite. In bo^ax^ it
dissolves with extreme slowness into a transparent glass. 'With'
solution of cobalt, the edges become faintly blue coloured.
Muriatic acid cannot be detected by means of oxide of cbppi^r. ^
The mineral is readily decomposed by nitric or muriatic acid^J
SpeUtinous silica remaining undissolved. Its constituent^ :W€fr<e
oundtobe, ' 'i
' ^' '. \ -Jlf:
Silica. 50-98 - . ^J itfl
i:a. ■:. Soda*..* • •«• &••.«••••• »*.«..S0«96 ..i. .Ix^i^
Muriatic acid • • • • 1*29
100-87
»
1 825;} i * Sciemijic Ncftiets-^Miscetkneaus. 3 1& '
"WaohOaaei^^f cotfsiders it a compound of 1 atom of bisilJca^e:
of ^soda -f 2 atoms of silicate of alumina^ His r^alts diffei*..
mhtemliy ftotn the analyses of sodalite which h^ve beeii made /
bcJt'h by Borkowsky and Arfwedson; and on cotfiparihg j^i^
mineral ivith the specimen analyzed by the latter chennciist^ lies
obi»er^ed several discrepancies between tjiem^ both iu tHeir.'
ejftemal appearance and in their blowpipe characters.— f(Kqng;-
V«i"Ac$ad. Hand. 1823,p. 131.) f^. v
3. Notice respecting the Discovery of a Black Lead Mine in .
. Invemess'shtre. * '
fhe only mines of black lead which have hitherto been wrau^t.r
iaScotkmd are those of Curanocky in-Ayrshite^and of G^en^:l
strathfiurar, in tixe county of Inverness.* This last mine waei
diaooirered so recently as i816, but does not seem to hajre ^e«t -
wwmght to any extent. i ^:
Under such circumstances^ therefore, it is with great aitisifaQf^.T
tion that we announce to our readers the discovery of anoth^Dlo
black lead mine in Inverness-shire, on the property of Gleipgairy,* ;
The mine is situated near the top of a rocky ravine, close iOf,
the head of Loch Lochy, on the south'^east side^ and widatn^U
mfie 4>f the Caledonian Canal. The mine is so situated that aaj
ai^ficial trough or slide, of simple construction, like that one
ttsied at Alpnack in Switzerlabd for timber, might be erected ^
convey the black lead orie by its own force of descent from the /
mine t<s the Caledonian Canal.
The breadth of the vein is in many places, where it crops out, ,.
fully three feet in breadth.
]Not more than a ton or two of ore has been yet taken from the
mine^ and that too merely gathered from the surface .*-'(Edin-
bi^i^ Journal of Science.) :-.
Miscellaneous. ..,,,,
- -** 4. New Work on Fossils. :dw
We have the pleasure to announce the appearance of the flt^c^
century of the Icones Fossilium Sectiles, by Charles Konig, Es(j.^'
ofAtlife British Museum. This work will be found to possess'
great' interest both for the general naturalist and the geologist,^
an(i,§pnsists of eight folio litliographic plates, containing exceefd?^-
ing]^ accurate and well-executed figures of 1 00 species of fo^-^
sil^y^itli their descriptions in Latin. Some of tne figures are ^
copied froiii other works, which from their high price or rarity |
are not within every one's reach : the rest are drawn froiii ndtuie.^
The plates afe divided by longitudinal and transverse Hues into
separate coti^partnients, so that the 8cJ3Jects,as thename of the
work impli^/may^ be. cut out, and arranged in ^orilers and
*^~Mick lead has been found in Glen-Ely and Shetland.
316 Scmf^ Notke^-^BfiMUaneouf. [kp^tx,
^^0iia fioodrdin|^ i^ the fa^cy of the purchaser ; ^d sy^it^wtic
srrangett^eiit being adoptecl m the woik. The explaiji^tioiis af
th0 figures ar^ short and confined to the de^criptiolSis of^liew
gen^a, the localities of species, and the reasons that "haye
induced the author, in some instances, to adopt new na{ae9»
who reserves more ample details for a future worK, which> f!ro|i9L
4lie manner he has executed this, we hope will not be. long
''before it sees the light. The place which each genus Q(^upi^
inCuvier's Regne Animal is given, and the pnmary section,
daia^ drder, and family, respectively denoted by a pent>d, e<^0A,
semicolon, and comma annexed, the tribe bein^ without fttry
inarkr 'Hitis the name of the genus Ixa is followed by the wcbrdfs
i(ArticnIata, Crustacea : decapoda ; brachyura, Canceres), W^
shall only add, that we wiAi the authors of modern wcirlU^^
Storal history would write as elegant Latin as that in wm^
r. Kbnig has couched the short preface at the beginning of bi9
book.
5. On the Structure of Rice Paper.,
The substance commonly known by the name of rtcf |H|p^ i^
hrQu^ht from China in small pieces, about two laches sqiii|rt»
and tinged with varioua colo^rsy It bf^s been fcMr soiA§ time uf^ed
as an e?i:cellQnt substitute for drawing paper, in the repreaent^c
tiop of richly oqlQured ii^eets, and other gbjeets of natuval
^j^jbQxy,^ ^(id ba^ been en^pl^nyed 4n this ^ily with «tUl wm
success in the manufacture of artificial fioweiB. v >.«
Although rice paper has a general resemblance to a subetai^de
formed by art, yet a very slight examination of it vfith ih^
pvcfoaoepa is sumoient to tndicate a vegetable organization;; Ai
Oirder to Qb^erye and ^rs^ee ^e nature of its structui^e^ !( ^^
necessary to give it some degree of transparency^ sM^d {expected
to accomplish this by the usual process of immersing it in'^^er
or in oil of the same refractive power. This operation,.how<^Ye^
instead of increasing the transparenpy, rendered Il|e fUoiMi^
opaque^ and suggested the probai3ility that, like . tkbasheMt^ it
Was filled with air;, and that the augmentation of its ofmcksf
arose, as in the case of that siliceous concretion^ from t^ie^parttu
absorption of the fluid. In order to expel the air ft-onl the e^la
in which it seepied to be lodged, I exposed a piece of the rice
paper to the influence of boihng olive oil. The neat imme4i^tely
drove the air in small hubbies from the cells near the mafgli^.j
but it was with sopie difficulty that it was forc^ed to qijit |he
interior parts of the film. As the olive oil had qo^v: t|ki^ |}ie
place of the air, and filled all (h^ cells, the filo^ beo^me f^ni^^f
tjrj^^parent^ and displayed ita vesicular atructure wheajdaifieq
lii^r a, powerful microscope. .'.,/i ;.'••. /'
The rice paper consists of long hexagonal eells/lirhoae^lidJIgth
is puralld to^e suffieuce of the Sim ; tMae oelte €«^ ttled >vnth
zitf^vf^m tba film k in its usual etate ; and from this dfmm-
stance it derives that peaiiUar «ofi;neast which rendt^c^ it «a mtU.
a^pted for the purposes to iVhich it is apjJied. When th^ film
18 ^ppsed to polarised Ugh t,. the longitudinal septa of tbeed]^
4m9|fri$i^ the light lik« other vefi^taUe memb ,, -t
. .4^inaj)fi; iiket^vee ^pecim^Ds of rice paper which I h#y3 jMh
i^^eq^ were is^oae from which ali the air faaa been ^np^diie^ter
the boiling oil ; another in which some of the air bubQle^ '4mL
9fifRt± id the ye«iclM| the air having been only paitiaU^ axp^Ued
h)[ boilitijl water; and a tfair4> which is in contact vnth VNitiV,
without haying been deprived of aiay df its air bUbUes^
'.Upon tttentiobittg to Mr. Keill the preceding ejcperimeutil, hp
ii^rmed me that the lady ill Edinburgh^ Miss Jack, Vfh^ hMl
ijixj^yf^A rite p^p^i With ^uth success In the inanufactutd of
irhncial flowers^ Wd le^fh^d JfVpm hef brothet, who was i^
jCtiina, that it was it membrane of the bread Wt ire^i i^ artd*^
carpus incisifolia of naturalists.^£ldinb. Journal of Science^ ^
Article XlIL
NfeW SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
.^ ; . . paBBABma Foa puBucAtioir.
r SltorliywiU.be pubiisbed, A Series 4if Tables^ gitiag the Frdd^
Weighift and Measures reduced to the English SiaadarcL By C« K.
^mpjm.i^^the Rilyal plagyieersi
. The whole Works of the late Matthew Baillie, MD* with aa A^
fjflttn^of bis.Li^^ 9 J Janief Wardrop, £s^ Si^gfm ^IraoidiMry
tqUieKing. ^ .;
4^ I^rattte of the Source of St* Peter's Eiver» lake Wiaue^ky
itk ^y W. H. Keating, AM. 2Tids.^vo,
Sl^Nfems CoachylionuDy or DescriptioAs of all tho knaWn Species of
ftlksmt SMk.^ tBy G. B. Seweiby, FLS.^c. Illustrated by cplQWBft
^aM% by J- D. C. Sowerby, FLS. &c.
• ^ Tto MlaeLaWs of M^coi fmm the original aadlart enaat^ Ced^,,
n-Msr tranSUtuig from the Spaaisha and, with Observations ton
fiuoBi vaxt Mining Absociations, are nearly roady for Ae pftss,
uMor^he fiditonbiip of a Barrister*
jrUST PUBLISHED.
A ui^erai vjriticai urammar ot tne ingusn Liit^gaage, on a p^fh
tm ii&^ and extebsive, exhibiting Investigations bf the Ahslogies ot
I^tog^U^ written ted -spoken. By S. Oliver^ jun* Esq. 8vo. Iti.'-
y\ilk-%€y to the Knowledge of Nature, or an kxposttioh df thjp
Mechanical, Cbemicalj and Physical Laws of Matter. By.tbeft^ir.
BiTftgilor. I8i.
UMb^ I^na Majorat on the Pha of Dalaell's Aoidecta Grsecs*
Sto. 9s. 6d.
918 New Patents. [AfiiiI4>
Article XIV.
NEW PATENTS.
E. LeeS) Little Thurrock, Essex, publican, for improvemenU in
water^works, and in tlie mode of conveying water for the purpose of
flooding and draining lands; applicable also to other usefiil purposes.
—Feb. 19.
T. Masterman, Dolphin Brewery, Broad-street, Ratdilfe, MiiliHi mii^
brewer, for an apparatus for boUling wine, beer, mad oAer Ifqutd^i
with increased economy and dispatch. — ^Fdbil9.
' Er Lloyd, North End, Fulham, fbra new apparatus from which to
feed fii-es with coals and ofhisrfuel. — ^Feb. 19.
B. Tarrbw, GteuM Tower-street, London, ironmonger, for itnprove-
mehts in bu2c&igs> calculated to render them less like^ to be destroyed
or injional ly fire than heretofore^— Feb. 19.
J. Itoss, Lercester^ hosier, for a new apparatus for combining and
sftiengthening woo>, cotton, and other fibrous substances.-^Feb. 19.
J. Mould, Lincoln's Inn Fields, Middlesex, for improvements in fire-
arms.-—Feb. 19. ■
H. Burnett, Arundel-street, Middlesex, for improvements in ma-
i^nerv for a new rotatory or endless lever action. — Feb. 19-
J. Beacham, Paradise-street, Finsbury-square, cabinet-maker, for
improvements in water-closets. — Feb. 19.
J. Ayton, Trowse Millgate, Norfolk, miller, for an improvement or
spring to be applied to bolting mills for the purpose of. facilitating and
improving the dressing of flour, and other substances.*— Feb. 19.
£). Edwards, King-street, Bloomsbury, writing-desk manufacturer,
for an ink-stand, in which, by pressure, the ink is caused to £Low to
use.— Feb. 26-
J. Manton, Hanover-square, gun-maker, for improvements in fire-
arms.— Feb. 26.
W. H. Hill, Woolwich, Lieutenant of Artillery, for improvements
in machinery for propelling vessels. — Feb. 26. '
O. A. Kallmann, of the Friary, St. James's Place, Prpfessor of
Music^ for improvements in the mechanism and coiniitrue^on of piano-
fortes.-^-Feb. 26.
J. Heathcoat, Tiverton, lace-manufacturer, for hi^ improved method
of producing figures or ornaments on goods manufactured from silk,
cotton, &c.— Feb. 26. ^. '
J. Bateman, Upper-street, Islington, for a portable^ fi{e boat; —
Feb. 26. ^"
C. Whitehouse, Wednesbury, Stafford, whitesmith^ fpir improve-
ments in manufacturing tubes K>r gas, and other purposes.^Feb. 26.
. -T. Attwood, Birminglmm, for an improved method of making nibs,
. bi slotU, in copper or other metal cylinders used for printing cottons,
Ac—Feb. 26.
; I); Ctotaon, BAsinghall-street. London, and W./ Bow^qjifl^j^
street, 'Wellclose-square, iron-manufacture, ..for JiinpiriQiHfiJlBi^lVJD
writing and plating or coating iron with copper. — Feb. 26.
l«26i]
Mr, HowumPm Metmrob^ieal JwmaL
319
Article XV.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.
Barometer,
Thermometer.
« ^
■
1825.
Wind.
Max.*
Min.
•
Max.
Min.
J,
£vap.
Rsim.
2d Mod.
• -
Feb. 1
W
30-53
30-26
48
30
1
f
2
s w
30-53
29-68
45
34
.^^
9
3
w
29-81
29-68
40
28
.VIM
■..s
4
N W
29-8e
29-81
45
25
.i_
1
5
N W
30-18
29-86
33
29
».
,
6
N W
30-36
30-18
34
28
...
■
7
N W
30-36
3015
42
38
1
53^^
8
W
30-49
30-15
45
30
9
N W
30-60
30-49
45
32
^..
'
10
W
30-68
30 60
48
28
..^
]]
w
30-71
30-()9
48
26
^_
12
« f- « - ■ •
s w
30-71
30-69
42
28
.—
•' 13
w
' 30-72
3059
38
32
^.
'
U
w
30-59
30-35
36
34
.^.
15
S E
30-35
•
30-20
41
^9
•48
^^^^*
■ K)
s w
30-22
30 20
45
S7
...
J7
s
30 20
30- 1 4
48
39
_
15
.,?.-.,, jjj
E
30-54
3014
48
43
...
10
. ...... .'.9
E ,
30-44
30 34
52
42
._
20
S W
30-60
30-44
52
32
m-mm
• w
■ ■■■'' 21
T^ W
30-60
30 60
48
27
1
' 1
.22
N W
30-60
30-37
45
38
—
' . *
,: ■' 23
S E
30-40
30-37
42
30
•.I*.
^
30-55
30-40
48
32
...
( ■ ',
..,^ 2^
N E
30-55
30-43
40
32
.».
.y
- •'- .jg
N E
30-43
^9-99
40
33
...
-,
.27
. S
29-99
Z9'77
45
29
._.
13
N .W
r: r. :. '
29-92
W77
44
30
•
-40.
^ *
3072
29*68
52 ;
25 .
•88 .
. n
ibscmjiw m^ fiach ,lmc of tl|p table apnl^ to a ^p«!iod of tweiiQr-feuii/hoi»i.
^'i?% A. M. on the day indicated in Ae first < * ^ ^ '
Wftm^hiiibt next fdlloinng'olwsmisoB.
column. A das^ /^^^^tes th«l
v'>'.:
/i'
tM ifn flMtfr^ MwmidA)^ '{Arfta/IMS*
REMARKS.
Second Month^-^l, Riilly. f^ $• Fitie. 4. Snowy moiliiog.' 5, 6. Fine.
7. C3oudj : niDy night 8, 9. Fine. 10. Foggy moming : fine day. 1 1. The
same. 18. The same : a dear night IS. A Tcry thick fog this morning : demni »
Ikde) pkin. 14. Foggy monii^g: ^oomy. 15—17. dDady. IS. Rainy.
19. Ckm^y. SO. Dveicast SI. l^oggy : fine, p. m. 92. Hoist fyotts a fine day.
fiS. The maib. 84, $5. Orercast. 86. Hit sttne s mow abobt ooon* 87. RaiDf
moming : gloomy. 88. Fin#.
RESCTLn.
Winds: KE^ 8; £, 3; S£, 8; S, 8; SW» 4; W, 7$ NW» 8,
Bararndter : Meifti height
F«cdie month » ^O^jSindiea.
, ■ • • •
For the lunar peflaiid, ending tbel 04... •. «...«. 3(I<9I8
Forl4day8,endifigt]ieMi<^Moaiiorifa) ....,....• 8<HeBi
For 14(d»y8,iendi8g the ISHii (neon floiik). « 9rKI7
Thermom^; Meanhqght
Forthemimdi , ^-^46^
Forthelnparpenod *.«...^ 37*#88
FordOdKys, thestm In AqtmHliB.. :.%.... St*l^
Efaporatian •••• ••«!#• •• D»68ftu
R4n--..« • * df8
And by a lieoond guage 1*08
Laboratory^ Sira^fbrd^ Third Mtm^ !•» Wft. U HOWAilDs
ANNALS
or
FHILO'SOFHT
MdY^ 1625
Article I.
Biog^ig^ (tfBafV» Akr^iham iNicofaus Ed^antz*
Th*^ life nnA bistarT of a man emiti^nt for the zeal and success
mitik irhich^e has cumvated and advanced the arts and sciences,
vKhoug^ more peculiariy the property of the country which
<l^rf» Km biftb^ oelong nevertheless to his whole brethren of the
^rinliflSii world. It is, therefore, with no small degree of plea-
sure ftat we present our readied with the following account of
the fife of Edelcrantz, whose estimation in Europe as a man of
«eience^ while he lived, was shown by the number of learned
•ocieties that diose him one of their body, and whose merits^
110W that he is no more^ it is not less useful than it is agreeable^
nnparttalty to scan and study.
A. N. Edelerantz was born in At)o, on the 28th of July, 1754.
While his birth-place was thus situated without the geographical
limits of Swden, he is nevertheless most justly daimea as a
hiother by the Swedes. For his family was of tnat country, bis
own fife was spent there, his whole exertions were devoted to
its service, ana reaped for him a rich reward both of emolument
and honour. The lather of Edelcrantz, Charies Abraham Clew-
bet^, was Professor of Theolqry in the University of Abo,
denying bis family name firom Klew and Alunda, in Upland, of
which mstrict an ancestor of his had been Judge. The wife of the
Professor was Charlotte Agatha Fahlenius, a daughter of
Bihsop Fahlenius, by a lady of Italian origin, whose name was
Charlotte Teppati.
Young A. N.Clewberg did not long enjoy the advantage of the
example and direction of his learned rather, whom he lost at
the tender a^e of twelve years. But the powers of a mind, hap-
pSy gifted with natural ability, to which was joined the invalu^
ahle aecompaniment of persevering assiduity, had already been
* jftaom 4li>T|titf«rtSoniqf the Royal Ac>dcroy of jhs^^
New SeritSf vol, ix, y
n
Bio^^y^lfical Sketch ^ J^arm l^detcrapfz. , I^M#f p
sufficiently deyeloped to supply to the literary orpban all witb
^WteA iiif ^sijrenf H 4iot]ftsel woiUa have endeavoured to iinbi^^^
-^^4l#1)ecaiiie a Bludeht of fte college at the age of fouri^',
^liAd Jh' fpurreafs hie attained the honour of baying the degi^^%f
^^k^iiste^ Pbilosophiee conferred upon him in Abo. on *the''^l&&
' * Wnen a young mind happens to possess a greieit ^er^atilM%r
Utteiftty fiketfaat of Clewberg, and is yet ^xtmedd^t6^^^
es^clusive pursuit, it not unfrequentiy happen^ that tTO^^n^lk--
^^dns' to follow each of many various wuks of sci^bi^^cjl oxart
; are so equal, that the votary lingers long u|>on the 'tiiy|sfii^B^
*theni all, uncertain which snail be made nis chofce«\l''l^i;^w^
-dbubt that from this very cause many men, with ttkf'^^%ti|<M of
me acquaii ' * ""^ ^' ^^
cdents, in
collecting
fftlhcto the depths of any one. It very often occuiis^lf^p^Cl^t
"^^4 first of many pursuits, in which it is the stud^iUts roiNJf^Wfo
^'sttti^ct attention or to gain applause, obtains thereby dr^jhu^^
'Hh -eatly esteem, which determines the course of biV'^imm
'stierfies,. and thus often in the walks of science, as in tb'(^^e%f
f^Attics or of business, the accident of a moment giv^s xll(ie '(bne
ltd the events of a life or of an era, \ , I . jV^-^m
' dewberg had applied himself keenly to fathom the promc^JuMr
ideptibs of mathematical physics ; and it was by,a work coahecCed
With these investigations that he first fixed the public eye v^qfi
his attainments. His woik was entitled, '' Dissertatio ae Qtisef*
^edtlBmbusdeAlembtrtiin disquisilionem Newtonians legtsRefrac^
Hitmis KUngenstjemiantm," Ab. 1772. While this produ<^iipii
^Wfes thus the first that particularly attracted public attention^ f *
^ntHience in this line pi study had already procured for hi^^i
-*dfs{iiietion of Teacher (Docens) in Mechanical Philosophy ami
in Literary Histoty. That he had already given his attention u>
^be -h^tef study, we learn from thie disputation which be.'h^d
'prfvioftfsly published and defended: De causis florescenli^H
' ikarcesnentis reipublica Litteraria, P. 1 and 2. Ab. 1771, 1^7i«
^•' ^At this period of the life of Clewberg, it would seem probal^(e
•'tbtjtlhi^ whole pursuits were purely academic, and tb^it bis ain-
Hfifil^on; did not aspire to any thing beyond the desire of anin^ating
^^tfaddih^bting the studies of the youth of the University. A^
^«cfe^a?ngly, we fihd Count Ulr. Scheffer, on 16th Oct.lTti^^^^
Oi<ftK:(e!lor of the Academy, appointing him to the offipe^of
•« -Assistant iti Philosophy, in consequence of his eminent talgip[te
Wftdittaihments:" ' ''.'',
^ 'The ^fti'ly prooft of talent which he gkve hd:4 fully eh^fJai
him to these honours ; and among these, one of the.mqst reoMLriL-
«!bie( w^'his DissMatio de Scnptorzhas et fmtfkits'P^'^ '
^M#iiftrfi%> btflMished in 1776; on the.24th Jkiiiiarym^
iKaS;] mograpMcat Sketch of Baron Edetcrasiiz. 3121
^ ,^^^Biy rcMing a poem of bis own compoaitia^ to ihejAca^
.J[<b^ (wl^n solemnizing the ocoasioo. Again in 1178, ...tbe
|iepnjrr^ce of the same day furnished Clewberg with, ^another
' fheme for his muse, and his ''Discourse on the Kins'n Birth-
li'Sfi/^^i)^^^ T^^ before the Society Utile Duk^, and panted
' ^ ffr in ilie. fourth volume of tne Vitterbets-nojev (or Cq}*
^eema jprobable that the attention of Gostavus III. was first
f^^^^lj^o the younff Clewberg by the mode in which bis
^ ^^hius Chus de?eloped itself; and the monarch'^ rcig?*]^
^pr^ip^^y /afterwards confirmed when Clewberg tuned bis
i^'^/rsU^ins of sorrow on the occasion of the death oftbe
n^i^MQyv'Qkgeit Louisa Ulrica in 1782, in his '* Funeral IHs-
of^i^^a ''*^^' that subject. This appears the more likely, af^^it
[S tM peculiar pleasure of that monarch to search out from
Lojgigmssubm those whose singularly happy mental endow-
^^ enabled them to unite to a talent for poetry, a zeal for the
lerittiire of Sweden. In the mean time, Uie young po^t aiid
mpsbpher was still allowed to remain in the Academy, wherie)
meyer^ hehad been, in the year 1780, advanced to the situa-
on bf Librarian, in the room of Olof* Schalberg. In this office,
18 Majesty was pleased m IT'SS to. confer upon himi as a proof
Ibis personal regard, the compliflsent of having bis salaiy
aced on a similar footing with that of the Professors tbem-
f4l,
elves.
', ^. Ine conferring of this privilege was not the only proof of t)^
"rpyat regard whicb the resolution conveying it contained ;, fprit
js there expressly mentioned that '^ the honour is owing.^npt
[^mo're to the recommendation of the Chancellor of the Apa-
jaem^, than to the decisive proofs he had himself giver^ cl'.great
acquirements, elegant taste, and superior genius." i
y . iihe residence of Clewberg this year in Stockhplm^ and X\kd
. s\irprising acquaintance he already displayed with the. importai|t
yet delicate tactics connected with the management of the public
theatres of the capital, induced the king, Gustavus lILto call
'the hi^Idy gifted young man from the country to the metropolis,
in which the elegance and literature of the kingdom alik^ ceil*
t6red. His Majesty's mandate of23dSept, 1783, app^intipgthp
Librarian Clewberg to be Royal Secretaxy, stated this office to
^tie conferred upon liim as a testimony of the Royal estee^.for
Jiis literary attainments and useful accomplishments. :. li /waa
^ehby no ineansrare, that the cultivation ot letters alone, ^hou|4
iWd tp.i^itnations of the greatest eleyation and trijist ip;'the
, • rrne /nqeticaj reputation of Clewberff now became jeanicV^
^^%13v^^^ ^^^^^^'^^r^ This arose in part &qqi his. laboMfP
^if the %eatre, among which we may notice his ''Epilogue to
Y 2
ibtPAAm of Mi?/' wbu^h w«6 brought forwi^n} ii^ n^n ^jf
jp^ tmm (be Mblic^^JtioQ of ^^em ppemii m tbe Yij^m^f-
Mvjtn*^ y#t peri^^pg more thaa.eith^r, fropuhis {ampiis '^ 0^
tp die Swedes/' which W49 published ia 1786,. For the$^,#^^Q^
h^ received m recopip^Qse of the.mpst gri^tifyic^ d^scriptipin in
^19 election upon 19Ui Oct. 1786, to be ope of th£ eighte^ oiu^
^Wfdish AcaaeoQiy, ;3ifter the death of C. T. Sche0er# C<3tl,^y»d^^
iof State. Upon the 2d Dec. of the same yaar, hp delper^:^i^
/^ Introductpiy Piscovrse/' of which bis distiag^ishe<i pre^do^W"
|i9r formed the theme. . b^Ti
Qewborg's connexion with the Kipg and the ^9j>i|tal,;j4o^
^c%m9 more and more intimate^ He wiui chos^p Pcir^
$45pretary by his Majesty on the 3Ut May, 1787; he J^
Already be^ appointed to the care of the Pnvy JPusse-t Hfr^ftp
XBQreover second in the management pf the Spect^J^ierpe^. |f
^gblic Aipusements, and he was pamed a Member of the Q^f^f^
lal Board of Customs on I7th Oct. 1787,
.. After this period, the life of Clewberg could no longer be ^f
ftlplusively devoted to the pursuit of letters or science a^ it p;;fp
yiou^ly bftd beep, but was aiyided between tbe$e and theUboury
V)f ^bj^c office. And this crisis in his history was stamped bj
% disdpguished mark of the Royal regard for his merits^ by h^
i^evatiop to the rank of nobility on the 28th April, 1789. After
this event he was introduced to Court on the 9th Nov. of t^
|i^9pe year, under the No. 2 153, and with the name of Edelcrapi^
That these new honours and duties did not induce him to underr
Jr^ue or abandon the cause of science or literature, we need
}iardly mention. But it would be an omission not to state tbj^
lit this time, though as yet he had had no means of accumulating
iPQoey, yet such was his zeal for the cause of philosophy, th^
he now presented to the Academy of Abo a collection of bool^i^
tbr which a letter of the Academic Consistorium of 25ttf Sepjt,
1788, signed by Calonius, Porthan, and many others, conveys
their grateful acknowledgments.
V During the years 1790 and 1791, the cQuntry of Edelcrantz
ffp^ deprived of his presence ; in which time it was not the lo^^
Xl^ediate theatre of his exertions, but he laboured with the sapi^
]Be%l abroad in her service. He was then, at the special reij^e^t
^iQu^tavus, occupied in a journey through England and Fr^^pc^
^r^j^tipg which unfortunately no authentic details have be^f
j^ recovered.
, We may fix on the year 1793 as that in which the pecupi^^
t's^mstaAces of Edelcrant:^ were fir^t established upon a ^9ffi
Eiend and certain footipg, by his obtaining, as Secretary fo..^'
ing, 11 00 rix dollars from the privy purse, and from the fup
4|4jto8. theatre. .Op the IstNpv. ofthesapjeyeaifwap.per&rnpe^
fas opera of " Alcides's Entrance into the World," whicn was
iJ^ep ftewly compo^d by hi?it .Atji^s .tiwe^^o, ..the title of
tJrfififeefldr of SCfite was bestowed on Hirii. 0& tV-M^^^W*,^
ttS^fj,; fee obtained a seat and a voice in the Cdiirt 6f Cfiaiic^Tyi;
^mA^ oil the 24th of the same month, he was m&de ^e'ep.er 6iwii
^jtei^rd^ of the Royal Order of Gustavus. *
'^ H is A distinguishing characteristic of the life of Ed^lcr&nta^
iirat' his biographer's direction needs only to'be directed in 4
TO^jtrffat manner to the careful exposition of its earlier zxsSk
ifaitiitbty history ; for his merits soon develope themselves toad
"lil5eW;i and ass\ime an importance, by which the actions of iUe
individual pervade, arid are inseparably blended with, the pro-
^eissjof his country, and the advancement of bis age.
P^Jh whatever quarter of the world a discovery of magnitude oc
mflitywas made, it was the care of Edelcrantz inamediately to
^SkoAt^T it to Sweden \ arid so felicitous were his exertions iH
fiiis ii^eful career, that he was often able to introduce the invent
fibii to his countrymen coupled with a signal improvement of his
own. Thus it happened with the mechanical system of tli^
^regrkph; a system which, from the method of Chappc> waa
rfiV^oped by the Swede into a perfect language of signs. 14
fh^ ye^r i794,his investigation on this subject was commenced;
4hd By the month of S^ovember, he was able to promuI«-
git^ bis improvements on a method so peculiar, that his tel<$'-
^^\^ immediately received the name of Edelcrantz's of i&e
Swedish. By the help often moveable tables, he succeeded ia
]Jrci(fucing 2024 varieties of figure, each of which could be dis^
denied at the distance of Z^ Swedish miles."*^ His treatise bd
the Telegraph, which was pubUshed in 1796, has been trarisiatecl
Ib'to in^ny languages, and his invention received a prize pieilal
from the Society of Arts, Agriculture, and Commerce, in Londoti;
lix the Russian war of 1808, this Telegraph was eiri]Jlqyed m li
fong chain of observations, consisting of 43 different statiosl^
between Landsort arid Gefle ; and a particular corps was placm
riiid^r his own superiritendence, and disciplined b^'nimsenintlLe
new system of telegraphic tactics.
In il97 the scientific merits of Edelcrantz, now sufficiently
ilirell known and appreciated, procured for him a seat, in iKe
Koyal Academy, ancf in the year immediately following, he WSMi
i^ised to the honour of Preses of that body. When he f ettrM*
from the situation of Preses, which he did on the same-yea^itf
his election, he chose for the subject of his discottfse,^^^ un^iSt^
tmttty^ cfoat knowkd^e respecting eketficrty, and, in pm^tm'kjkH',
¥eipecttng its poicer of penetrating the substdfice itself t>f b6Mei;
an instrociive essay, vniich, we regret to say, &«nev«v^4ibU8ila&
The '£s#s^ stibinitMd by hfod tO' th<e e#ittcisi!n»^ of «k^ .4k$iidMI#
were ^11 of them sudB A^ h^d for tfteir riiaitl defect th^ ap|#fe*'
^db pf scientific. principle to some purpose oi praeti^slr utiSli^
■'-'»•«.-•• . • V . . J • ' ili' ■
' * A Swtdish mile it tquivalent to about 6f Ed^Mi milos. ^
GjKig^^jiiie puipose of wiiioh waa to aacertaia ihe ^laattetl;]^^
t&|>otiv uiateam enginea;* oti an ecomnucal Meiiod lof hUhtgl
AftOtrtmenfsi f ana Stove for driving Grain ; ofi the Bleachi^tf?.
hinen f» Holland; which laat treatise was publtafafed ^in i^
EQoiiOfnical Annals of the Royal Academy of Scieqcea^lSOTi^'mr
Vi2. The description of an Air-pump, into the 9HniteAii^li9jiea\
Sd^crantz introduced the improvement of employ iogj-m^oiii^.
tfi act as a piston to rarify the air, was inserted in th^ Jofiroatei^
IJiTiohoboni Delametherie, and many others printed iiiijPofdqgte>
Countries. ■ • .< •/•^'tnavsa
; In^ the year 1800, he was honoured by being appoiinbedcQnlriQft
^ Knights of the Order of the Polar Star. • jts jfulsb
In the following year, once more at the special fo<|iiaeal^C
Ciustavus, conveyed in a royal mandate given at ArhQ^a<<)lia£e
t8tb Dec. 1801, Edelcrantz undertook a scientific miasionpirf
il^hich the purpose was the same with that which we l^il^
already mentioned, but in prosecuting which, his route' waAi Ml
ibis Qicoasion discretionary. He accordingly travelled thniti^
GeiiAany, Holland, France, and England. The leading objecM
h( this loorney were to procure information respecting the.IwtO
inode of distilliii^ spirits from grain, especially as Jt waa'flrae^
tised in Scotland ;:|: the most advantageous system of fundiii^
the debts of the State ; the comparative merits of the foreigit
PjroGesses forthe manufacture of iron with those of Sweden ;8cc«
ThejBe were the main objects of his expedition ; but while bim
al;tention was of course chiefly occupied with them, a mind likfe
JMs found time and opportunity in sundry foreign places to mate
knprovements upon the principle or mechanism of varibus^
ipikstjrnmentsand apparatus. Thus, in Berlin, he invented a.newi
and more perfect construction of Papin's Digester ; in Parisi^i^
l^fiariiigTmeasure (Slitningsmatare) ; § and there also aH iamrover.
fMNart jupon Argand's lamp ; and in England, a safety valve fyt.
9t^Ui engines, &c. '
The conclusion of this journey of Edelcrantz brought home 4
CJ^I^arvedt of improvements in art, of discoveries in science/of
a^diiprc^ion in agriculture and manufactures, and of observi^
^pns. ^nj^ining the seed and embryo of many more ioventioM?
' • XongU V^. Acad. Handl. 1809, p. 1«8. ^.^
V*t X.'T.- A, Band!. 1812, p. «4, and 169. '
v<«i|;'Tli^^eMdtof Eddctantz^B invodgaAioDB on Uih aubjeet was to istrodnoe ihe dakJ
t^ JllfPlHi^ila SY^dcB. We danot knew whether tfaia imptovemtaHi was or mit nor ik
Upt camffi wrm in diamins and deacriptiaBs, but cert^udy the doEqAmi and Vfwl flAty;
ml i&m'irGQ^<^ hiavd been to take over a few of that numerous bo^, the practical dfa^
tiPcn or smng^en of the hills and glens of Soothoid, who have long been famous fbr
^uiBTi{qed«xi»|l^ceof^hairiIUcH r :j «
V Jpiepfiitoose of which curious Instrument would ^^eem^ lif to f»to»lifcj^hft)f>rwiigth>
ofab piJac^ of oohesioB among the fibres of vacious boding; mMtt^ loMblfv As- tbgf^
ni^^^^4)MffiPumofforc9iioc8fs^ ovcapeoine UfMi^mffml^^ihmfkfJif^Aa^^
Trim ^imiust jrfi "^o agohnw
(kc«JdMi»«lied il new piiocif^leof p!rii!e%ital^alilil|^/ $[ad^
l^it^ie finct ^itb which he saw whether its tMtniii^tftKM would/
^%thi teaipabilitiea of his native eoiintrf ^ From Bfi^lltid} tn«^
eK^cuil iwitmer^ he carried offF a fond of iitipoitant <mdti9!^KfA4
uoqO ifiaaafaetmre^y and remarks :on efaeniical processes edn^
]m^tbd>«ridK ti)(e arts, which are there kept secret^ Hiid frotiii
0§fein^xwh|eh^ ' ^i^ thing useful could be extracted 61* i^amedF
dWtf^oidy^by let person of the keenest acuteness. II16 acdoiilt^
of!^a(<^a«riJii^;> which was communicated to his Majesty/ hfSfr
nevertheless been withheld from the public* The asricUtlilmt
dnplomiiittiiicdpiie whidi he carried home to Sweden have bdeu
delineated^ and may be seen in the Annala of the Academy ^
jk«N^#Qfe;^ 1813. ^ *
dckuiii6;0Mir6e <>f the travels we are just oonsidering^EdelonBHifri
IbrQied^anyiglcqctaintanees with the most learned and inustribtiii
^rff^cfc"' country through which he passed; and all the^eM
«Mdnit«itiM by a constant intercpurse of corres]pQndeBe« till hi)i
il^hui Amongst others, we may mention as those wilhwhodi
ti4^ttius :formea connexion in Germany^ the celebrated Tha^i^
OMtitiPQdeville, von Soden^ 8cc. ; in France, Lacepede^ Ouytdft
da^^Movveatty ^'^^^ Lasterie, Fran9ois de Neufchafeau; iti
^^andy Sir John ^nclair/ Arthur Young, Sir Humphry Davyj;
fcgi.-i.: v ■ " : ""'^
*o!rhe general result of this journey appears to have been,- tHC^
^all degree, to cherish and develope that acquaintance* "Vmli
die ' important science ^ of * political economy, which hoitoU^tttJli
jKstinguished Edelcrantz, and which gave a chara^ti^r of ^jWf
giftdoiolidity to all the views he suggested, and to every rn^ti^^
be proposed, at the same time that it secured.for theitora\U6idfii§
adaptation to the necessities of practical comtnerce,''atid'a Wh^^
some dislike of all unnecess^ary shackles and restraints'upfd^'^^A
itifiefo^urse of trade. The time, however, was not yet ^sln^^
when he had it in his power to devote himself excluiliv(Bly*td^^^
ftLVOttriie pursuit. *f * 1 .
^< There seems to be no more remarkable feature inthe diar^^
M'/of BdelcrantK than the perfect versatility of taleht ^{(#fiif
possessed, and which enabled him equally tofathotn^tKe' ^dej^Btf
of an abstruse science, or to shine among th^ first of ;tbe vptar*
ries of the fine arts, 6r of the muses. It w^3 hiJ^^.e'i^^iSle^
U|i|t. l^ttjsr department which first gained him tlie pubbft^jicmfid
wa^xoyal favour, and accordingly we nowfind that^ys'ttieiRllSB flu^
aia|^r<)f.acieti<^ ha^ detached him i^p^n.tSi^.^^e;;^)^
* Th« manuscript of tbflie loteKfttb^ tmvds in Gcrnttiif, HtiUifl,-'
dl«l9ite<»ite« M^of ISH'doKky written folio pages. Wenit7*!>eidV#^£
^t-Mrofl»lilMld&,^«deida«edi^Mfl^ mudi credit iip(m£d^k»tti^^nd^^
gak^iaif^4a^\i4ikfmt$mf»f^^ mtfyti be pt^Iiytied iun#|; ~
WTicii^ of the AiUiiOE.
dM-^ TWii»iiiiilriirinii1i]t n/'Hiiim JfilfijjiMrjj ' rlUttr
itltttoedife»clM»ge' tmcit 19)0. Oil' the SHI Mfy, 186&, te trsT
ifMNAtw^ SspMnieiidaiif to Ae Roytil M t»Minfl» and pdipeintf:
i^&ttt of Uie Aeademy ibr the Ctrkrrfttkm of €hie fiMnu .AeitR;
Tlit^ «ed wtcfa ndndi ll& laiboiaired for the iinprareiiiieiit cif titttf^
Aead«nqr >* fltt]^ teiiifted by the mattf Dnfcotmes irMdb^^bd:
tfMipotfed, M W€fl Oft olber o^scastoiMi as alto en ther fei^fbfll.^
Staffs beUL bj^ iSte Society. And H was owmg^ta hk Msrtloii^iiit
A« IMtft of 1809, tbfti tlie peirskms aiid i^Ianea gt&ntdii tdb
ftrtkidr wero enfor^ild, anid that tweke appointments (xyftfftidH
ooc»4bkd^ ccmpoain^ a ftmt elailay were placed ott n UaiidseifiO^
fodin^ titeto Ibe atbor§> were attecbed to the State Mr tire^oi^.
fiert sffid €»coi«ageifletie of otiide*t«. H
The number and variety of Acildemies of wfaieh he WM inMfe ^
iiottibor^ acMMk bi«imiid tatites) and tmrstntHy and ffio g;eiMrah
•ote^mf itt wWeh howa^lidd. In 18^^ he waa choaen on odB^
fiory niMyber in tbe^ Maihmia^eat Section of f!her ROyut lAoiO
denqF of 1^ Mffiffary Seiettee^. He had ah'eady beeff eleesMl
OM of Hhft Aoademy oI'MtMic^ In 1808^ he beeame a Montbifc
of the Itoyal Aoadotav of Literary Hmtory and AntiO[mtie& i 'on
Whick \M»t oooaai<»& hki '* Introduetory iUiaeoime ^ b wcArlllf
of ]»aitfeiikr attention.* :!
. . Ner nunil we here ^mi^ to mention a striking proof of ifia
wwearied regard with which Edelcrantz examined and weif^iei^
tS Ae fairtotti intere:$la of the acience^ and the arts, in the |dair
#fafeb ho oifbntitliedf to the Royal Aeademy of Sciences for lAA
^RitaMiiahttient of aa Institattoii for Teobnological Ednoatiotfc
"fltia is a o»bjieot aarety of the most e^ttcnsiVe intetesty aiidof the
^^^stA iiQAft^tanoe; bot hew few of those who havtd onoo
Ihemsielvos^ oyereomo the tfiSienfties that obstruct the access td
£enoe ate able to look back upon them> and deign to^ stndyfor
fit lemc^ali that fWlure tyros may n'6 longer labocnr as their
|]ifed<ee8eor» have done. Both the mode in which he pjropt^d^
^^i^mM^ tfte idystaft of inalnieti^dn, andtlte oersoit whom he
isecommended as qualified to fill the situation or Instrttctor, wenr
ifMttcitly Aimmsk fry the Academy.
„.>. JBut seine aoeieties ti which Edefcrant^ wa? a member ofitofi
^qm^d a^ nsof e constant attendance and exertion on hia parf,
,^fM erfeft those tt4icb we have enmnerated. Thu^ he mA at
illi^Etieoi periods been member of two BuiMh^ Committees t
jC^wmatttii^ theCotaalittee for r^gufeting the Mmtt ; and mom-
fo^wnr hed Ae sttpeytntendence or the pnayment Of the sahirii^
e<fej»w<irt ^M^ that e&rtablrshment. Re wae President of &e
b'f« Bes^te tlie Aeadcsnieft and Sodetieswe have 1u9t mentioned, Eddcnuitz vis ft
jiiisini Tiacyiy fltttoiitiae Mrt^^r ia €ii$ laiitfiMf $ He ear cA^Mtf <«r«e^ Ail %%
%iW ik Ma f «« «!# l0^M!lMi> d^^
'<'nl.QHDr$ JR^BIIIiy^ JBMMMr flFVw JllMMI<V ASiIKUtQiCy SOCrCn
'hM^^i?t**iH "^^ 4>^tiifrffs ftiLoBdoB fi of tbe ggfi^ii ftalkas i
Cbmitttt^e ibr tile lA^proTetfent of the l^iSitmfVidtiM&f^S'W
BfattufedSit* ; for the EstaWfehment bf a ¥md fcr CTW'P^a
gfrnn-^; dff the litvestrgdtfon^Cotnmittee ofi the rmpf(fv^t)i#rst^^
tte^rdoesMs ftt mtotrfautttrfffg: SAftpetre ; he Wa% m^iirikrt9f
fiH^iQtmmiittee foit incurring into die Cortiposrtioti of fire-
redkitifacc. He had, m additroit to all this, been Chairfflsfn'of
ib&' ScdttemMfisoractce Sstablrsiiment sitice the year 1805;^ mS
to Hltift idslfldblistiment &€» ga^^sfnew constitution; possessing' tfri^
Aclalhtadiefttil]tge of iMdevin^ it more useful and efficietit as eitf
iibtthitibib. ^t the setme time that its rereiiue beCEime m6re lut^-*'
tmr^dffi^mfaitij^f thud (^ombitidng sind mutu^tfy adranciifg
i^mii^f^ ti^t hdl mfbertc^ seeded esseMirily conflictb^ ' ' '
"r^etjca! talents sudi d& his are rare in st man of It^tteek, yet
gbfiaJSifi kitmm' and refied on was his capacity for conducting tbd
AneBB^e ^pattm^nt of the state, that in 1808 he receive* i^
saitatidn nader the go^remment ^ the office of Chancellor of tfi^
CkaMl A» a farther mark of fa^vonr, oh t*e'24th April of t!h«:
tett^ }iear, tie vras contplimented witti the distinguished hcmocft
o€ism^m^e Commander of the Royal Order of the Pblaf^tttr;
nrUuring, the- revolutions fti politics which charactertsetf tfl^
If Iteie of this period, it wasf the constant endeavour of Edelcraasti
Keenly to scrutinize, and fairly ta weigh, the merits of ev^^iV y/
Bfbpcysal for & c&atige, ctnd ne:3ni to explain faliy the trtie cemsie-^
^cwn^es to i^hich it would lead, &nd so possess hid coucftrym^tt
tiilfe t. wett-founded opinion of what shouH be warrstfltslbf^
hib^a^d to gaiii these restilts. This wds the motivi^ whi^dtt
^a^xts^ed him to take the share he did in public busides^ In 1§0#^
ntthe Biet of which year he was Fi^esident, as well ^s^ at tlld^l
6f ISIG, 1812, 1815, 1817, and 1818, in the last three of WMdi
lie was always si member of the Coiidcitutionat Committee^ ^
' -^ After the revolution which took place in the g6^efiimeisf, bf
«fefch the ptesent Kinjg of Sweden, then Crown Prince, tw*
^fau^ed at t^e head of affairs, When Bernaddtte con^eretdtM
&$ rm&trtutioa df $ii Academy of Agriculture would mMe^^
eondttc^ to the advancement of the varidt^ arts com^ected Wtm
the rural economy of the kingdom, Edelcrantaf reoeived a i^ttl't
ttifi^fiidn requesting his attendance &nd advice at its orgafiidfiuori.
Tb€? prefcise detaib of what he then Suggested e^tindtt n(w6l^
jEBSdertkined, but the general result of bis acti'^lty iftnd sijipefiit'
tefirfenee was immediately attended with the bap^^st '^i^^.
Jttar became' the Director bf the Institution immediftte!^ M^^
Smdtii6U m \9\2, And by the principles on which %e^^aYiglAl
jm Intern of investigation and research, he was kbfe iOl^&assS0^
fiiP^%^S^}^^ pQWerpf accurate j^et extensive ohseriy,ati^;ftatfd
"*^ try*, incJi as to inate its efficiency ^ per&et af thecJof ^"^
frttdfflitted or Te(5[mred. The proofs of thfs af^j^tM^
|lfei| W tft0 Anna^ls of ^0 Roval Academy qjf*|jgfic4l^^^
9» Jg^ywp4flkIt«M^fc^ 9/MmwJSM^m»iA [fiifitj
IifolDiig Al tibe cinrmpondeDCe wUeli be pereoaallv maioiaiiicii
itf/iBialtemipted irequeiicy, mih not fewer than ^ Bcdooo^ic
Soeielies; a fidd of occttpatioii surely sufficiently ample* jlii
kag^^e the whole of an ordinaiy man's attention^ tnii.whioh^ j«a
we ^ve already seen, was shared by Edeleraplz mALMhA
engiagemeiits that alike surprise us by tneir nmnliar^ tiMr divcfo
shy, and their importance. Yet, perhaps, the 'Stroi^Qiit j^ioef
q{ the sincerity with which all these pursuits en^i^edihia toimt^
may be confidently referred t^ the irrepressible ^anlMiro/lSth
which he labeured to stimulate the activity of the ma» of acisnc^
to awaken the energy of the philosophical agficabnesliati o^
aiilinui^ and the zealous alacrity which he evereTineedj^dtdisMb
ninate new facts, to promulgate discoyeries* to AbdishijpQtH
^idices of feeling or of habit, and to infuse life andTiealthointa
Ae-^Temotest ramifications of the arts of his country. rsCiau
Ote ike 24th April, 1813, Edelcrantz was named PnreideiitcQfi
^e Rcryal and National College of Commerce* In thtsn^fiog
kiB taients were admirably fitted to produce the happiesi<effBotil
dpon the most momentous interests of the country. Uedialaiif^
Sighed himself particularly on the occasion of the disciifiBioir
f^ve to ihe Baltic Company on 1st Nor, 1814; oo^tU
important point over which so many prejudices have bale^diiiyit
hsuiff in every country, of permitting the use of foreign vestels
tew ^iportation of Swedish wood, on the 12th May, 1817 ; sxk
ik^ roguiation relative to the use of native shipping in theexpetrti
aC'tihe commodities of the country (Product^placat), and it«|
abvomtion in favour of the vessels belonging to the Netherli^pMtl
aild Siovth America, on the 30th Aug. 1819, &c. On these greiT
mentions of state economy, Edelcrantz always advocated tim^
WoMien of unnecessary and ill-judged fetters and restrainla
wqn the freedom of commerce between nation and nation ; nov
did he hesitate actinjg on the dict&tes of conscientious dutyg
fidlf and freely>to lay before the government and the public^ hie
^H^aietos on these subjects, even when he stood alone, or in a
MMil iBiaxNrity of that Board of Commerce already mentioned^
of Which he was the official head* The merits of tne princifdea
^liberal intercourse which he then advocated, it is not the proi*
vukbe. of' his biographer to enlarge upon ; but even those who^
fliiyuclmese to question the soundness of the princi{des jdii
whidi 4ie acted, must confess that they never were supported fam
a /fffiutter^ weight of reason, or experience, or practical dtitait
Ihm wlhen ikey were urged by Edelcrantz. There are few 5^8cil
in whidi the. proposal of any change must necessarilviiWaki^
aacvdcki^Qly oondmctin^ and opposite interests ihannthoB^thaS
I(h^i doBunercial reguTati<ms ofeld standing; but to the Jhonoas
efilUelcnmtic with respect to his conduct eves her&,<biainfiii]ycn]|
has already received justice, and in proportion wj^jiBeipdiasa
^lUdrieitbaRKl tmy/ftmttbecixve^icnTe.aiidi^^
iDd'wiil tdke ye* higber gioimd in the jadgment of thexQaobfii
oiSooh wtere the nuoierous aad stroog fyroofsi wbioh EiklfxrantBf
lticeurpd:of the confidence and esteem of Ihe ^vecnmeniV ^mi^
Mcbiwa^the hoiionrable manner in which he aiWaye difichssgcii
AeJdnlitoit imposed upon him. On the 9th May, I81&, he i^
etsvedit^' lait public expression of. regard from the Kipg in»
leing dt0<rfU»d to ^ the rank of Baron, into which he was tntro«'
#Mted enitbe:27th Nov. 1816, under No. 356.
diUieiiiafapsetviees rendered by Baron £delcrantz to his comb*
t3Bjpim3adt>lor be found so much in separate writings or tveatiseay
80 itstbeiakitual.practice or execution of those plans whidiitwan
Ibeaibb^tto suggest, and which are embodied in the improvetfi
BHijtsiaiii in the general system of the country. They vese
sdmetfliiesihrought forward by himself as an individually bi»t noti
unfrequently their merits embraced interests too extensi:Y« smds
AfiDloeBtews; and spoke too plaiidy for themselves^ to aUow
0ovtoiai^tit.to hesitate a moment in adopting and suppoitin^
«eot^ as tiieir own. Some account of the greater musribcr >oi
thttnitoy, however, be found preserved in the Transaetiens qfi
vaoioiiB Swedish and foreign learned bodies; and not a.feWiO^
W'mioposcds^nd reports have been deposited in the archives q{
t^Chtaft.
alWe have already noticed the improvements made by him om
flie organisation of the Telegraph, so great as to procure far. tto
Heme >in8trument the name of Edelcrantz's ; besides thisr ^tirtr
principal mechanical inventions of his are as follow : a Staaot
wiyne of a simpler construction than those formerly emp^jyttdc
Ibsinaehinewas applied to numerous purposes; aainniBbrte
jMiiibp off water; to tne Crown Distillery in the capital; iiarp^op
stale the operations for excavating Telje's Canal, &e. rWjrIbiili;
niew to a construction of this engine on a plan still more<timpti0
Ikd Mian this, he has left behind him two aifferentanielibratiQirifc
ef structure, of one of which there is now a model. 'The. uplift
invention we shall notice is his new Drying Stove .for aU.
of Graia, which he brought forward in 1812, andwhioh,']
SEt once fpr him the unanimous approbation of the R6]^£(W&e
demy, of Sciences, and of the Academy of Asrietiltiireis iciiti \m
eeostrocted so as to give the power of correcSy regulatingrliMr
temperature in such a mannar that the gemrinating pWKsivf^m.
ftpeA'^may be preserved uniaipaired; while at dte ^BLonfe .ituiiw
tneii^t can, when requiied, be raised as high as 194P,iori9ybiQv«
Aat point, so as completely to destroy:tbe weevib a^jAiaoMcb
sigttU'beiieitKSQiiferreab^ Edelcrantz on the m^uftlclfetfflBS ol
Soilddai ibas^tUe uttrodttetion among them ofaSpinni^HifcbtiKa
eKtsevfely^isiMilaiiin prinnipl^ and utility to thefamouacEnbUidt
^neohanisiii,; dml secret of wfaich is guarded by^ thflBtdiHltffi^iii
«Si JH(^i^iitat Smoch of Huron S^etmei. ^^^,
' Aarongrte medtftmcal ajipaftfds invented Ry WefemntS^
ttte prditaotion of experiment in mechanical phrlti^ophy, iMs^Ni
the imprdTed Air Pn(np which we hare already mentibrted, his
^aS left behind him a description of a new coflstriactidft Bf
Fapin'a Ui^ester, to which we have briefly adverted in a foilMf
Cart of this narrative, as having been made by birtt at BistHti*.
In this new form the lid ia fiseamore tightly than c4n be-dywt
eifter hy means of a screw or of a leather cohering, the eM^(^
city of the vapour is accurately measured, and [he whole' 11^
required may be appTied by a common spirit lamp. Of th
other r^cs of the practical applications Of principle, &ttsMmtM
required may be appTied by a common spirit lamp. Otxbe
other r^cs of the practical applications Of principle, &ttsMmtm
fey bis genias, we may mention the account of a cmrous sfeStft
lamp, in which the oil is placed in equilibriflirt rfitli a ^ii^S
quantity of mercury; — apiece of mechanism whicfi, ope'rtdWi
t)v the compression and expansion of aerial or gaseous b*dt(^''S
able to produce a greater degree of Artificial cold thAttB.Oy'™^
ibethod con furnish ; — an Areometer, on a more minute ^Ca^
and capable of more nice and accurate adjastment tfaaft thdsi
formerly in use ; and a valuable apparatus for the mairttenlitietf
of a determinate and equal temperature, during the protieS^fl?
chemically investigating a snbstance under the action of Jtttetl^
keat. Many of these subjects still occupied his mind as lift IW"
on his last sick bed, and it was from it that he dictated some' ot
those his valuable views regarding science and eyperirbBn^
which form his last bequest, and which ought to preserve long
in his country a fond remembrance of him who has left HO
femity behind him to emulate hia fame, or enjoy his title.
EiJe'Icrantz died at Stockholm on the IStli of March, ISSll
He was never married, and his name must be co-existent wrtfc
bis own individual reputation. But that nam? is snrdly mad«
toore lasting by the merits of him who adorned it, than it could
have been by his having his loss bewailed by the fairest numb'^t
if an affectionate offspring. A man like him must long aurvivfi
id the dearest recollections of his countrymen, associated hi
)%eir minds with those comforts which it was his constant object
to cherish and promote, and with those studies and pursuits i^
which if must be the object of the best among them to emulate
&im : a foundation for a name, surely not less enviable' than it is
lasting.
He was a Hian of delicate constitntJon, and the age of 67, at
which he died, was a period oflife fully as advanced as his frame
seemed fo promise. Temperance and regularity in al! his habits,
a tranquillify Of mind, and a cheerfulness of dispositloii Ib'ng
preserved tit him an uninterrupted period of health whicft he
spent in unwearied activity. The debilitating (Kaease (HjenfiE-
tnria) wliich carried him off, did not make its appearance* oriflf
the last year of his life. Even wfthin the very arms aa'dl
embrace of death itself, the mind of Edelcranti i'et6rtded-''i(fc
'¥^.
PT^
|iM«l^irU of r/eseajTfb ite vooited «r(]^oart mdiit^.oov
, i^nei^Qs calmly to stwdy the (dissolution o{ tjhe bodj
/tp^ extinction of the vital principle. It is on ih^ yeraol)^
Qfi/^vho w^ an qye-witness of the melancholy vet interesting
f^e^ that it is related that Edelcrantz;^ with the utniQ^
..w, ^P^*^? S?^ precision, watched ike ebbing of the ^ide-of Tifei
lIp^^^ifA^iixin^ itfi progress, compared with me lapse of the pas^
swginojpi^ents, foreknew and predicted the crisis of the inslanj^
j|ggIl,.^f|^ l^ould close.— rit arrived, and Edelcrantz was no morel
f^jsi m^ ^ave possessed a capacity for exertion equal tp thaf;
.j^jyiani^^ His information was alike remarkable for it|
taj^y ^nd for its extent. His judgment was distinguished bv
iijf ^d ger^picax^ity, — his zeal in the cause of science ang
LTjIj^ waa' unnpunded ; and these quaUties gpe to him f.
W;^r'pjf cl^cgrly expounding and eloquently enforcing his views^
'f^ whenever he brovight forward any of his numerous plan^
^ _ i^ral benefit and practical utility, was sure to pro4uc? !|i
j^^.th^ piost agreeably persuasive powers of oratory*
^ . in }jid private life his manners were most retired aif^ unobr
bu^iye, yet such as ever commanded respect, and sustam<@d tb^
dignity of his character. His house was ever hospitable, vdth*
b^ ejXbibiting profusion ; and his conversation was always easy
fM ^priffhtly^ yet never uninstructive. The company which' h^
fiKith^rea round him, without being too rigorously exclusive^ was
Pways composed of those only wno couUl fully appreciat(^ ana
f RJ^y ^^ intellectual and scientific topics about which he wai
ind of holding converse. Such a general conver^ation-parly
WHf held by him at least once each week daring his reside^c^ in
fh^. capital. When the weather was fine, he used to make j^
jpfactice of going from the city or from the cabinet to the tranf
gpiJUty of his countiy-seat Skugga, situated in the Royal peej
jPark, and which be enjoyed as a gift from the King, where h|
looked out upon those buildings^ plantations, and parks, arpuii|^
him, which had been all planned and designed by himself. ' In
this place, however, the only recreation sought by his active and
intelligent mind was a mere change of subject upon which to
occupy it, a variety in the kind of employment which was to
^ngage hi«j hours. ' ;
X^ven an imperfect delineation of the character, occupatibni,
habits, and discoveries of Baron A. N. Edelcrantz, is more than
the author of this little biography aspires to. His object Has
been to gather a few detached incidents of the life of Edelcrantz,
\^m which the general utility of his proposals, the elevation iqf
's designs, and Ijie amiableness of his private character^ ma^
J felt py the reader better than the writer has been aWiw
jj^urtray them : just as the placing before an observer's 'ey6 ttfe
j^jjfearaji^pe a^^d diipepsions of some of the parts of aiiy. welf-
DFB^^Mf^ jitructure^ ectables him to rear up and place nefbre
SM tot: Trout <m'a new PmuHe H^drametbr. pliE%i
IW'^rftia Mffi accumcy flMt^ wbole wbich fttey xiCfMlbSi^^
form ; so the sketches here given may place it witliini "At 1^^^^
power to fill up the outline, and to form a som^htif jast ceKbip*
tibUbf the penetration, the depth, and the solidit)^ of jUdgoted^
of the uncommon versatili^ of talent, of the titMyifsn^bm^^fMi
suits that ever aimed at adding to the bappinenEl of ihe^i^piteilitl
and of the excellent aad warm heart that format the 6hfiM0lbi"lif
Edelerantz. ' ^.fl>>LbB0doi
T« those in whom this short notice of bid'Kfe sMB^ft^l^Mb^
desire of more intimate acquaintance widi tli^ 'ilA€ftSli^ Itftf
hist(^, we may recommend the masterly treatiMi^ ctf^Whl^h^MSf
is the theme, and which have been ahready publishl^ ^^^(ikfii
ing him. These are the Discourse over Baron A. N.Ed^f^Mit^J
already in the second edition, deUvered on the 7th April, l^Mf
by Oust. Lagerbjelke : the Eloge over President B^ciMtt%T
J; P. Billbei^, in the Transactions of the Royal Aead^'W%fa&
Mifituy Sciences for 1821 ; and the Discourse (yet uttmM€Ml$^
over Edelerantz in the Swedish Academy, 1^ C, P.«H4fr
within which society we fondly anticipate that bis itetliov4
long remain embalmed in the esteem and gratitude ef ^^MP
revere virtue, or love their country. '-'^H HBem
The translator's office here expires : nw will he* obtMie^iHiy
observations of his own upon the reader, before whom b§^Mil
endeavoured to place some of the merits and interestiiig' lifii^^
Edelerantz. He does not in the least doubt that his exeltt^^
in this sphere will be considered as well bestowed hy the tovisiy^
of science in this country, to whom the plain and simple miffhif ,
tive just closed cannot fail to prove a subject of agreeabfo sM^
ns^ul meditation. It is his only regret that at this distaaite<6*^
time from the death of Edelerantz, such a character as tkat^
the iUustrious Swede should not yet have found an abler peii,^'
do it the justice it deserves, either in an original treatise, or^inf'
a happier translation* ' -'^
Ahticle IL
> ui
'*»
lilffcrwUou of an Inttrumentfor ascertainmg the Speech Graviif
vO/f.me Urine in Diabetes and other Diseases. By W. PrMil>
, Jtf D, FRS,
' '- ' (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy.) ., vj
>vAia tbs specific gravity of the urine is a point of eonsiderdbUr
importance in many diseases of that secretion, and p^urticufa^''
in diabeloe affections, and as the common mfethod of determin-
ing ibie J^ Weighing, 8cc. is troublesome and tedious, I was
induced some time ago to have a small portable hydrometer
*>if*
i-
I
I
%ai3^ Dr. JPrmit^n 4 neur PortabU Hgdrmnet^, ^
Of Dfll^Gted for tbe purpose, of which the following ifi «r smiif
gMQT r^tcnption.
WMd^ aize. There
uiJITwPWgJ^rT^iftr m its con-
llppi^lii^li : ebu^ the scale; the
fl^l^ltw^:^ whipb are always
to be added to 1000, the assumed
«P«Ml^i^tQ<U Thus suppos-
k|g t}|i^ |pW9sl^r cut by the sur-
g(e,(4^(Dri». fluid be 30, this
io^l^Dli^ itiwt its. speq. gray.
«*iWISfeb.'*a*er being 1000,
v(Fi8N%r,re|iveseQt8 the other
•Wif»f#i^^eale. W (opposite
<Jb«»ii*6«;' other side) is the
MiilFf^r^hicb'the instrument
ffS^^d^^.j^ .pure water. H S
i^i^Jt^ilfky Mandard, is the
mean point about which healthy
iMJ^uft iwiTiflHy ranges. The
jllf^li of the scue marked
ifyifyft^s is that to which the
lAB^pent rises in diabetic
i^^tionsj &c.
c^TliMS by the aid of this little
i||9j|bniinent can every thing
<|m»ec!ted with the specific
Si^ty of the urine be easily
ermined in a few seconds to
%.4^^ee sufficiently accurate
for all practical purposes. The
scale is graduated for the mean
temperature of 60*^; but the
instrument may be used at all temperatures between 40® and
80° without any error of practical importance. When used, care
should be token to prevent the adhesion of air bubbles, and t*(*
scale should be depressed be/oio the point at which it tiatun^ly
stands in the fluid, in order that the instrument may rise to' that
Coint, The degree then cut (after it has stood a few seconds)
y the surface of the fluid as seen from below is the specific gra-
vity. Ayhen the operation is completed, the instrument is to be
dij^ped into common water, and wiped dry to prevent the eorlfo-
sipiJL. of the metallic part. : ...nit.
Hm, Gentlemen, your obedient humble «ervaiil^-i '«
•t. *.. ■
^i'Vir
j»j9nf.
Article IIL ^
^ Summary View of the Aiomic Theory flfifior^mjh the Jhfpp^
thesis adopted ly M. iBerzelius. By J« G« CbiXar^a, FRp*
(GMttmiMdyroiii p. 193.)
^^ , It is obviously necvessaiy for Hm yurpaaey ifcafo ingMlinib*-
is^npe should be fi^ed upon^ the w^igot of wbotefttoviaajBBe
assumed as unity ; Bfdton chose h.ydr9g«n 43¥;faNi jmityoa0itl|i»
^^suDSitance of which the smallest weigihts eatet i«i0 ^Milwwlifprc
i^ lias been^ followed by Davvy Bt^nAep Hcity^ &l»iiyM^ sifl
Various other writers; whilst Wot^pyth Th^mimp. (niwf iT1|HM
lius adopt oxygen as their lowest iMuJokbe^ ^the t gwbsiiitoiBr Amig
'bf^l otners most uniyersally present in iaoipgMft^JftocUcsoaitibi
the scale of chemical equivalents Pr.WoUM^b^teickffi^^
'as 10> Thomson considers it as l^aod Bemdimm IQQim it ismi
sraaH consequence which atom bi^ sielAet^d f^r tjm .^wBpeaMfimt
what relative value be assigned to it, whether 1, iO^ or 100; but
whichever be chosen, the weights of the 9tom8 of all oiher
bodies must be expressed in some function of fSaat ^tat.
The weight of the atom of any body is ^isily didt^iwi^td^if
we know correctly the composition of one ojr joorQ of thifiiQpp9bM>
nations it is capable of forming with any other bady> the.iPfiiiii^
of whcTse atom has been previously ascertained^ .$,\]^)iti|^ffor
•instance, combines with oxygen in several pro|MortiaQft.;, i|i|<t|p#
Ibwest^ 100 parts of sulphur take 50 of oxygen; in the jp^qlf^
100 ; and in the third, 150 ;'"' num})ers which are in the J^ti<»^ of
'I,2> 9; we may, therefore^ assume that in the differei^ipip^W
an atom of sulphur is united successively to 1, 2, and 3 atoois of
oxygen, amd tne supposition is supported by variMft considera-
tions of the other cpmbinations, pf sujjphur^ as, for instaaoe,
those of the sulphuroo^ and sulphuric aeids* The lowest com)-
pound, therefore, may be considered as contaisuiig an atom of
each element, and if we call that Qf oxygen 8, we find k^i^ rfm^
pidjbroportioh that that of the atom of sulphur is Ifi.f. . .
^; This Example is sufficient tp show the joaethod to l^j^^dofs^ed.
In Similar researches^ an^iti^ evident that wbea the w«ifldit4)C
tBp'atoni of an^ one body is i^^certain^d, . it onay be* em^oy«A
ifbrMie|;ermining that of other bodies. . , w,•
*'^'*t&e results of ^ mineral analysis ipaay be caIciU4M:9d oaitiHl>
tX^id thepir^, and the . inevitable ^^im erJWs of «qpepMil|r
^idtrfedtedlby its means. ,,...,...'«',
* IThere is ^.fouzih compound fonned of an atPiXLof. flBl|^hiOoiMMf4 United to m
Ml €f sidphi^iic add, and containing 100 sulphur + |125 px^^gjett. . ,Itt atomic odin*
pontion may W stated aajusttnentioncd, of, as consisting of fi atoms sulphur + 5 atoms
oxygen. Itis iiot necessary to say iiwmaboat it in this place.
^ I adopt Ai-niimjbers given by Bxande and Phillips, in which hydrogen is taken aa
Swpoae.we hitye. feond that a sulphiiret.of lead is com*
posed of
Lead 86
Suipiwr.. .-.*••. ••• 14
100
•UijHera.ft oettaia number of atoms of lead, whose total weight is
dSOif^veiB •combined with a certain number of atoms of sulphur,
g#he«e.iv6ight is 14. ' If, therefore, we divide 86 by the number
: iwiftiisntittt^ the weight of the atom of lead (whicn we find in
tAm «jta4)lte ifi 104), and 14 by that of the atom of sulphur, (16),
—IHlil'iilniwg the decimal point in both cases, we find that the
;|K|ind>aiiiid eon^ns 82 atoms of lead and 87 atoms of sulphur,
ifApoiDefs ^ich are very neai ly equal. Hence we conclude that
fti|gr<nmieralis composed of 1 atom oflead and 1 atom of sulphur ;
')9ai iS we., calculate the results which our analysis ought to give
'■n.Ais^supposition, we find the numbers to be
i ',\ Lead 86*66
Sulphur 13-33
^h)^ accord very nearly with the results of the experiment.
*<<- A similar operation will enable us to find the atomic cqmpo-
4(iiioTl' of all other binary compounds, whose analysis is known«
"'^ 'Let Us now take au instance of some more complex compounds,
ittd calculate theim on the data and numbers assumed oy Ber«
dfelitis.*
^' Suppose an analysis of molybdate of lead (a ternary combinsh
ffon) had given.
Air- ' ^ Oxide of lead • 61
Molybdibacid 39
: " 100 . .
We find in the annexed table, that the quantity of oi^gen in
oxide oflead is 7*171 per cent, and that in molybdicacia 33*45;
ernisequently 61 of the former contain 4*37 of oxygen, and 39 of
(»i€ latter 13^04; but 4-37 : 1304 :: l : 3 ; or the oxygen of
llie acid is three times that of the base ; but we observe in th^
tables that the base contains only 2 atoms of oxygen, whilst phe
noid contains 3 ; therefore to preserve the ratio of 1 : 3, there
lintst be 2 atoms of acid to 1 or base. The results of the analysia
calculated on these data give
,. . Oxideoflead 6086 \
Molybdic acid 39-14 •
100*00
♦*• IV, ......
^ • bi,^4iUi09Eygf|) ».100. The fftwyylei jw tOmtnm Bwiliit) p. »•> H mi.
New StneSf vol. ix. z
"V . / . . vopper > • • « 34
/. ■ . Iron 30
• > " .
f ~ ^ /^ A
;, Sulphur 36
<.v. ^ ' :. .^ &J^r>iit2td
,rTte i.lQiii o£ oopp^r by the table i$ 79V3a;^t^ftg/Mp!b
W8-4S. Therefore —r- « 429 atoms of coppe#-^ A?r^^'*^<^
«Mm9 of ivaOf wd iggYTys* ^ 1789 atoms of Bulphor. ^dtonthaMi
uttqibers are nearly as 1, 1 and 4, and con«(equettt^i^ lifiBHiff
must be equally divided between the two metaii^ -sbl^^s to ibrm
bisttlphnretSy each eentahiing' I atom of metal^ and 2 atoms of
atxlpbur. If we calculate the composition of die pyrites accord-
ing to these numbers, we shall have
iistdphuret of copper ••••«•••!••«••• fi2*48^
' ^uiphuret of iron ••• ..^ ••••».•• «• 47*53
iop-00
Or if we take the elements separately,
Copper 34f?8
lion 39*8^
Sulphur 35-39
■till I *»>.^^
lOO-OO
which agreses very nearly with the exptrimentol results, and
confirms tjbeir accuracy.
Let us iiow take the analysis of a quaternary compounds a
variety of 'ei^rald^ which gave
. AlQPlS.
Silica. 68-64 or o?ygen 34$2 =* 8
Alumina 17-96 8-38 =« 2
g <f V Olueina. 13-40 4-J7 ^ I
ic-it^"'
100-00
By the tsiibles, we find the respective quantities of oxygett in
the three elements of the mineral as stated above. ]Now
may consider this compound (says M. BeuduilO' ta two
either as Consisting of one base (glucina) united to a double acid
(silica ana alumina), or as a double sak formed of t^ silicate of
alumina and silioate of glucina ; both views lead to die same
conclusion. Jsf. the first case the mineral is supposed to consist
o£ 2 Btbm» o£ add (composed of 4 atoms of sibta md I <«lbonl of
UpniM^ i^lrtiiid < mm <!< aio». «f< ^aoin». nM th^MiNswi
^
uiMiWI' ^d^ftridhlitt^ Hi^'^titptumSifr^ tfflWti>llt#iiWlpiiHli
by. B^rz^Hoft te»qfiim« that iM ftcid of «M ^ A^tslit^Mim^l^^
a mtekipi^ by it whole number of the acid o^ tlN^ dthtr^ Wbicll
iMy happejui iri dMfeifent wayd, bat in cotisequeCK^e of the ten^
deticy of glttcitia to form salQi with excess of aeid^ the ndidst
shupte mode iiir to eonsidei^ the sitioa as i^^oaBj dividdl between
die two baa^i^ whi<ih given us a quadrisihcate of gtiidiia a^ ii
blft^oate of alumina. The first of these salts eom&ius 4 Mema
draUdd it^l <ttom Of gittdnai forming 1 atom of qiiUdrit^cit^;
l|jl^eieoi)ii£^ 4 atoms ofmBen, a&d 2 iitoiBS of sftMiiM^
forming^S 'atbois of bisilicate^ because all the oxides contain the
sinidimuid>er of atoms of oxygen, "the oompoai^oa of tha
miot o J ;.QwdrisiUcate of alumina. • . . • 86*28
^o arrint: ^'^^^?^ • • #••«••*••..*♦♦ 13'73 . ,.
IT")'"
And on thd seoond,
C^a4nsificate of glucina • •'• . ^ 0*T
Bisilicate of alumina. •.•••.••..««.. 6^*^
T*
I(KMX)
wltich are 96itipoS6d of
Silica 33-99
<Hacki& I9*?2
Silica. 89-9#
AltMiiDA ]8 '36
Or,
100-00
Silioa «7-9i
dlMiaa. «.«.....•* * 13*3^
AIumiM 18^30
ioo-o6
' Let us take another ettm|its of • quAteidMy MoipOMd ik a
^Mi specimen of the mode oi reesoning adopted in these eafeim
imaons*
...Theualysis^f Boisite gi?ei^ ^ * -'^'^ '
A..' Ox*. . AMmh-^-' 4.^
l.-jK Silica • .. «^..«^««.4«..*» 43 » 21-fl2 « 3 ... . ». ,.
"^/^ •*''.* .' Jwoae •••*•(• #f#'»»« •*•»••♦ . ^Q^ ^Bb v*/*v>^S' * •'. -. t'i''^
; - . 100 '
^olttcdttg fyese l!h^ isiKca m«%t be so di^id^ between the im
tam^^mpM Ibhn a, slUbit^ (^ «I<rmiim eonnaaing 2 sMbieof
z2
'J
m , ; Mr. Chif4reH*s Smmf^ ^^^ ofr ./ LMat. •
B|Upft-4in4 2 ftt(HD,B-of aldminai aad a siltealeof limei in which *
ti^i|ij(i^^%f ihtt oxvg^ti in the Mid » equal k> Ihan4b A4i^
^Kferttie<xr$^gM hithe iirst salt i«^ tberefc^e; <}oubtetl»ia:]M.
S^<]^:tfee isecpiiil. Now lime contaiBe 3 atoms o^oayMd; 'im
Ilea 3at0al8 ; consequently to preserve the equalit^i^^>9ty^tti ,
m Ae two bodies, there must be 3 atoms^ of lime aad 2 aionii^ot
siftea. The total quantity of oigrgen in this silicate iii| 4h6r«(^^
12^ and that in the silicate of alumina 24; but intbat^otllKpiAira
there are only 6 atoms of oxygen ; therefore the salt^jnust cpn*^
tain 4 atoips of silicate of alumina. According to thifi^ we have
Silicate of alumina 59*47
Silicate of lime 40:53 « , r\
lOftOO
which are composed as follows : '
/Alumina. 3066
\Silioa 2*81
/time 26-13,
\gilica 14-40
Or,
Alumina • 30-66
Lime 26-13
Silica 43.21
f-
Hence if thesubstance operated oh was pure, a small portioQ
of lime has, in the analysis, been confounded with the alumina;'
As auotihu? -example, and one well worthy to follow the pre-
ceding, we. Will taEe the analysis of a variety of topaz. The
results gay e
Oxygen. Atoms.
f Alumina. 59 ^, 27*55 » 5
y' Silica. 34 «* 17:10 = 3
^"' ^ Huoricacid 7^ 5-09=1
' li(4 may consider this . mineral either . as a compound . forqaed
by the combination of a double acid (silica and fluoric acid)
with alumina; or as a double salt, consisting of one base
united tatwo different acids ; that is^ as a fluate, and a silicate
of alumina.' In this instance, the alumina naturally divides
itself into two portions, whose quantities of oxysen are 3 and 2.
The. firs^ por^on is combined with a quantity of silica^ contain-
ing 3' atoms of oxygen, and forms a siucate ; the second is coin*
billed )srith«^ quantity of fluorie acid, whese Oxygen is.L iience
it Cfllofevs that tj^e oxygen of the^ficstjudti^ iathej^s^rgiinjftfthe
^eoond in the ratio of 6 •: 3,. or 2 : 1. l4^ow duoric acidcpnti^tns
2 atoms of oxygen, and alumioaS^} die' bi-aluminpus fluate must,*
<iS28!l M. BerzeHus*$ Hypaikesis of the Atomic Theory.
1MVQfi»9^'be fbrmed of 4 fttomtf of alumiaii^aBa 3 ^atc^pr^f fiq^i
ii^ ar4^ W preserve Ibe mtio. of 2 : 1 ; ^e oi^ff&sth^ 1^^
Ilmefo|«y;i« 18; but an aton of silicate of al^0^a.([foi^Qa
fMQbf/^^atpwfi of oxygen,, beoause these two oxid^fha?e mm_
9cMQm9(; >ad aa the oxygen of the silicate must be double m^
o#iAtifltfitto» 4herQ nm$to be kithiaceaipomid 6 atoma of silic^i^,
-"^^/^^^"Sdjifate of alumina 68-70 ''^'-
^^^'^ ^^' fif^Aluminous fluate ' .,. 31-30 -^^
■Or, taking the elements separately,
/Silica 3300
\Alumina ' 36-72 "-'-''^
/Ffcioric acid.. ..,,..,.et.. ••••••. '7-61
f\ Alumina. .... r •••• r ..»..••«•.. # 23-67
lOO-OO
Or,
SUica 3300
Fluoric acid ••••••• k ••«•««•• .^« ••• ^ • 7/6JL
, Alumina. ••^« .r*.*.*.,...**...*..*. 59*39
«^ - : : ' V . 100-00 . ;
Qj^.on the first hypothesis, - / ^ . i ^o
-IV Fluo-sUicic acid. 40^^^ ^'
.^'** Alumina; ..• 69-39 ^'^'^^^
100-00
» ■ .
In his NoHveau Sjfstime MiniratogiquCf Berzelius fre<]^uently
calculates the results of the 'analyses of mineY^Is consisting of
metallic alloys, or sulphurets, from the quantity of oxygen
which each mgredient would take if reduced to proportionate
degrees of oxidation.
-^'Anore of antimoniated silver, analyzed by Kl^proth, gaV^ '
^^.. ■' Silver *....«7/7;»k rinW
o . Antimony., ....>Ji3.; t.o^rfTrr
rtind its atomic constitution is thus calculated by BerieKuL*** ,
3"Afcgdife' 77'! pfeiiaotoxygene ihdegr68/$».798i'«,lWicF
efitUntqnqiae 23^/pro)pcnib t!^;860/'lJSt H
pa« > -^ Mr,i:^ikhnU 9mutt^^ ¥if<0 ^ ". (Hit,
f*:
^aver. , * 2703
" "' ' ^nlitqotij- ,, ...■;, m 1813 *«>">.
Ami the tir«lQside of stiver contilhiB 8 kimsm; ^ QiOfpmf kai tiiki
of antimony 3, and no lower stlites of oiidation of dltber lAiBid
are mentioned: ' '^ l^^'^'
-2703 ': 200 t: 11 : fr69 '^ i ■ -^^^"^
W13 : 800 :: 23 : 4-27 "^ ' •/"
« • •
t, •
But 5>d9 : 4-27 is not in tl^e ratio of 2 : I ; to9b^iir#li^i^
and reduce the metals to a proportionate degree of oxidation,
recourse U bad to. aA imadqary oxide of antimony^ ' at it lor#4r
d^ree of oxidatioA tb^a tbe lowest known oxide 6f thai tn^t^ ;
ana it is consequently asaum^d that the 23 para of iintimony/ if
reduced to the stat^ .of pxide^ would require only tsjjro-tliitds ^fts
much oxyj^en f^ by the tables they ought to take. Is this gc^d
kmc'
.^i?
''e have now to exhibit the method invented by the saim
pjiilosopher for daneting the ooiBjpoMtion of chemical ^ompotuips
|»y symboU^ ^^ in order io facilitate the expression of the.pjcp-
portions of ih^r «lemeiits^ aiid to enaUe us to state briefly aiid
I easily the Autm][)er of elementary atoms which any of themi nu^y
contain. The nomenclature is wholly taken from the Latin. \
U Simple bodies not metallic are denoted merely by tne initial
letter of t^ L^tin.pfi^qe of ^^ph ^ubf^t^qce^ even though, the
same letter ba Qommonto spmepf the m^tc^ls^ thus S== sulphur,
d 3= carboaieum, P s phosphorusi B s boracium^ (boron)^ 8cc.
2. A metal whose initial letter is not common to any other
""'Elementary body is denoted, like the preceding subetances^ by
. th^t letter alone, ,as U = uranium, K = kalium (potassium), t
"== lithium, 8tc. ; but if the initial be common to anothet menu,
j or to either of the simple non-metallic substances, then the t^o
.first letters are taken as Si = silicum, Au = aurum, &c. ; but
if both the first and second letters be common to more than one
,. xpieial, then, instead of the secowd letter of the name, the^rs^
.'different cQmojiunt is. annexed to the. initial letter. Thus St =
;■ 8tU)lumj Sn == stannum, Jfcc.
The chemical sign only denotes a single atom ; if itbeneces-
Sry to express more than one atom, a figure is placed tothe
it. of t|ie sign ; thus, Cu + O, denotes oxidulous copper, and
^ Cu + 2 0, oxide of copper ; but as this method '^oAlil^ be
In^Qpvfnie^tly loog for expressing the ^ooippositidn of a c^m-
E^d pf the second order, BeriieUus abridges it by omittin^the
*r 6, and denoting the atoms of oxygeA by dots placed over
sign of the base, ^e number C^ c(ols indicating that tif the
instance, instead of the preceding signs, are indicated &j^^^,
and Cu ;. Jhe sign of sulphurous acid is S, that ox sulphuric acid
••• • •«•
smU huA so on ; and in the salts of copper Ca 8, ^ oxidnlo^s
sulphate of copper, and Cu S% sulphate of copper ; the litQe
figare placed above, like an algebraical exponent, indicating that
in die latter compound there are 2 atoms of sulphur or sulpnnric
acid to 1 of base.
^dDf]nie\ii»ei«lposition of aloms of the thurd order is dtnoted^ifter
^|j^{Sfum( D^aniiqr ; for instance, Ca C^^ + Mg C* represents the
. mni^al palled dolomite, which is composed of an atpm of csiir-
'jfOqiQi^ qJT .lifne, and an atom of carbonate of magnesia^ The
^JbAnula for alum is K *S* + 2 At S^ + 48 Aq; and indicatiiii
^'i&- composition to be 1 atom of sulphate of potash + 2 atoms Of
sidpha^e of alumina 4* 48 atoms of water (aq^ua). The small
'l^xponential figure refers only to the initial sign immedititely
"Preceding it ; out the coefficient applies to each element cb|i-
J'&iined between the sign + ; as, for instance, in the preceding
exainples, the exponent ^ means that 3 atoms of Sulphuric aejlH
'^ cbmbme with the atom of alumina to form the sulphate, and the
, coefficient denotes that 2 atoms of that salt are taken.
So far the symbols are tolerably simple and intelligible;' but
'^ we frequently meet with such expressions as the following s^
'Al Si, silicias aluminicus ; Al* Si, 6ilidiasbialumikueDB;..Ca' 9i%
••• ••• * *'
dJeicus ; Ca> Si% bisilicias calcicus ; Al S%; sulpj^as
• • •••
.aluminicus ; Al S, sulphas trialuminicus ; Ca S% sulphas caltn-
.GU9, Sec. which require a little further explanation.
In order to understand the meaning of these and sinular %tr
mule^ it is necessary to state some peculiarities in Berzelfi^'s
.yiews with respect to the composition of certain base^. . ' "^ '
If we refer to Thomson's or Phillips's table of the weiglf^^of
atoms, we shall find that lime, baryta, strontita, aluminsl^ ^)i^S~
.Msis^ Sux as well as most of the protoxides of the c(wnion
^. lneta]s^ as lead, iron, tin, mercury, &g. 8lc. contain res{jef(^ively
i 1 aitpm. of base and 1 atom of oxygen. But Berzelius^ ^bii^&Es
.^ jthfa^lks containing 2, and some of them 3. atoms of £fxygdn|jfor
.rn^^foUowing reason ;—" If we take," he observes, " a cottnirt-
Jijjft^iwei^jgeneralTiew.of the coisapound .bodies tl^VX^Vt^ofeoi
^c)v^rr§c(tly analysed, we find that many of them^ |)arti(;inarl^'|bhe
cj^ljOffidf^ cont^n decidedly more than two atoms, and that it dtost
frequently 18 the eiectro^negative element which etvters'' i^ a
3^ ;. . , ify. CMHrm'^^mmf^ Vim of- . . ' ^^[fiar^^ I
P^^>^ nniH^^C^?^ t^ that of a tiiigle atooa; SMS»dm to&Qgter<(^ f
&9a^ fj^Qoic acid, sulphuric acid, &c. Qoay be quoted a& famn (
liar iiUtancea This is still more observable in the eoipbiitatiofas >>'
of.f:ooApou»d atoms, as in the salts, wh«re sever«l atoips:o£^clv/
electro-negative oxide are commonly found united to a single
.alMl ot.ma eIeclro*positive. On the other hand thereiseve^'*'
re^sQD U) believe that the atoms, are only united one .id oM^hi'/i
thate: bodies which manifest weak affiirities> aa ihe^gai^id^Mi^''
o::6d» of carbon, the oxidules of copper, mereiii7^'gi>ldj'&<t$l||^4iP^
that we may presume that all bodies composed bf^im^^tlttfi^^^
bape aad an atom of oxygen have more or le^the-^^^lite'^
ofanbHOxides. It' appears, moreover, ceHain, that the! itt^fikil^bf^
tho stronger acids and bases contain more than one '8et<$Wt4'^
cxjffftU* Since the number of simple atoftis in a'ecMJ^tiiiitil'^^
atoBi must necessarily influence the rorm, and conseqtienfl^H^I^^^
pvojperties of the latter, we have a right to suppose that oelid^^J
which contain the ss^me number of atoms of oxygen, have at
. least some general properties in common which distinguish tnem. ^
from those that have either a greater or a less number. ' Thu^^^
as-' we have reason to presume that the oxides which colttam/^
only 1 atom of oxygen have the weakest affinitiies. We find''^^^
whole series of more strongly marked salifiable bases^ in whicb-^;
the number of the atoms of oxygen must be twice as great as ^ii
the former, and therefore it is probable that all the stronger
ba9e^ contain two atoms of oxygen. Those which cojitain thnecii , t
atojtps of oxygen, on the contrary, are weaker, and many of theiQt ,«/
maj; even be electro-negative with respect to some of the electro^i' >
positive oxides ; "* that is, act as acia$». . .r
' Amongst the stronger bases, Berz<^lius includes all the alka<»« -^
lies and ^kaline earths, the protoxides (^f4e^, silver, cadmium^'.i
iroiji^ popper, tin, zinc,:&c. but alumina, silica,- and sqme Qtheira,
as jD9{ay oe seen in the table at the end of this* abstract, he consi** .
dei^ ^s containing 3 atoms of oxygen. Now, having laid dowa^ ,<
thi^^bitrai:^ law, two consequences follow, which the student,
mv|st]le6p in mind, or he will be liable to fall into error when he r
end^vours to translate the formulsB into common lan^ua^e, or \
coQigare^ Berzelius's atomic weights with those of English . •
*autho,rs# The first is, that to preserve the proportion between^,-,
the,y^^^^ of the oxygen and that of the base, as found by analy^ :
sisj|^]^pr|:el]fi^ has been obliged to double the weights of the atotus l
of aM tiiQSQ , elementary substances whose protoxides he cousin i
der^ ^ Cpqtaiping two atoms of oxygen, and to treble iboete i\
whiiph contain three. Thus the protoxide of lead, acoonding.^o k-
the^table (dee oxidum plumbicum), contains percent. 92*83 lead^i .2
antf7-l7I oxygen, and 7-171 : 92-83 :: lOOf : 1294-6; but
, _ i - I . • ♦.♦•..... * ; . 1 -• I V
1 ■, , ' •, . • .••»••■■■• ' ; .1 .• I VI JL *
'' " ^ ' * ' ♦ E«sd,p. 114, etset}.
J - .mi
\,j 'ii
-f l%ewei^t'ofahatomofdX]^gdQ.
.!.>iJ*nt[ ill
tlifeuit^lit (#4iie alMMtt of iMd m tbe table ujii8t^^^6ii^ ^«^'<^
nuoAi^^ via. 2589. Again the oompositioti per centi Sfit6dim&^.\
i8«lailHnum.68-3, oxygen ^-7,' and 4f6-7 : 68<J :: 100 rM*l^f'*
wkidbas Ja^ M6<-thffd of the tabular weight of the ^o&'df;^
al^iiPB^,o\i^»,>343-33t* . Heoce the expessipD C &* mea&ft tktv*''
xi^tp^^pl»i^,.of lime, and not the biaolphate, whieh at>fiff8t'«
.vi#flit>^^h§i|)d probaUy suppose it to represeat, for aslbe Iktt^^^
cqA)U^i^>i'^i9i.l^pf>tlaetical atoms of oxygen, the salt must adbo^ »
c^ti^llit^Q>hjvp<^tlieti4;al atoms of acid, or the canon would he'^
vi^teto^^^wf ^iprea that the ozygea of the acid skirald b^^ii '
n^Ufte iby^i^* wime^ uumber of the oxygen of the base. Henoe^ •
w^%ii8l^,fii)d:6ueh a symbol as the precedingi and wisk to read '^
itMiF^^pj^lyy. ^e must remember that ati the atoms are doubl^d^
andiio#P9A^<lU6<^tly t^I>i'6seoted by numbers, which, to YedvM •
tl^^it^/ tb<^^f j^ugliah avthorsi ouist be divided by 2. bilft^ )
.m^y:jf^'^m the expression AI S^ (sulphate of alumina), alj[ tli«>:
atQi]i^§ are trebled. As three to one, apcdrding to Beczelkis'a, .1
vi^ws^ represents a neutral salty so an equal number .of atompifJoC'L-
acjiajaod h^e represents asaltt£;2YA exce<5 o/'6a«e;.andal6C0l^^.■
»i ,7
.inrfj^^'^ebave Al S, signifying sulphas trialuminicus.
Wer have not yet quite done with these smpfo. views ; anot^eyr^^.
fonnulft remains to be noticed, namdy, that of AlSi. After';
wliat v^€i have just shown respecting the sulphas trialamini^di^, '*'
the ir€(ader will probably suppose that this expression meaiii^ ^'
silicias trialuminicus. xfo such thing ; it is the neutral Con^-^ '^
pound, silicias aluminicus. But with respect to this itxcoiisisiii ,
enciy^ heat BerzeMus's own confessiod. ^ . * '' !' -
**^ I must here point out a little inconsistency which I^hltVe'^^
.coBiniitted in the' itomenclatur^ of the silicates, by sLppIying^tlifl^ ^j"^
termsiUciaS' to combinations in which the oxygen of the ba$^ M^
ec^Ml to that of the silica. The analogy of sihca with acids Cp^i>^"^
taming 3 atoms of oxygen would require that this appelldti6ti'*^
should be given to those compounds in whichthe oxygen of ^e^*'^
silioais three times that of the base. It is evident that th^i^eai^*^'^
the true neutral siticates, and that the first are salts witSli eifd^'^s",^
of base^ since (the alkalies, by decomposing a silicate Tit^^tte"^.
assistance of heat, always reduce it to that point at Whi6b' tttcF^^^
silioa'and'tlie base contain eoual quantities of oxygen. WStW^^erl ^
)ngs principally to that Btaftiipff'*^
of chemistry which is chiefly applied to mtnerailogy, ahd' a$ i^^ f'
as the study of the silicates belongs principally
nontenelatuire of the numerous degrees of saturation ofiiilitla^'
* To reduce Berzelius't numbers to Thomson't, divide by 100 ; and to reduce them
to Brande*s, multiply by iJi^. Berzelius's number tor aKunina accords pretty nearly
with Thomson^s, but not with Brande'^ or ThiUips^s* I believe the former to be cor*
pect.— C.
3ltt Mt^.eMMt^*$SiinmafyYimqf,' A {M«^>
4)toeo«nMmttoh<moie6aEiy by tkis method^ lha:9^iBaM^'±m^
'40«do{it it/'* • ... If. r
, • Nl»w; really if the symbols are intended ** to faeilitaileiiibi
expression of the proportions of the elementa af dkeeiLoaletHb^
pounds, and to enable ns to state briefly and ea^ly the namb^r
at elementary atoms which any of them may contaia)^ wentiXL
hardly conceive any contriTance less calculated to ansvfeifiafs
ipttrpose! For here in the very same table we kstvetwo'eKMM*-
liioAs of precisely the same kind, denoting two very <difimBt
•oris of compounds, Al Si, representing th^ neotsal silici^ajenvf
i4uminay and Al S a subsulphate of the same base, 'rv^irf
'Again Ca^ Si' denotes one neutral salt, silicate of Eiie*, %Id
Ctt'S* another equally neutral compound, sulphate of 'Ume; r-'o
• •••• .*'*->
^e formula Ca' jSi* represents, as we have jtist statedi ^^
mlicate of lime, and Ca^ Si^ the bisilicate ; the acid of the fii^
itOQtaining the same number of atoms as the base, and that /of
the second twice as many, so that these &nef and easy statements
require the reader to multiply the dots over each letter by t^<^
respective exponents, and then compare the ratios of the pro-
ducts before he can tell whether the salt be neutral. Quper-aci<^
or with excess of base. This indeed is easy enough in the two
instances just mentioned, but it will probably require soipe
reftection before the reader perceives the meaning of Fe* S*^
*.» ...
6 Fe S* + 72 Aq, and finds out that it means sutphai bifeSinn^iO'
ftrricus cum aqua*
The symbols of organic atoms are denoted, like the inoi^anie,
by the respective initial letters of the Latin names of the sub-
stances, but are distinguished from the latter by a line drawn
above the letter* Thus A == acetic acid, C = citric acid, T sa
tartaric acid, &c. So much for the symbols. That they are on
the whole ingeniously contrived we do not tnean to deny, bat
that they are necessary or useful we are much disposed to quee-
tion. At all events they should be consistent with themselves,
and the anomaly which we have pointed out between the i&ul-
phates and silicates, should, as it very easily might, be done
away. If a cypher be required, the kev should be con-
stant, and apply equally to every part of it ; but there are in our
opinion many and serious objections to the adoption of symbols
f^% Bil. In tne first place it requires great carj^ to write them
* £«SMfar la Theorie to Pioportioni ChimiquM, p« 110.
jM|TCr%^for a aingle i^jri^or iMy whoUy wrvi^rt the vmssmtni^i
ibinpuiXBy «nd the consequ^ace of suca an err^r i« tb^ «t^
•«elrio«39 because it cabnot, as in common languagf^.ber^flliilj^
detected and corrected by the context. The errors of the press.
itdOiare more likely -to eseape notieei and thus this species of
iidbmg^, iitnBL inAccurao^f oiinattentioB> becomes donbled. Mudi
^Jiabit/i& required both in writing and reading the symbols, as
<90elj[>as cojisiderable application to become so familiar with them
iasiiitefantly to comprehend their meanings especially of the more
complicated formuice ; and after all, . what is the great benefit
^%b^ are supposed to confer? A brief and easy method of statii^
the exact composition of all chemical compounds. For the
brevityi it is more than counterbalanced by the risk of error ;
^,fi^ t|ie lacilitv, it requires considerable study to learn to do that
m one way wnich every body knows hov/ to do in another with-
out any study at all. But it expresses the exact composition of
every substance in all its minutice — ^the number of atoms of bases
-'and acids, of the electro-positive and electro-negative elements —
^ B,t{d they are too complicated to be expressed in common lan-
/'"gtlage without a tedious multiplication of words. They' db
^ndeed express the exact composition assigned to the various
"bompoui^as by the hypothesis of Berzelius; but may not all
' those compoands be reduced to much simpler forms, and conse-
quently the necessity 'for expressing them by this short-hand
characteir b6 done away with ? We shall try this question most
^ fiiirly, by comparing the results of two or three analyses caJcu-
^Ikted on B^rzelius^ system, and on the more simple views
.4^opted in this country ; and for thii$ purpose we may take spme
of tnose copied from Beudant in the precediuff pages, and %rst
t^at of a variety of emerald (see p. 338). The weight of lan
atom of
Silica = 16
Alumina * s= 17*
Glucina • ., = 26
Proceeding on the principles already explained, we obtain
the following quotients by dividing the quantity of each sub-
atance, as found by the analysis, by its proper atom.
Atoms.
^* = 429:^=8 of silica.
1796
n
1S40
= 105 = 2 of alumina.
26
= 61 r= 1 of glucina.
.•' 1 •
- ^ Hie Kreights of i)ie atoms are from Phillips's table except that of alumina, "wliidi we
i4S Mr. thitdren's Summury \^iew of " ' [May,
[ Tbe man of all the atoms ss 189*, and hy the tvU ^t»m^
|>ioportion,t we find the theoretical composition of tbamiiic^
table per cent. .jt
Silica 68-09 ''..''
Alumina 1809 /'f^
Glucina 13-82 f'^*-^'^
, ' - '• ri<4Xi
Analysis of zoisite (p. 339). The atom of lime ^ 2tJr ;, j^3i j
Atoms.
— = 268 = 3 of Silica. ,,. .^^ i^
ssoo
-pf =5 194 =; 2 of alumina* ,,r ^ p.^aso
-^ SB 86 = 1 oi lime. ., t liiwit
„ The sum of the atoms therefore s 1 10, and the^ theOi^^^^
oomposition ofzoisiteis^ nr.bd
Silica 43*63 -^"^'^
Alumina 3<>90 - ^ •^'^'^•
Lime... ^-46 '- "^»
99^ - i-rj^
^. It is needless, to multiply instances, as any analyses cqmpiKJrj^
In the same way must obviously give the same results. r. ^
, Thus, we see that all the complicated statements, aii(}.f fill
n^ore complicated reasonings, on wluch the^ are fpunde^t^
ivhich we nave given examples in the preceding pages, ;VE^%f^
j.ust as well expressed with much greater simplicity, and t^i^^
th^ simple statements equally furnish us with a test of th^ accji^r
i^9y of our analyses. Our after reasonings as to the mode .ip
which the elements are severally united in the actual minen^
'kf^f^yex probable, can only be conjectural, and, we acejust as
Iil^ly. to form a correct estimate on the simplest as on the ][nQat
'^bor^te system. What good purpose then do these pompli-
jpk)t^4 statements answer? Do they teach us more accunUely t^
|brf(^ .constitution of mineral substances, or the mode in whiclji
tn.Q|ri?lements are combined ? We cannot perceive how. iWf
i^ideed^ as we have said of the formulae, give a detailed yik^
loB
1 188 : 1«8 ; 100 : jT) and dP » 68»00, •iidio widithe other iiloiiit.
1^.V' Jir. BerxeHwfz Hypothesis oftheAta^ 349 "
of'tlirit:!a«ithor'B.liypothe8i6i| but do they therefore' prove Jits ^
ii^SMfe^^^lt seems to us to be reasoninff in a citcte. The ror- /
hi^%SriS'tii9ie for the bypotfaesifi/ and the hypcythesis stip]bi;^i8 ?
the fbrmulse; but what arguments can be deduced fromMd^:
toother toi reader it more probable that alumina and silica con-
tain 3 ato«i^ of oxygen, and lime, baryta, &c. 2, than that each
of those so^tances is composed of 1 atom of base and 1 of oxy--
^n ? In point of fact, both views come to the same thing ; for
if we as6U^l^tli.me to contain 2 atoms of oxygen, the weight of
the atom^pf the base (as stated.aboye) must necessarily be dou«i
bled, 80 "^^at iti reality whether we represent sulphate of lihie:
• ••• • • •••
by the formula C S, or Ca S% we equally express a triple ratio
oi the oxygen of the acid to that of the base, and so in ail other»
oases ; for Al S :±= Al S'. The adoption of the latter formula,,
therefore, is as if one should expect to anproach nearer to the
truth of a proportion by writing 999 : 66o, instead of 3 : 2.
But pernaps it may be ai^ed that the hypothesis presents a
tdii^edirView of the analogies subsisting between all oxidated
basesi and enables us to arrange them in separate orders accbrd-
ing to certain characteristic properties by which the oxides of
one order may be distinguished from those of another. The
observations of M, Mitscherlich seem to demonstrate that such
distinct orders actually exist, and as the subject is both curious
and important, and because we would not willingly suppress any
argument that may appear favourable to the hypotnesis, we
iSS&Si dwell a little upon it, although this paper has already
(exceeded the limits we had originally prescribed for it.
. ♦''We have another motive also for doing so. We know that one
ctf the first crystallographers of the present day* thinks favdurat-^
WyoofM. Mitscherlich s theory, and our respect for his opinioii
tfronld alone induce us to treat it with attention. It would give
Us great pleasure if that gentleman would take up the siibletjH
^hd cori-ect any errors that either ourselves or otners may halre
iSaflleh into concerning it. ^^
'''^ M; Mitcherlich observed that certain bases, saturated with'l^e
^uiik acid to the same degree, affect the same crystalline fbnfisl
stnd that lime, magnesia, and the protoxides of iron and matiga-
^[ese compose in this manner one class of what he has caued
irsomorp^Aoti^ bases ; whilst alumina and the peroxides oTfrOnkn^
ifatenganese form another. He showed also that ist>mbi^h6lis
HSflts naive the property of crystallizing together, concuttiiigTO
an uniform manner in the formation of one and the same crystal.
M. Mitscherlich supposed that the primary forms presented by
isomorphous bases are really identical, and that this identity
necessarily results from a similarity in their atomic constitution,
j:a^ 'fc ;-'jJo '3»r
• l«.LCTy.
tMe lii k'ttae pm{>bnmMl of otygea eotttMMd ih «ll» ^l0MmU^
o#^fdi6 isomorpboaft erystah; aim tfaat w)lere«fef Ait'MlMOfis
sifmlarfty exists^ identity of crystaflrne fbtiaA trW dway^ te'db^
r0Mik. Thus he says the oxygen in the phoephoroua. Md wwi^
uiotis acids is to that in the phospfaofie and aiteenio> acids as d^i^lM
III the biphosphate and binarseniate of potash, tke •Myg^iifl
tkfft base Is to that of the acids as 1 :5, and to that of the ^t^itter
of crystallization as 1:2. : Jt i, ^i.nci
Hence the only differeoee between these salts comi6t«i>iik^^dQp
radide Of the acid of one of them bein^ phosphoitiil> Md^ttait^ d0
1^0 other arsenic; and all the salts, which diffitr '«i% ifrtlilP
manner, are said to present identical crystalline formSv / »' ''et)
" Berzelius has made considerable use of Mit^Chertic^i^ifypCM'
thesis to bring together as one species all the raiiritie^ afgsmsbli'
as well as thot^ of amphibole, mica, and several Othet £E>ui0ti0Jtt^
1^ in vol. ix. New Series, p. 70» of the Annals ofThiioSop^^
our readers will find an abstract uom Wac^tmeister^s pBjgetfr'^
tile Swedish Transactions, coataining a descriptioil add 8ad[|l^
of 13 varieties of garnet, all of whicfa^ with only one e&0^pttt>j|^
proved to be constituted of aa atom of a silicate of a base caa*^
taining 3 atoms of ostygen, as alumina and peroxide or Ironi^
combmed with an atom of a silicate of a base contaijsing 2 at^ttM^'
of oxygen, as Ume> magnesia, protoxide of iron, and protos*
ide of manganese.
M. Beudant has the following remarks on the same subjaeW
After observing that it is scarcely possible to obtain altiaei^
aalts in a state of purity by crystallization from a liquid hqldi^^
several salts in solution, unless they differ very materially ui
point of solubility, in which case they crystallize in succession,^
one after the other, he says, '^ if on the contrary tJhey are nea^^
equally soluble, they all mix together in greater or fess pfopcsTf
tioAj cmd not one of them will be pure* These mixtures olfaw
happon indifferently with every species of salts, so that th^y
appear to be the mere effect of chance^ and in that Case Ite
extraneous portion is always in very small quantity. Bat miX'i
tiires occur under certaun circumstances which it is very ismori:-^
ant to ..understand, and may then take place in all sorts ot prdi^
portions^ wherefore sometimes no particular ingredient sensibljf
predominates. In general it is observed that salts of the same
<^rder of composition unite most readily, especially* when tbay
have nearly similar civstalline forms. Thus all the species ^
alum have such a tendency to mix together that it is extremely
difficult to counteract it, and they cannot be completely ^^^^
rated when once united, even by repeated crystallizations. MriM
tures of the same kind occur between nftrate of baryta tail
nteU-e of ie^d; between the nitrates of potassa and aoda; and
the sulphates of iron, cobalt, nickel, &c. ; also between the sul-
phates of zinc, soda, and iwgn^ia, &c, 8cc. These mixtures
H0|ijW|ly'O»<lttr. ^Itea a 'soltitioii ceatiBtins tQ«f dy tbe slilttf p( i^ •
ilfeftiy^ia^rtoiied groupo, bat if a great Bomber of salts^ be 4i^
^tif^iWLj^e satne liqaidi they will form by preference^ aovlbai'
ifteieM^ b^ said -that salts belonging to the same order ^conlpor
^p|)> <8aek each othe^> as it were, to crystallid^e together, and:
ftiWrkk^irary proportion. . i
Te^tn^^^tb^; case of the mixture of different salts of tbe sam^
^rmula, it is observed that the crystalline forms are not sensibljr
^ftc^c^lbc^^M^b saks have, if not identical forms, at least fbriliB
4£4)a^JBfM^.](in€l/and very nearly allied with respect to tfa^ir.
^A^efii; $^wm first observed by M. Mitscherlich. Hence WH^
ten imagine^lfbat at the moment of their becoming solid, acertaia
n^m^r Of ti^e molecules of one salt may be substituted fortbdse
(jf^i^ther without occasioning any irregularity in the crystalUr
^B^^iK^: This* identity of formulae is not only observed between
s^lt^iHPitb the same acid, and having different b&ses of the sma^
Qflg^ee of oxidation, but also between salts of &e same base, fit
bjl^e^,,^ similar degrees of oxidation, that have diflbrent acidfir
9£c^ aame order of composition. Whence it results that aot
of^salta of different bases have analogous forms, more or less
^^fly-ftlU$4« but also that salts having different acids aresimi->
lii^y circumstanced*"*
^'/*^ Mixtures of substances belonging to the same formida of
composition are also extremely frequent in nature both in simple
9li$L ipultiple compounds ; but as we cannot in this case, any
Hl^e than in that of artificial ssdts, separate at will the imme*
tte ^Hcipies of these bodies, it is only by the considerati^A
t^ir analyses that we can arrive at a knowledge of tbose^
]|H9t^e9« !» ow by this consi<leration, we find in the simpkr
6^ppottiidS| that such or such an oxide is replaced by such or
aiifOh another belonging to tbe same Odrder of composition. Fos
i#^tanpe> in atones accideatally coloured by a combined oxidcj
W^ ^nd ^at the colouring principle is some oxide which rofilaces
^tliei that which serves as base, or that which plays'tb<9 p^rt of
an ac^ Thus in the silicates with base of lime, or tb^. bioxkla
ofcakimn, the colouring matter is frequently thebioxide ofiron^
and its quantity is such, that its oxygen is precisely eq^l to
that of the lime that is wanting. It loUows that the sum of the
oxygen of the liine, plus that of thQ bioxide of iron, is exactly
eqval to the qu.antity of oxygen, which the lime would contain.
In the pure colourless silicate. In silicates with base of alu^
yltna, or the trioxide of aluminium, the colouring matters an^
the trioxide of iron, the trioxide pf manganese, &c. son^etimesf
both ; and their quantity is such that their ojtygen is equj^ to
tb)^ of the deficient alumina* >
l)ifl In multiple compounds, one or other of the immetfi^te priil«
'lij'^ ■■' ' ' \
•-siuJx.!'- ^ ! • TndttBteHeiitth«,-ftc.|r. 244. .^
cjjiles is oftea, replaced |}y pn^ or nfiojre .pfiQC^Dl^^ 4^1 1
hiA i^ always ^uiph that its oxygen is equal to ^^-9fw%Jgf^\^^
pie replaced : hence if we take on the one hand the oxygea
^OQtained in the coounon acid, and on.the othe«rt)i^i9ii|9&^ttHt
quantities of oxygen contained in the bases, we obtaijpak i^ipiMrft;
which are precisely in the same ratio to each oUier d)at ,th^y
would be if the compound were perfectly purs. ' W^^f^!^ti
led^to the knowledge of cases in which one of* the 'imih'6alate
priiboiples is replaced b^ another with n totally different! ^W(nd,
the base either remainmg the same^ or being itself different.
ThaiS silicates of lime are replaced by aluminates of the same
bu^e^ or by aluminates,,of .bioxide ofironyft;<i.'>*.z,Mj^i ai.>riT *'
.. 'fuL .Beu^apt then goes on to illustrate thetptWding obsdorilw
tions by examples, and gives a sort of receipt for making garnets,.
OP mtbev eudeavours to show how one co«ipotr^i4ed^ef telttftj^
elements may be divided into several others of vkbW ^llM^fe^
composition. . . .->/ .iJoilii'i
We,ii|hail quote, with some aibridgment, hi^ first .exanqiteCt
" T^iere.are garnets obvious^ of the following cprnpoMiidb :
Silica •••••• 41 containing oxygen 20*60 or 2 atoms
Alumina .... 22 10-27 1, .,:.,rr>»
' time 37 ' 10-39 ' '1 \ V V. op,o
.,.,... 100 • ' •• • ' *^f"jja
'^^hk^Hindtcates 2 atoms of silicate of alumina, phis 1 'ectbttl^\5l^^^
silicate of lime ; and a series of direct analyses preseiits'ft^ijflt^^'
lude of other, results. that can ooly be explained by, Qal0iiIat.ing
them on, the atomic system. Thus the connexion between the
following faualysis ana the preceding is by no means^ obv4o6fi«
Silica 37*00 containing oxygen 18*61
Aludaina 13*60 6*30 , ,
•Wmfe.\..;.:.....V. 29*00 ' »14*^"
Magn^ia.,...,,.,, 6*60 , .^-6K.^^.^
' Trioxide of iron 7*60 2-30 . =
Trioxide of manganese 4*76 . l'4l x- '!/[
• 98*26 » ri>
'' If w^. collect the oxygen of the bases of the same ^fder^
gamely, the alumina, trioxide of iron, and trioxide ol('manganese>
pn the on^ band, and that of the lime and magnesia on the other,
we find that the quantities of pxy^ien ip the ^^i^ ^nd^^b^fi l^re
not fetr from the ratio of 2, 1 and 1, consequently the n^w gar-
net very neal'ly harmonises with the Ibrttien' • '^ ^ xori 1
* Traits El^entaiie, &c^ p. 24S«
Jfl^ M. Bendimf.s Hypothxmoftht Atomic Theory^ ZS9
^^^^^rlber to illcistrate our analv^s, Jet w. insalate ^ck of Uxj^
^^pSis of ganiet contained in tne mixture. If we employ 1^
rioiAAe of iron, to make a melanite garnet {enjaisant un ffpmi
«rffcAli«> of the formula 2P Si + Ca^ '«V, we must tate" a'
„»^o;i(i(le ^ iroo^ whose oxygen = 2'3 corresponds to 7'50
atfe\.-----.----' 4-6 9-14
,fafc«P9n'^n?tv-;r^» a-3 8-19
.Uiaijjfui: 'i .: 24*83
" There remains a portion of lime whose oxygen is 6*84, with
wbioli8ii<e B^jr ani^k^ a grossular garnet {dont vu peut J'aire ttn^
SffH^ 'giv$u$imte) of the formula 2 A Si + Ca^ Si% by takfng^^
Silica, whose oxygen s= 11'68 corresponds to 23*22
AifamiRA .;........ 5-84 12-50
; ribtoe. v 5^84 20-79
" There then remains a quantity of silica whose oxygen is
2*33, and to use it up (poiir rempioi/er\ we may first make a
garnet of alumina and magnesia {on peut f aire d^abord un gratal
• •••
(P^imi^!^ etuMgifhh) of the formula 3 A Si + M* Sl% by t«ik^'
ihigtfi; quantity of '
';2'^ '^ Silica, whose ox vgen = 0*92 'corresponds to 1*83 •'
sni Alumina . . .../.... (Hb* 0-&8 -
• Magnesia. .....;.. 0-4C M9
4-00
" Lastly^ we shall make of the remainder {on Jem de resit) a
garnet of manganese and magnesia^ of the formula 2 Ma Si +
M' Si", by taking the residual
Sihcd;, whose oxygen = 1"41 corresponds to 2*80
Trioxide of manganese ()*705 *i*38
' Magnesia . 0-705 1-82 .. , ,^
^ 'AH Trhe«e products subtracteJ, there only remains . " t
Trioxide of maogaoese ...... ^ »..••. « 2*38 ^ ^,
Magnyesiir. « t 4 3*47
:o
•r«T"
Veui "SpritSf vol. ix. *^a
^'MrfricKttSy Ve regtrfded fts hietelyhi the state tyfmbrtureV"
mA'bf xffiith'TA: BendaDt cannot make any thing ftnrtjlet. Htf
' " Thus we see that the garnet in question cantaias . , ! :
Melanite garnet » . 24*83 . y' 7/.
CaJcareouft garnet » 5.fr5J.;,,, ,,.^.[
Aluminous and magnesian garnet .... 4*00 • j^j^,^ j^
' ' Manganesian and magnesian garnet . . 7*00 ^„ ^j^jj
Trioxide of manganese (mixed) ••.. ^ ...:?'3i8.^ /M.idn
Magnesia (mixed) 3v47. . ipjir >
/. - 98.19 ^'-/J'l^'^^
Trhis is taking a peep into Nature's workshop with aaiwnf
geance, and it is really a pity that all the elementiiof th» wMm
sis could not be worked up ; quite provoking that Nature fihoi]i4
have employ fed nearly six per cent, of matter in Aer way of/knak-
ing a garnet, more than M. Beudant wanted for his, and still lifted
M that all the elements should be in exact definite propoiftioil/iii
the first compound, and not in the last, so ingeniously dished ii|»
from the several ingredients of melanite, grossular, &C. &o; iate
this garnet olio ! Other similar examples are given from.ib^
ahalvses q{ axinite and amphibole, but the reader will probajbfy
think the preceding quite suflicient. . !
' M, Beudant concludes the chapter by observing, that. the
above method of discussing the analyses of minerals is thefilil|'
%ay to form a clear idea of their composition — every other, mode
^f looking at them, he says, ** leads merely to vague ideas^ or
rather leads to nothing at all. The common plan of giving the
Iveights of the insulated in^edients generally presents ^ly 4
{)arcel of incoherences, and it is this bad method that has ao
ohg prevented the immediate application of chemical researekeK
to. paineralogy^ by concealing all the advantages that majf be
jdenved from them.'* We strongly suspect tve shall adhere to
tile 5a^ meMoe/, notwithstanding. . /
' *With respect to the term isomorpkouSy M. Beudant veryjive-
Sdy remarks, that it cannot be received in a rigorous sense^ a»d
at It frequently merely indicates a very strong analogy, the
^fms of stiDstances, said to be isomorphous, differing only vety
^^tly m the measurements of their corresponding an^esu: ':
^ '" The it^e M. Haiiy was not a convert to the nfew views adopiefl
■fey 'Mm. iSlitscherhch and BerzeUus. After stating their ide^
respecting pyroxene, he says,* "they were not led to.4he^
'cioticltksions by direct observations on the diffei^nt silieatoB edii-
''t^ined in the pyroxenes, but deduced th^fti from observatioiis
.^inudeby &F. MitscherKch on different substaiidei obtaiaed seaa-
* TTait^deMin^raIo($e,'jSeoond £ditioa,p.99.
•
}^S^ M. BeHetius^ ftypotAi^ of tkn Mmic Theory. 3^
♦ ■ . " • , .
hiefy by cti^micid processes, and comjoratida of dllf^f ei)i hiiSH
oiiEDbiiied wiih the same ftcid/' M. Mitscherlicb &as ^i(6ied
ihree cryMallized substances found in nature as analogpUs 1p
those he obtained artificially^ namely, the sulphates of lead,
luuryta and strontita. " These analogous compounds/* obserlreii
M. Haiiy, . ^^ of three bases combined with the same fecid should
have the same primitive form, and M. Mitscherlich without
doubt has examined closely into the matter to satisfy himself if
ibis exampje be favourable to his views. The fact iS obviotiisly
otherwise,; The primitive form of sulphate of lead is a rectan-
gular octohedroB, and consequently incompatible With that of
sulphate of barytd and sulphate of strontita, which is aright
rhomboidal prism ^ Moreover (he angles and dimetisibhs df tnii
pi&midifier obviously in the tvvo species, the atigles of th^ ba&d
li^ltiw. sulphate of baryta being 101° 32' and 78** 28', and iii SiiU
|>hateHttfstrontital04^28'and76^12'. ^ \ •
-A^iiM. Mitscherlich has riot been more l*ortunate m the idehtfty
«£ foiiii which he fancies be has discovered between two othe^
Battn^ Siibatances, whose composition has nothing in cothm6n|
faiioely, sulphate of copper and axinite. The three angles whicS
«iaasaie the incidences of the faces of the parallelopipedons, th^
|xrmiiiive form of those two substances, are, for the Sulphate (>t
wpper, the first 124° 2'; the second 128° 37^ and tM thim
109° 32''; whilst for axinite two are right angles^ and th^ third
is iOP. 30^/ Such are the contrasts which liL Mitscherlich
^tikes for characters of identity/*
iu: The form of the crystals of sulphate of magtiesicL and snlhlhatit
9f ^1)6 is,. according to Haiiy, a right prism with a squarei oas^^
ieihx^xiafed very commonly by a right Quadrangular pytatnid*
Mm Slitsoheriich quotes them as '' another example, but {fid
«a^le»" says Haiiy, " formed by two of the faces ot the pyraSua
^n&sv^on two opposite sides is about 10^ greater in thesulp&atd
^f 99.amiesia than ia the sulphate of zinc. ^ ^ V
J- '^Moreover, how is it that the results announced by Mi Mit»
soberhch are, on every side^ in contradiction to thbse predentea
-Iq^natoral pro4uctions, as if affinity played a di^rent par): inhifi^
jfibomtory to that which it acts in the laboratory of nature ?
'>'.Take a view of the various crystals that atfe found iti bitt
cabiQets oontaining different bases united to the same acid, am
throughout their geometrical forms will be seen to differ tnoi^e 6t
1e$a* iThe primitive form of phosphate of lime is a regular heif-
'^{diMral prismj that of phosphate pf lead a rhombmd, ibatof
j^Qsphate of iron an obhque rectangular prism, that of pjbospha^e
oC copper a rectangular octohedron, and that of phosbhajJeV pf
;<miuigaiift$e a rectangular parallelopipedon* If we take tne
a^aisfi, the primitive form of munate of ammonia is a regular
octohedron, that of silver a rectangular parallelopipedon, that of
^'^!t#)]0fl> not fr^dar Ihatltf^ HaUv bfts tdkeiiintirit^dkiBidinidiifli
Iti6 difference that^^ater, chemically coinbioed> uxfty pnAltoDate
crystalline forms; at least he sayti iK)thingf!h«>iii:i(pfeW«9i^^
^^s^^iftg^tnftt isomorphisia in the pasdttge^ ^msfhk^^fmeij!^/^
continues thus :—'^ According to these dbgi^yaftompBifeftht
^pihion of MM. Berzelius and Mktxihet&cYLmiAtikgaiAf^^
etk^f a natural mineral^ be correct, it folio Wg^^t^qt|Meonlti«itkNl
Is an exception to the general results ^ tl^^^lyttailiinitihidsf
•imttirat bodies, and appears to be inex^iiMe.' y^a^^iiiluB ssodi
** I must add, that on the precedii^idte^> k^mnddidbrfitt^
difficult to. form a clear idea of what constitute Ac speeiesy
pyroxene, in a chemical point of view* I'hie diffetcfnt suicates
which occur as constituent parts of that mineral have nothing
fixed, either in respect to their number in the same individual
tiotf in their proportions. Supposing all thfelcomhiiufliuiM of
#hich they are capable, taken one and oiie^ ivno'iAaditvd^iAkffea
'«fn^ttiree> to exist in nature, we shaU have.fifteed'flifierad&flbldi-
ftcations of pyroxene; and if we reflect that" mith^iittUgHAv
hitherto made of different pyroxenes, the rpimirity af nlheiawil
hraii^g from 4*6 per cent, to 30, that of iron from IfOS;^ < IfMBfl^
aad that of manganese from 0*09 to 3, what a seHes'OfalnMld^
ahall we obtain if we taoltiply those analyses ! " . . • > ^ VMuti
According to Hany*s views, all the pyroxenes- cotltam'a^
men basis of elementary molecules, which determines thBivitMn
CiQikipesition, and by a necessary consequence the mvariafale Ihsit
bfth^ir integrant molecule, and all the o&er ingredrentei*
fl« Conaidera as purely accidental, are only interposed nm
4lie moleeules of the essential substance without afieMia^
4sbayaetertBtic form. That substance he assomes to be ^ilmcfee
^ Kme, for in fourteen analyses the auantitf of time was iiawrfy
constant, and in the proportion of about 20 per cent^ on wt
^hole mass. '^ I do not know/' says be, '' wh^ M. Ben^iua
^ttaa-stippOBed that it may be replaced 1^ magnesia ; liow^ can il
yield a plaee to that substance which it ha^ never abandonM?(!^
' ' ^ore'lateljr Mr. Brodce has also questioned the atabilibpsF
thb hy{>odie8ifi[>*' and has asserted (as we have seen tfaaii:Ma^
iyi dotie before), th«t the supposed identity of isomorpfaoift
baseif doea not exist, and that the apparenily sim3ar fofins
4>^rig)i^to substances which differ in oomposition, do-TaadE|^
ikiffiiff^bm each othet in measurement, althon^ m sotaeiAHB
%y'didy«o small a quantity as not t» be appredai>i»:i»grtU
^goltiometer. Mr. Brooke renarka, that/' tike! intenCM/wkiek
^jR^Mit^heiliell has adduced in siApoKl of dust IheAiyu isanp^
yf-^ --.v...-. . .. : .. .•.^„'\-: '^^ ..A *La 'i^Ot> H
mt rj
it ;^ and he then goes on to shoiir the. <liUBrereao^ iprMBrl^tr
<Mifc»A;.irfjrthe ptenfagv in the.'4iilphM^ of l^itdi, iliai^ find
^tmafiten rifrTiimB^,'* he a4d%^ M are naturai ccyatellii^ ^4
4iQdfett%(^nfii wlppoii oiir author's theory*"' ' <i :;
dldC&^ADfpkeitheo atatee^ that the artificial salts of tbHOpe^^^^f
i)AlM»Kaq(MAiwiik it no better^ and that the aceta^ei joir^^eY^^i
««di^lp9ehla^diai»>9d«noes than the sulphates. ^' ibe the^ ip
artjAiittttDaappftfed bv Uk carbonates of lime, iron, und ^im^
IvhiriitjMiiBit^ed l<i be . isoinorphous. The primary {onus of
tiiese substances Me liioinboidsy and the indination of P on l^f
^MrbcfeifoiiMHMiBiAad'tb be .as follows:-^
aaJBO,h8 Jns^p W. -^n. 107 00 '1
r • '» « zinc 107 40
, BXibivimiJ ijni .r. - * ; » ..t
lo MtoShnoka'^addi^ that he is informed that the theory onm^it
laiir^iKlriaifewrtion has been abandoned by the author hilQli^lfc
46likstbe:so^3iisolaidinir reflects the highest honour qnM^Mitr
vol^riiRlipdirbifetthe necessity t>f relinquishing a &vourttehl^pi#
idMMf ^finhishe^ an additional argument against the adopglJKutt of
jlSiffdds^iaai which^ in soma measure at least, led toitS'Origii);al
SalmMhmr fQT,A{ Mr. Brooke's information be ooiveOt/nie
must object to them, not merely tiieir negative qualify. of^iSQlQi^
iaoa> ^fanl -their: potttively imschievous tendency, to indit^li. or
MdfimaieBSur* Mnt, to return ^to our original subject, bo^mt^
ihatBia^ bey the assumption that the stronger bioes mmtioonteiy
iwiiii thrtn 30iie atom <tf oxyffen^ should be establi^ed ^^ 9t}^W
Jhyilniiohrihan were ansbgy^ or such nr^nme^ts a^ri«fi:hsii<#
saje^vithiia the preceding pages^ before it m toide'tbo gff|uji4h
Slsrai/or! superseding the > beautiful / Bimpliotiy ^^of : tk^^^fy^igi^
^mwy.-aft pffohndgated by Dalton^ and sabstitnting imi)^Atl^li4
i&t nnnoBessary intricacies introduced by BereeliiISi* . tr > ;^noo
suSKa-jtie Uotfy < however, /mrprisad that the hypotbeat»/ ilh#if Wl
ikwmmuSB , ooosidtti&bte projgress amon^t our feliayK'f^emitt
"dibhyiS'EkmtineBt^ Its. ingenious prooHJaator has, w^ bc^it^^i-^
1ai«a:niBiiber-of pupib, andit ia^p^rflKtfy natural tb^ttt»f4 in
i^DaxiclKMil thf^ should wariiily support aDd.prqpag}9fee>|b^ i&ft
^toiner of«o admirabte a master; for in moist respects^ l^fv ^it
wahA itt>Enrope deserre -that enithet more jnstly iha96£^n|<y^^
^Imfioairacy of his analyses^ meihCompaffabW iogw^^W^^
wmmfett^ttmBa dsmonstrale^ ^ inde&tigable ^ardo^jr Y^ll h^^
Jitlmdt»dBii^hi8-:di|vlin^ sdence, amd lbe:qsuititiidf!-o^^n^|^i^
^Mminvkfaii^ldncb M& ' gttrias, a^ kidustly; hdv^ ^ricM^lgm
imam, l^giKvdknritddhfiadmsfai^
It does not follow, however^ that he is therefore infallible, and
after the beali j|tteAtioaii.W^^ira;bem *b]l^:tq bestow on his
pecnliar modifications of the^atomic theory, we see no reason for
A&ft fSmi: Bdm^m/i ^ifriminiini OfciiiiiiliMf . f IfeM.
yinlecring ^em ^ ^? simpler 4oeMi»«» tongbt in P^i^w4 w4
ixn(i^ tliev shall b« f^lly coEvinped of their siip^nority by^Iic^
4#]ive4 trom experiment 9 W9 hop« th#- gre^t mastefs ^ qiut <>wII
fl(^hoolj» \^U i^dbere to thei^ present; system, botl^ fa theijrlep|urf[l
and their publications, ' - . - '
(An fJdstri^t of Berzelius's table of aComic weights ij^ p|u-.]^f|:t ^
I »
Article IV. ,,..,, ,j j,,aii
Asironomkal Ol^tervations, l%lQ '^ - « Jon
By Coh Beanfoy, FRS. ^ -' ^ -^^ ^^
Bushey Heath, near Stanmare. i.< adi
liirtitiiat 6I0 S7' 44-9'' North. Longitude West in titne 1' 90*^".' • ^ '^ " *
• • • • * 'i ' 'i i
19. Bmm^m of Jupiter't iSmd< 1^ A^ SS'' Mmpi IHrn^^kBivtesiinr
ifttdlite } 7 57 54 Mean Tipe #f Ga»mi|^
March 18. Emersion of Jupiter^s first 5 Mg 57 TO Mean Time at B^sb^.
mtelKte fH 58 Si Mean time at dreefaSiaK
llifdi SO. Smmifn of Jupiter*! Srafc < 7 9S 50 Me» Ta&e at BMtafv ( s^
Harch 84. Immersion of Jupiter's thiA < 8 SS 89 Mean Time at ^^ey. c
aatdfite. ^8 83 50 Mean Tnne at Gi%em^:
itacli 8T. Smcnton of JujOter's first ( 0 80 3S Meas Time«lBiihe)fri*'
pateUite ,. 2 & 81 53 Meaa Timf ai QfaaiiwMK
April 3. Emersion of Jupiter's first € 11 15 87 Mean Time at Bush^j.
satellite }\l 16 48 Mean Time at QreaiWich.
JkpA 1%, JBmeisioii of Jvpitar*^ first c 7 S9 85 Mean Tiine at Btteb*)^ *
•aleUittt , .{7 40 4a Mean Tsoa at 'ijhWfliiiWJil
OccukatiflnhythaMafin. !*'
Ut^9^ ImimiWofasiiiaUater... 8 14 88 m^rmX
♦ • , ■ « •
phserv^ Transits of the Moon and Moon-cuhninating Stars over the Mi4d|^ Wiz#^
the Transit Instrument in Siderial Time.
1885^ St^ T«M^ .. >
Awa 1^57 Uonia ; lOh 47' 15-68^' .
1.— 61 Leonis ...11 04 51-64
L^^Leonis :. 11 OT 49-74
l.t-17Le(nus U .19 01*04
i.*^Leoms..f , 11 81 sa-lp
1.— Moon's First or West Limb. .,. 11 85 86-49
1.— ISeV^ginis 11 89 81-SO '-
. 1.--167 Viigims 11 48 Of»IO
1— 813 Vii^inis U 48 0811
1 — SSOVirginis, 11 57 0608
8.-^17 Vir^iis. t8 05 88-18 *' ^
: 81-^14 ViigiBis...... IB 10 84M * f
,j. . j[?.-r6S Viigims 18 14 1.4!U
S.^Moon'sFirstor West Limb.... 18 88 56-01 ,. . ^
t «.— KVirgiius 18 .10 t7'3T *' ^*
9_10SyiTgiiiia IS 4S 81-53 ^''
L. ., ; 8.**w Vifgw ^8.45 »Qn.,i .. t :U
M^f/t^ Mfii^^^^it/llHWiifematLithimti^Beti. Ji#
bits ..»■*•.••• 'r •. • • J ^'' " ' >*.'■'* .-• ''"Jl ji^iiHlt.♦1^1q
tJfnlAsht and tteatfrom Terrestnat Sources^ and on the Theory
^ qf the Connexion between Light and Heat. By Baden Powell,
MA.TRS.
(1.) la all mvestigations on radiant heat^ one of the prineipal*
sonrofes of difficulty cow^ets in properly estimating the loss of
heat by radiation from the bulb of the thennometer on the tide,
not exposed to the^diant infiuenoer a^ whiek depends on the
late of communieation^ of beat tbrough th^ bulb, and on the
radiating power of its surface. External circumstances regulate
the amount of tbia effect ; the projcimity of a glass screen of
lower temiptrature. increases it as we have already had oocasion
to notice; and independently of radiation, there must be a
t^flmg^osa by eoiiduction to the air in contact ; but in all lhe(ii
^iMf)^^ it is evident that the loss will be very different, accordii^
t^'l^b^iher we are observing the rise of the thermometer iii »•
givw>. short time, in a longer time^ or its stationary indieaiiiii^*
$fae' ijM>^municatiQn of heat through the bulb will also be very
dfi^^rent in a meraurial and in an air. thermometer : in the latteif
als^;the 6jq>ansion of the glass will be likely to produce considet^
tUe enorfrom the lower conducting power of the inclosed air.
All these jQircumstances, and perhaps others, have a sreat
t^ndemsy to perplex the experimental results ; and I have bete
the more induced here to allude to them, because I am inclined
to think that I have not given some of my former arguments the
advantage- they might have had from attributing too great^'aH
influence to the loss by radiation. This probably need not have
been taken into consideration in the formula, siiice it woidd
seem that a greater length of time would be necessary in order
to the communication of heat through the bulb so as to produce
any sensible loss of heat. It would be easy to investigate a
more general and correct formula ; but upon reconsidering those
experiments (28) to which the formula applies, I am by no means
sure whether thejr are of a nature sufficiently susceptible of pre-<
eision to determine with any exactness the proportion mainn
tained between tho; heating and illuminating intensity of the
rays. In fact, until we possess that important desideratum, a
photometer upon the principle of illumination, this part of the
subject mi^t remain involved in consiidfirabie nneertainty.
• (2.) The consideration above adverted to will apply to the
fxperiments.on the solar heat (8), and the remark upon thetn
(42). The conclusion is in fact thus very much strengthened;
and the effect of simple heat, if any were added by the removal
of the screen, would be to diminish the ratio of the white to the
black effect, by addition of quantities to its terms in the ratio of
^^:9if -^..i These ^^Cfi^niii^i^ may be contnuited.w^^^.
r^diMljf't$biHmtt)iioa(;ied to Che Koral Sbcietjr^ in iriiiehipveilMalfr>
t^li^^^^hie fntfthod^as aj^plied to terreftlrial hght>«nd-hiM}rMid «^i
reiaarka^^le difference in ratio exhitnted wnen .the sere^miipbv
rtttfdvedv ' * .. ••. -..'q ?/:/f sons
^^Blhiilar remarkB apply to the other expeiilntato.(dfty Sd,4i^
tiSie!b^pear to me to afibi^ the moststtikftMttiyiMmi^iBikM^
perhaps ttie most delicate^ i;ire at present possesa^odfiiMjaiin^t
the Question as to the existence of any perceptible portion of-
simple radiant heat in thesotflr rays. _..,— — -ssHI
Tne difficulties alluded to I have focBMi te-^xsaBM^nSESjRr*^
fexiisy in the experiments on terrestriat Ught and l^eat in wKch-
have been for a long time engaged, in those jfesults wnich
form an answer to the principal question existing oil the subject,
and which are contained in the paper just alluded tQ, I condepre.
all fallacy arising from these causes is sufficiently guarded-
against ; and I trust the same may be said of some, iui:lher inves-
tigtttieM idn the same topics, to which I alluded, «(C the end of
my last paper f and which were at first designed to form a
second part to the paper communicated to the Royal Society;
hU fwbich <ipoo furtW consideration I witlidrew.''^. ,. /,>]*
-i^The pciaeipal part of these investigations^ and the tt^^-
which I have deduced from them, togetnor with some ^ditfc^^^
teoMrice^ will fann the subject of the present paper. ^^^
?u(3kili .Having by; the former experiments, aa 1 co^ccii^^.<iaiit9^
U&^ed *the general fact of two heatipg radiations, emijfnatff^
frenrliiminous hot bodies, it beconies obvious that we niay app)j^
IhiSf distinction to explain many results of former experimentersf
ini{>artu»ilar. those of M« de la Roche, before alluded to, w^tt^
Apto tfaia principle^ exhibit an increase in the ratio of the bejif^
ii^ipower of light to the simple heat in proportion as bodies i^^
more completely luminous. Wishing, however, to examixie tjii^
ali(idlh|^kindred phenomena upon a uniform principle, I adopted
ifceAfollowing application of the differential thermometer, w)iic|;^
^ktmgh'it will not prove the existence of two radiations, enab^^^
.ilU9i*iwb)»« their distinct existence is assumed, to determine tt;^0
f)4N^'<> ^(ib^istipg. between their effect, though not with grftafb
Mcnmcy^ yet probably sufficiently so for the purpose .be|ce
■%aot(M|.'< = .':",• 1
r 'Ehe:i90thod coinsists in plaoing a small ^reen so a^ to inter<*
4)tot^ilhe I^ftati going to the plain bulb. The black bulb is tb^
JiMeted: by tbesum of the two radiations, or / + /^ J^^
JQ'biemilgt'Witbout' the soreen in the usual way we.baye (i)^ -^^
^b^^oWiun (*) and the ratio Cr), I here suppose the '^ferfbi^^fo
* I moi^n t^is becftuae, owing to an accidental mistike,' •^^'^Msoulii ift^ioHiifk
givenintherepanmthe^ffn<l2rforMard^ p.^4. ^fHi
be
%K
ike^^b^oiplive of aioiple radiant heat Thift) if as nqf^^
m^in^ttan idi, aa thatif tke mdiatioa< w^re nqt^^iiQ^fMA^i
ta feonutferbalance tbe effect, the vaiue ^iven to?(/) ia ioQ.^afit
wiMsiitbefiiBsliitinent ^aaiMed without Us oase ; but tbci 4i|li9fnv
ence was probably very trifling as will appear by a comp^cKi)^;
fl^ifiie,^ ^ttima^iof^tbe experiaieats^ ,The apnei^.^al^eb^^will/
pbdiapiy jjasais^ itt ^showing the nature of the effeets:. it r^fif^lf,
i^icbpfafafidtiorL
•)•;
Id noiiiofj yMii']
B
l,.-^-^'
A. Hot body*. .v^ v/j,
B. Differ. therfiio««ter«..«
C. Screen.
-If
doillvf fli if/i
daipW ailiji
This is precisely the same method as I formerly a4op<»d ibf .
|C3d^votnnng to detect any sensible degree of non<^tra&s|nt9Sible
feet in the ^n's rays.
(5.) In the instance of the sun then, the heatidg no^sr^^f
li0i£ c6nslitntes the total effect. Iti the instance of Iiiimiious
j^nrestrlat soarces, we recognise the joint actioji of the Wd
ittd^tions; and in non-luminous hot bodies only that of'httotl
Ij^'^difl^ent instances of luminous bodies, these two- ebusdhf
mif^fate in different proportions so as in some to approadi ^ho
m^} and in others the last of these descriptions ; and itn^^ «rii|it
are th« distinctire circomstances with wnich such variatioi^^M
jtecofepanied ? .^ • laoj
' '; ^,y lA addition 1o the inference before made froifr Dd^^ift
It^cWs * experiments^ it seems well established \iiMl' \jcdt9Ak
pijf-fbti^) the light emitlied fr6m flame increases wi(h tfad i£«iib-
letferiets of the combustion. Tlius Count Rumford'^Pbi*.
lit(iaysj.304y found that with equal qdantities of oil, the light
win arg;and lamp was to that of a common lamp its l^to H6w
I was desirous of comparing such a ratio with the corrii^pMih
ih^ 'one 6f the effects of simjde heat; and the f(^HoA«riEig tiiiie a
##.^ results obtained by the method just d0scribed>' i^lh^^^
f^iiae of ail argand lathp (Che diameter of whose cylindribal^wk
Wife 0^5*inch), by infeteasing the flame. The flrbt ej^pitiitnfkt
d)rs^||l9d«. fpr^e sake of comparison^ in order to eiMAfflfJ^eaftf
effect of the glass chimney : the instrument was one having the
MmM ^l.?MS.Ngl>t ;. the sentient bulb coatee^ wi^b I^ian
ink.
«i-* /!■
m ^r. Pmtfl .«« X'ermtmi {%*«««f( IM^ QUm^
Number
oiexpcii-
a
3
2
IUm ill 1 nun. een^cted fbf tdtcnti-
PtttiiniUm.
A^and lamp 7 indies
from bulb with diimney
Ditto no chimney.
Wick increased.
More increased,
'm*
J' I .
Plain bulb
Both bulbslscreened »
ezpOMd*
HeBoeiu.
12
17
U
22^
I
h
1 ..
0-8
0*9
l_
1-2^
: I
o-ssf*
I 5^
It is obvious that there is a limit beyond which increasing the
wick does not produce more complete combustion.
Of several other experiments tried on flame, one case regards
Hkb alteration which takes place in a flame as exhibited in the
simple experiment of placing salt in the wicl^ of a spirit-lamp ;
the eflisct oeing increased also by diluting the spirits with watet;'
(See Dr. Brewster's paper on a Monochromatic Lamp, Edhib.-
Phil, iourn. No. 19, p. 123.) This experiment gave the fo»<wrur
ing results. The instrument employed in this and all the Mibiie-^
auent experiments was a small photometer, having its bulbil in*
iie same vertical line.
Number
6t experi.
8
3
{
{
Particulars.
Flame of spirit lamp. Distance \
1*5 inch J
Spirits diluted, and salt placed in 1
the wick: the flame smaller, j
Rise in 30 seconds.
I
2
2
l+A
12
7
.'.A
10
5
■m«ip4«*»
i
5
1
2^
* (8.) Count Rumford found that, when by employing many
flames near each other, the temperature of the flame was
increased^ the light given out increased in a much greater pro-
portion. (SeePhd. Trans. 1820, Part I. p. 22 ; Davy^s Elemepts
of Chem. Phil. p. 224.) If the simple heat radiated increases
in a proportion not greater than the temperature of the flame,
we shall here observe the same increase of ratio between the
radiant heat and the light as in the preceding instances.
This point I proceeded to examine in the following set of
experiments, in which I compared by the same method as before,,
the effects of light and heat produced from a single flame, and
from the juxtaposition of flames.
wm
M^fmn^^^fm^reitmlly^H m^.
m
Number
PartieQlars.
■ Rise in 30 seconds.
I
1
t + h
.*. *
h
. . .. ^
» !
4- i
FlfuneofwBX eandle, 9\
Ibches distance j
Two flames ooalesdng. • . .
AzK>iher set ... *
9
5
T
5
9
10
4
3
JO'S
. 1 .
35
Distance IJ indi
1
Two flames coalescing ....
5
12
19
28
14
16
I
2»8
1
1*3
-» J
Distance 3 inches. Disc \
in 1 minute • . . • 1
•
10
2T
25
44
15
17
1
1 .K
•
.. — i —
Two flames coalescing ....
i*a
1
0-6
. In all these cases the increase of the ratio between the effect^
9f light and those of simple heat is very conspicuous ; and it
appears both from the results of Count Rumford^ 8cc. as well as
these, that the increase of light is in a ratio greater than that of
the increase of temperature ; the effects of Tight being in thei^
ej;;perim^ts more than doubled when two flames were united^
whilst the heat radiated was less than doubled.
(9.) I now extended the inquiry to the radiation from metal dk
different stages of incandescence. For this purpose I employed
a mass of iron of a cylindrical form, about six inches long an^^
1*5 diameter ; heatea to the brightest point which a common
fire could communicate, and suspended vertically. The photon
meter was exposed to it at seven inches distance, placed oppo-
site to the middle point of its length. In the first sets of tnese
experiments, I observed the effect of li^ht, using the glass case,
and therefore could make no comparison of the efiect of the
light with that of the heat. I am well aware that these nume-
rical results can only be regarded as rough approximations ; yet
they will give some idea of the different law followed in the prof
gression of the two parts of the effect. The value of (/ + h)
may have been somewhat too small from a trifling heating effect
of the small screen on the lower bulb.
- n . , '
■* '
^ ^^^PfmHm^iF^fi^rmti^tkf^^^ Q)|t8S
InfiMidfimfintiroiu .Jiaein 3Q.iflconiU. rHifanc* 7 indiii.
Exp. 1.
■I ' '« — -*-^
fe
-•.,*r|5
4
Hiniltet
BM&CniMQt
{(dwc)
1+ A
r(cMe)
1 + A
TCnbHiflc)
f CMCMe)
0
l«
8
9
10
1
S0
-
36
r
4
6
4
•
*
5
20
«2
H
8
•
1
9
-
10
r-
(10.) lathe following set of experiments, the effect of lieht
was observed with the instrument in its glass case, with an addi*-
tionai screen of plate glass several times replaced ; for (/ + A)
there were two screens to the lower bulb ; the outer one several
times replaced.
' ' - \- -r.f yol (21)
» t
■ > ■ ^ I M^ i^ ■ ^ I
Incandescent iron. Rise in SO seconds. Distance 7 indies.
r»rn5779»do
f » >Hi - r '
Minutes.
Seconds n^im
incnt*
t:-'"
^ ;
I (glass case and screen).
Exp. I
18
9
i
0
S
\9
4
a
0
6
3
2 + A (no case)
rrr^f
1
16
0
36
St
w
14
8
6
4
-s*-p^
r«)
'£-L
.Ujuaiifiib
li) ^^^1 Si^R^i^quently naade; c^'Similar set of obsefvatiQniStwjlj^JI
ball jor iron two inches in diameter. In the fafOQifir -^aSt^/^Ml
SfA^(¥§•^£C^)^^lMlof (^ '^ A) were not so taken a&. to be.cemp^i^-
ble# In the present instance I attempted, by obtjpuiiig hj^
ffgff}f^l^l^^^ff: .simhx circumstances, to deduce the vafu? oi(A}
M^ithib I^^io.lLs. in £3rmer experiments* For this piupo^ffo t§
^tji^Q; ^^>li]e instruifnent was employed without its oaseiijtH^
^ptoii^r§^.!^cyfeea^ plate. gl^s;.and, ^s before,, for .(/.rt'fiiytf
lli#t9f^^^^<^t!eeawa^ bSjoch fr^mlhebuth; bev^ th^e^inigl^
^»l^ftWff#!»ailJ90oling eflfect. After th^eiL^rinieiili^t^i^]^
afitemiSimf^yfM founA at all heated, , ,, t, ^i , , -r ,: ybod^lo
ftciigsd 3i bni5 S?* . :. ... :.\ bir. .'^lun^qr?!'! alig^aij^b
teaMyi Mr^^^moim^ihimtaf^jgiiifmi^^. ^
£xp.h -RaeinSOMDOiids.
t nroinooiii*
inciiveiiicQt*
■ If .B^ ■» »« .
(mb3 on) )
Oi
(a«ii»:/ o.-.*;
^pai^
I
8
0
0
;+ A
•
H
95
8
.-. A
83
10
8
I
A
1
4-7
1
11*5
£xp« ?.
5 . ^ —
0
5
37
9i
I
lif^Hlo J.09TO o.'a:
A*. ■.»;.■■: •■ .
,f
•
1 ■ -
64
1
-ibfafi fljB i{)r/^ ,5*^.8r ?
.r. . 1;
89
' 88
<A-f \)io^ ih--^':
0
18
18
88
4 *
j£lS7f^«'3/
; 0
10
to
■
It
(12.) For the sake of comparison^ I here a^ain repeated the
ebservathm of the liffht with the case : the indications were:
Case, C«se and two soMOUk
.... (I) (8) . (l> W-J
— ^BiseinHie first 30 seconds.. 8*^ 11 .... 8** 9' "
(IS^jT^Tbe gen^rsd inference from these experititients 1s;^ai
obseryiog the progress of the radiation from a hot massroif melli^
beginnitig with the heat of luminosity, we find the radiint hett
inereasitig^ and the heating power of the light distinct iromM
increasing also, but the former in a less ratio than the lalier.
Thus it would appear that tliis same law is folIowed^iA^aU thft
different cases of luminous hot bodies here considered, in propor-
tion to the density of the flame, to the completeness of comons^
lkiB^;*^ter ^e coalescing of several flames, and to t^ A(^rw o€
i^itioti in inetal. '■■'■"''^ r-AiBd
'^^'Tbe heating power of light increases in a highei^ ratio^tiiiiiiif^bi
i^pl4 radiant heat whioh accompanies it. i jij >elcf
(^<14.> llie fact which I concave is estabKshed in tlf^Ci^jAm
j^f liiy ^experiments,' viz. that in liie radiation f^oii^ liMlmlhi
ty^ies, simple radiant heat exists distinct from -the ii^bt ^iid^iln
lii^tfappeatstd me of Some importance in regard toter^^li^BW
i^kilf th^ly whieh^ssert^ that heat is m^ely tigheitf %%tyil
M%iM^&i^^i^ ' ^^ti56olt{mg to that thebrr^ ; as the^Wm|^ij^
of a body is raised, it begins to^^eoiiit the >** i^^crtflPShSff^'^ftBl
a free radiant state : this at first is simple radiant heat, but by
degrees its properties and intensity become altered, and it begins
to act upon our organs with an illuminating effect ; but is liabk^
^ Jift. Pdaetti>^ ferrkHHal i.igh^'&hd Helk^. (JStj^i
t6 abi^orption again jrom bodies on which it impingeA^'teftfOpBI^
tion to the darkness of their colour^ and thus Me««eftheaty diil^
playing its effects as temperature. '
' The views to which I have been led as to Ae dibtmct Hator^
of the two parts of the total heating effect^ so fartend totiii^p'^^Vlj
this theory, that we here evidently perceive n very consrd^rdMId
portion of the radiant matter not at aU converted into iigfaty bQt
merely increased in intensity. ■' -' • " X'^
If, therefore, we still adhere to the supposition thjatlighC^W
only heat in a different state, we must so far modify the 4iyp^
tjiesis as to admit that only a part of the igneous fluid tfndei^§<^
this change. But here we must further ask, whether 6iuHi^£U)
admission can be made in consistency with the other partfe df l^til
theory, or even with its fundamental principles. For' this j^i«
pose we must take a brief review of its leading features; ,aiNi dl^
grounds on which it is built. • - ^
(15.) Prof. Leslie, in his Inquiry into the Nature of HeCLi^
p. 150, maintains the opinion of the materiality of light, and^tff
its existence in actual combination with bodies'. He thcstf
examines the phenomenon of its absorption as conneetdd ^th
reflection. Sec. ; he attributes to light in its state of combinati4W
the heating property, from which he is led to the concloslotf^
that " heat is light in a Stdte of combination,** p. 162. *
The groand upon which he adopts this theory is this ; having
come to the experitnental coutlnsion that '* kent is nA elastic
fluid extremely subtle and active," he asks (p. 160), *' Is it a new
attd' peculiar kind of fluid, or is it one with which, frotti iti
ittt^cts, we ieire already in some manner acquainted? If anydtl^ft
6ah be discovered that wiH strictly quadrate with the phenoihefifil
flie strfrit of true philosophy which strives to reduce thefmtrAt^
dfuHHttateprindplesy wocfld (fertainly persuade us to embrad^'H.-
Butinf ^egfching further, weniay, perhaps, educe diriefct pro^ftof
Mehtity;'* aihd then, from a comparison with the 6ffe<5ti ©f
Kght before mentioned, he concludes their Identity: W^ ^71
however, be permitted to ask, whether, to suppose two e5ch^
ences (in some particulars at least), possessing such v6ry diKfe>t^
^t properties as light and heat do, to be nierely the s^ame siib;-
stance m different states, is not rather departing from the gehenil
iStepIicity of natural causes; and supposing a new sort of rela-
6bn between two existences with which in other parts 6f tlatuf^
we are unacquainted, should we not be more in the true spirii
df inductive philosophy, if, admitting the distinct existfetic^6 df
jfight abd heat we sought to explain, the fects of the oile beliij '
aro{)afently produced by the other, according to sOdie V^
dlready known id act in the constitution 6f things. • - *
" IPSrdf. Leslie shows (p: 175), that all rays^ 6f light ftorm ItHalfevJ
iifi^^ tiitist issue from that sourd^ i^ith the «am^' idfeflitit^
<te!erity. •* It hence appears,'' he observes, '* that light muat
dllti#e4to pf«j«ctit8 iinMlde fvomtlie vole dpemtiofi 6f ito p^etfK
Uttr elasticity while io the state of heat." ** Its motion/' he the<i
fehows^ '^ is exactly similar to that with which an expansii^
Afuid wdl fush wHo a vacuum*" He concludes this profound
i|W.e#tigation by remarking, that ^^We are forced to s4]ppo^§
^k#^^wlbei^ bodies discharge light, they are thrown into a sort of
90g?iilsive state, having their adhesive attraction to it affeoted
by momentary intervals of susperision, during which fits> th^
^niipft0f]9 pcirticles, being set free, are projected by their own
ia^^^ip! repulsions. Without admitting this hypothesis, it
^^§ei£^4iQp06sible to explain the equality of motion which beloil^
Ift ^erV species of lignt, however variously combined with dipi
^pf9a|l» liodieB 89 constituting heat, it is emitted from them all
Ynith th^ same rapidity ; and such we have seen' is the remarkat
¥te JPi^Qperty of an expansive fluid when liberated." (P. 177.)
He then proceeds by a highly curious computation to cklculatd
^^MleiAtioity of lights the weight of combined lighten heat^the^
^f^te of Inminous matter in the sun, and other points connected
Uddi tb^e.
jnXathiis explaining the projection of light from bodies, its
fll^t#i|O0 as an expansive and elastic fluid is easily admissible!
aad f^PP^&rs conformable with all we know of its properties.
-But the hypothesis just quoted respecting the state mto which
bodies must be brought in order to discbarge it does not seem
Iti^eptible of experimental proof.
rT/rAdfliitting the reasoning from which the phenomena of iW
ffaiaston ate explained on the supposition of its being an elastiG
j|uid, we may ask is it necessary to suppose in order to ksbein^
thiis emitted that it is identical with heat? Should we not avoid
A^ part . of the hypothesis last alluded to, if we supposed the
light to exist in combination with the solid substance m the Bame
'ft^tf as gaseous fluids are known to exist in combination with
such substances, and that by the operation of the heat which i^
^mplc^ed in raising the boc]^ to the* temperature of luminosity^
tb0 light before in combination is made to assume its elastic
QauiA -state, and then is projectied from the body according to the
mathematical principles which Prof. L. has just before laid
down.
_. From this review, we shall be prepared to perceive how the
^roumstanoe before adverted to presents a serious difficulty to
the hypothesis. If the heat of a Dody be converted into light^
owuig to the action of the causes here explained, we may ask
b§w then it can happen that only part of the whole quantity qt
^aat combined with the body is thus changed into light? or why
the increase of elasticity only takes place in part of the combined
^i4i atid not in the whole ; for the tinaltered portion still con<^
t^uifKir^lQ be radiated as beat, but is neither converted into Ugb^
.dim M ^mp^st ^kfrn^iiauMi am-
nature. pfJigQtv. It seems to be laipossible to Qpi^fSimA\t0iikm
laolere continued and increased action of one 011119^ i^^;4i||id9df
ope siqc^ple nature can change a portion of. it int^^ 9fm. ibib*
stance^ and yet leave a very considerablQ w^ » itt ofigjiiiil
%t^te^ Nor can the difficulty be diinipishad by njipp,qiilft||iifci
faes^t to be a compound of two different specif^,. ,9pch«ioimraUi
Into light> and the other, not ; beqausj&y as wet h^ty 0 .twgjfc 'n\ ^'*i
(Experiments, in the same body tlie proportions p|^0i^dlvto^7^^
be constantly varying with the increasing inteB«it]g'#£di^t|i«dL
^ (16.). After all it becomes a question, does s^p^ij^siiibj^ Ifail
simple heat disappear so that we can supposjeit eHheytfftPawif 0^
into light, or in any other way changed initsf pi;op(Sirii^o^^llt>«it
not appear, to me that this has been in any .ii?ayi<^^MbIi«iftd
either oy the supporters of the theory jusi alluded ;H^^te«te
other experimenters ; ye;t its investigation jji .<Je%rly-alpQMlJM
importance^ If it should be shown, that it does not t4)Le((di^y
this theory (independently of the pbje^tions jpst ^cge^)'t^MUk
entirely fall to the ground. If it should appear thai: f^ntenfmifii
phehomen6n does takeplac^, the above objections .wQiiIid^lAihiD
in the slightest degree removed; and we might then»'^rh%|lM
have some ground for a. more. correct and inductive vie^.44Vf^i
subject . . . ' . * ' '-'fiibfli
, (17.) Tills was. one principal point I bad in vi^w ia^tiJifimt
experiments, and \ conceive to be by theui sufficienjdy- d^^m^
tb&t a portion of the heat which we know upon independttob/
grounds is generated, is actually lost^ or does not appear ei^l^r.
as heat of temperature, or in a. radiant form, • < . ,t ^M}i
The general result of my second set of experifnent^ is, .tbali ol^d
first the heating of a body causes it to. continue ra<liati|^ .biqtMk jh
a'^proportion which is nearly that of the it^crease oftMn^j^J!^i^Bi\
At a certain point which we qaU the temperaUue of lumtnc^l^^g
light b^^ins tx) be given out, possessing a b^atiuj^ pow^r Wfc«n^s
absOrbea again ; the light estimated both b)y this .power, VkWiU
generally also by its illuminating effect, continues to inorenattf;.}
whilst tne simple radiant heat, distinct from it, conlinutif 4^
in^r^ase also, but in a less ratio thaii the light. ./:.
The radiant heat probably tends to increase in a certain ratio
tfi^th^ elevation of temperature; at the.sajaie time (from, thft'.e:
peculiar constitution of bodies) an increasing .quantity of it is* lO
cofYtinualty^ abstracted, or ceases to appear ai$ radiant heaitf miAiu
this/hjss c6rresponds to the increase of haating^^pov^r in:ib««£
^This^ law api^lies to the casu both of the. same body J94:di4ili»sl7^
st^^^ of Tj^tiition, and to the coipparison of diff^<ipt Jjiwiialss^d
hqdresk^'t^'diffei'ent flames, .which haxe^^ b^.fi> i^own totJigar^vi
<l^K^i^4>P^^&^tures, of luminosity, * aacC.w'&i(ih.^»f^,4M^
^itma ^Kt^ 'fiitiim^ ^^frmm i»^'i«^ s^. ^m
*t6 tkat pdt&t without fiirther increase; thdtd^l^rcb
llwiiiigPdiftgregl^fer cBflerent comlniMfeibles,
«4iit«|pfe«nr: probable, if we extead the analogy fh>m wha;t Sye
Ittio^y llHit the general law is, that in ptopditioil to the
VMPm of the eombusticm, more light and propdrtipn;^
^^ll4tidittted ; and it seems natural to suppose Uxat.$
^ <M»gy.^ action would raAer cause the heat to b^ ent-
^r^Mb^^mng ii^ht, than simply to radtcit^ away.. . j
.Cviilli^ftilll'fiC* nff4' it has been shown that the li^nt prodaces
lUl ^ci^%€l^ltmg ^ect ; henoe if the ori|;in of Uie. solar, i^ays
.feMtaltt^ttiiy* pirdb^«li similar to combustion, it must be analogojoA
iBMlh^lmbiit^p^tHPeef kind of combustiom
bafavl^Mfe^d^hbs; shown (Phil. Trans. 1820, Part I.) th^t tt^e;
y Uanift^lfefet liippy oaches more in its chemical properties to .the
2«ti|PiPC|f4nr^ 'solar tight than that from any other source. . . ^
«9^i6i)p4#^ahy doi!ibt should remain as to the actual disappe^ch
dUw «f ( k'^fily^tldn of heat, let us only advert to the. instances
aCwdiMkiiii Vbe hh6ye experiments. In increased iptensity pfj
csBliibttsiiidli^'a 'proportional increase of heat must. be generat^d^'.
iMirtfiftbtiiitht^tfkore' intense combustion a greater increase of heat-|
ia||iJpii^e/r i# oomrnani^ated to the light ihaYi is exhibited in the,
radiant heat. This increase, therefore, consists of heat, derived
fmnilhe heft body no longer for^iing heat of temperature, aii^
iicnlMij|ier i^dmting as heat; but combined in a peculiar wa^- j
^W4g*it?.:-' : .. . / .'.;:. 'V
iA^ainv"«$iid particles volatilized in a flame acquire ten]\pe»arj
ture from it ; but they hence give out much more heating ligQt,''
bfit jlod %a tntich mote radiant heat. . , \.. , t .i»|
(fi>i^lieHMating ^ difi^erent flames, the same thing ^9 mq^.
pa^nMy-^OWn^ Th% two flsunes united give out less ths^o ^jp^
sun^to^' their sepa!rate heats, and more than the i^um .otttl}^,i
sepaiMe^h^^ng powers of light ; the latter must be incre0;3^^j|^^
atl'tfBe ^xpeiDse or the formctr. The heat idisappears eUhcir.^^^l'
tetaip$iP(mf&6T4i^ ladiant heat. \. ^ ' , : ^,^
Blr#tti thf^ experiments oh incandescent metaj, . w^ ^^i^Mit
deduce exactly the same conohision. ; \ • , [ ; jV.
('I9c) ^Thftt the extrication Of tight is in moslb ca^^9 oyvii]^^^n.^
80^ way to tlie ageiicy of heat nsis beeii long an establi^ep'
opmidD'i Thus Mr. Morgan (Phil. Trans. .1785, I^o. 11) CPpwro ,
dejbB»^li^ft' its a sabstance \ihited to o.ther' bodies by p^qiili^fj
i^tml^tion^ fttid«eparated by having that attraction overcome pKii
heat« Blue rays he conceives to have the least^ ftnd^^d^fjf^
gHNit^ti'iiffiliity, and eohsieduently the former are first ^i^r^t^^v
jSy^attollMNii, - toditls' i^ot^ th^ iMt stage of conib\irst]j)h ^fi,i j
rediii^lP W^f»iA #C^ If e considefrs thie ihcre^sel Vpp^j^t^b
ofkMSI^'fKill/S^ ik th!e ivoTubon of
Nm S€rie$f vol. ix. 2 b
tfac^ by attHtion to b«^ eiri»l¥^i^ by hk«ftM df^Mtt'llMt^dHMWtt
- 'Tile tfg«IMsy Cf h#ftt ih eatmnflif dl« evolttti^fft If ligli%4W tfiH^^
VtMe^ 6f Ai.tile|, H ^ cOiitsMttkl' Ibe^ i«f6M^ ^1i^« ftf to^inlMlIf
iDWi6'pM«)mi«y <>f tb^ <hiM«d *<« 80 Ab to idoaimttiltdit€^al('^(iii
M^. SrAVld«% jpa^er M CdmbuitiM^ PMIi IVaM. ')8Ml^1^lM^
ft^a Sir H. l>iipy'd Ohcife. Phflt. p. 3»4;) '^»»^ ' '^ »«"^ 3«w«
But tbel^e are cases in whieh light li extrit^mifl Hfk^^Uitmi
Mt appear that any elevation of sensible tempcH^ifd 4#4le^ii^
ilM^lo itl prodacti^n. Such are'theiriiltanc«i df pbbmbiMirfiill
teMmals, of the light geiiofated daritig p«vlr#falHtoto/'4c^^<iiVfly
tlieoiry of tfa« subject 6tt^l> therefere^td b^ stiffidfefit^t^^H^MA
not only how the beat acts in evolviHig the ligb€ <^ ^f^mmt
(feasesy bat bow the satne cause can prodtfce tbe^d(i^4s/kl^bii
teter case when ^e temperature' is notihereased^ lt^»tUl^^lf||$[
Ihemy should at once embrace these two ntpp^xti^v^f^flfif^
Mf^ cases, it weuld probably be considered a ftlr^ng^i^rtWiH
mlbvouriofit. -.^irnmo
(9d.) We hate net atiy precise idean as td the ^tyidd in t^t^fufc
the hHKlig effect which takes place whenever light is abs^ltkrt^
i«^Cducedi The theory which assetts that the ligke iftli^MP
fhm^ intK) heat is a wholly gratuitous assumption ; i4 la¥Pi
l^raat claim to simplicity i»f principle ; but this fs, plii^hapi^'mbfe
apparent than real. The simplicity of any hypothesis, c0WH>lddllrtt
wa ikTi e^cplanation of pben6mena, depetkds not sol^y^n^tistt
tbsence of complicated combihationsi but also en its anctkij^^i
aome well established principles on which other i^imitat- ^laiiaei
of phenomena ere explained. Thus it is easy to say, atifil'<to
conceive, that li^t on absorption i^ converted into' be6t^;or
Mj^ts uncde^ a different form ; but this; bei^^ 'b«ifi# ^ nli#§
Miiaiimj[>fion answi^r^ very IMe )iurpose ; and sdijtlfti^ly bltogir^
boM' stlBp near^ to all explanation k^ the phenoolena Iha^ <#t
^ere before; in other words, it does not etUbit ^em fat-nio^
audi point of view as makes them analogous with any otbar clhds
6f phenomena. Not only, however, is this hypothesis wmaif^
ftilha characteristic last 4nentioiied^ but it also a]»pearstiy lase
tH'be fkidy chargeable with being poeatively at vomntfr With'iH
established aiialogy. ' ; mo
* ' AMCNing to tni« theoty li^t is a pecaliar and^e:(tre«iely
imbtle %pecie# of matter -wtiicfa, in its ordinary stale, ia dil^lM^
^^«iliAed ' taly by* th^ prdpeity Cif* illam4nsN;ion, bat 'i^ beif%
^k^Oi^^ by bodies> entera iiito combination with ihettis^4iM<^
Miaii^eii^intb a newettbitfilMe, or^Mtitttiuto ti^ eaisf Undt^^
fi^iWt>f«noth«radllorm«tier;wbich«bb«l^>^^^^- ^^ /^^^» '^^
' Vhda^^^A^e an ^attamefy^ aabtli »m,'^iiifm4t^w3Mge6i^
%n^immense degr^ of coQdenaatioii,^aitd tteeotiiHg W cAi^p tffiHt
MBH) Itiiinbiiif im fl^iirtiaiiii l AiIjI limii Jfliif *>'* Ifi^^-
l9f| iii«e<4 lh«*^w iJiMOjpio, il'w<»ild give ^^t emm^i^f^^
Ifmniilf 1>f lAt0Bfr>h«at^ whiob voidd Im 7epd«ff4r^i|«|k)i^#^
MiiMli t^<9»ilf«meiiitipii of Urn bo^y^ The-mbwe jdaii^, bfw^
Win^^$41li^0i WW o<^ $uoh a viefP of 41m nalttr ^ ib» ^ji^fMlft
|M4i)09d It kmetkB $ub»i4mi^ U$^ mhkih is «piled t(> ^^^^^tioji)^
i!WA)iiQliit|[e^ «p4rii/^ itf thai uni^i* Moroover thiitf^ juiMjiliO^
liiMl4 i^t)fMe \^m coittbioalioa with a»o&fv bo4y» ^d i^t dif
WMM time f|ct uppa othep b^tliea as if it were (pern aa^; UQC^H^^
blPM^ la^ ftWfcft* a^atwiiy Jo aiide«y< ^. <^ ;
-a^9l^« waiaJWmaia^be laateriality pr lig^t, aod.wil^ to t^
M#ite9v9ifipi(^f ^ m^ ill wbieh its healing effee^ ai^ prada^
fi ANil>|tt wAa ^aojie lb<s e^iaUeet assumptioa, ^d ba ipi^
aMlpgpiBy yyyi^ p|her pfaenoipaiMt, we wudt aeek fes soiaa <^b|l9
Inf^lSlaf in tbaa iJi^t just alladed to. . v«^
«if(${fc^) >|t iQj^ be i^oaeideftd ae establisdied that tha paitiaft af
l^btij(¥bJkh is aot reflected from a suFfaae uadeFgoee %a abea|prt
ilQP|oai^4ro|Migas its state ^ wfaathes it foim a tnio ahaaiicd
WWawnnrioaiyiMni the. body isa poiat whiab iM pvobably b#yaa4
aiir meaas of investigation. It is^ however, certain^ that iaiQifi*
AiNNy-W tha-abserptioo taking plfce, beat is prodaaed kk tha
IM^'I ^at siiioa wa ai^ in ignovanoe of the oatuya of tM/aambif
natiwrfpcBlad hf iig^t with thp body, it is aurdy a most alowaa^
lai^blje assumption to say, that the combined substuoe U-M^ifii
d7.4JNi.the o^er haad> seam^ an extremely subtle sabstaiiea apt«|
||i^,iejp»bii^oa with a so}id body, and indingheat we4a^iaf
itf ^fauat b^y, . what idea can we more . paturaliy and indaed w^
ij^^bly form, than that the increase of temparatuxa is hei^e^ .^t'
i^>i^% other pases,. occasioned by the giving ou| of latent from;l4§
ab^wbed subataaoe.
it>(p^):lA Gonformily with the phenoinena of the cbaaga4.<^
fisia ia ail o^er soats of matter, we here readUy peroeiy^ tbM^
|p%wMa light is absorbed and enl^ers into combiaatipn ayiltl^
awiiaoB matter, heat is given out, and different degrees of h^
b^.idiffer^^it species of light ; ^^condly> light is not gaqei^ti^
^w^Jiiouta certain degree of beat. All bodies at some teppipi^r^fiff
bf^me Inmiaous, and after arriving at a certain temp^f £^t|ijgf|j ^
;^^l^essvof heat, which con^ipues to be generated, is evQ^filpy^ u^
^vtQg'the form of light to some particTes of the body kyj^e^vi^
mg latent in the elastic matter into >vhich th^y^r^ji^ :. . ,.>i,ji;i.^^
,i^23.) The view which 1 have taken of the subject apppfirA. to'
%#i^b^ oaa'to which wa ara directly led by the ph^^;v<|«n^llff.^
di^i.#xperifni^ts« It has long appeared to me a y^iy -migi^'
i^H)i0D|f'aafwaU as qae; v^iy mueb at varifmee wi|h aUff^($)Sj^
i^J«ay^atHfc/^li^lf'aiwl»bs^ evolve eaob <itJ^^'s^ifii'
that they are modiiic^ipiis of)the»aa¥a9 swbstana^*; T^dc^Wo)
jtlM»»f4(^e4va»|iM^ aimwnstaaces«9f Uie Hni^aan4. s^^-*
Wti^^>4basaii#s^Haa iNkypeiisiatly ^eoafoirmabU i%tA(^
to ayoid a tnuFtipUQltv of oausea^ .and tp produee a Vf^i
*iflS9r69.t^«f&ot8 J>y the mterventidn of one and the Bani^»c
iji^j^ily modi&^d* , In strict conformity with this i>qbi
ije^QxplwatioA I haye attempted indicates a beautiful extei
pE^he.g^reat law o( latent heaf, long since soBuccessliiIly ap^
i^, tif!^ investigation of the difiTerent states in which inuttdf ej ^
tad.«to tibe pk.aipti»ena of the combination apd s^oani^^^ ^^*
diJSex:entJon»s. of matter ; and if any agent or pjinci|^Ie mm
should ^^hibit phenomena exactly ansJogous tQ.tho^e ^besifi
b;^.the^ changes of .ordinary matter in relation t(>,hes^,^W|^
Without impropriety describe such phenom^ipa Vy anaJ^
tern^^j^and speak of the. absorbing or giving OMtoflatelpi^^iiei
JDJich i^^eAts^. without assuming.any particular hyp9Jtlifis|s^r6[^^S
ing jtheir materiality. The observance of such analogies a^^
gpod with these. a£;ents or principles, would, howey«r» 'fije M i
f^presiimption in lavour of their materiality.. ' ^
^^^.have become acc]^uainted with matter in .thfee^i^eretti
t^Xt^f or states, solids, liquids, and gases ; but there is i)ot|ung
-^CjBi tp.tb.e same cause, viz. the possessing or losing. a certain
quantity ^pf latent heat \ t !
L^Ma^r.not then .light be pne of such forms of matter ? aterqiu
^{S^ri^ occupying a place, beyond gaseous, bodies (though !i^|
^pessariiy next to them), and owing its peculiar. form to .t1>^
ll^prption of a certain quantity, of latent heat, ... », J i^
^j^^,'^iJ^lJQ^ld.be eai^y to go on without.Umit in noticing the an^^,
i^s yrfiich might be found between the properties of elastic
^^^ ajad i;hose which might belong to an order of.bodiep beyc^n^
Vflii^ ^be scale of latent heat ;, but upon these speculation^ 1
^i^^, entering. That the. analogy holds good in.xespect to
iitent heiat is all that I am now concerned to maintaio; and this.
)j^f^^ h^s been fully made to appear, fiom experiment^, decjuc^
^'■''^"■■v •• Article' Vr.
^halysmof Tartarizid Antimony. By R. Phillips, FRSL: & £
'iu»
appears probable that the preparation was suggested by a trea*
tBe,:^it«tl94 * M^tiedw iir. /^trfvere^i/ piiblished iia^>^
i&S^i^'' Long as this medicine has been em^oyed^'M'reraih&r
apalysis of it, as far as I can learn, was attempted uhfil'fSOl;
4^j M^ii^k^f'A'^t^s^-^/rJ^mk^^s^Wki^^ %%
fmonyM 'Bitartrate of potash* consists of 2 atonps of aci^;
T^=-tSSl "and T atom of potash 48', and
consequently the
c we^^t?»pf*tTie anhydrous bi tartrate is 180; these are tfte
s CNTJ^r^ THonison's' experiments, and I T)elieve them tO^'bl!
yiectly ^aBcur^^^ to Befzelius's table of equivij^
jits^me nfop^ of acid and base are nearly as above glye^j
'' I stM'eS; the ^alt to contain 4*74 per cent, of tvatfer, an<^
or%^ Y8Q of/the anhydrous salt must unite with 8*il^6 p|
n so^nearWS, that we may conclude, if the experfiiienil
^m0/i)lidit\he cryst2i\s ofbitartrate of potash con taiirl atot&
wjst^r.'^f/ Thomson, however, in a very important ^o^U
. 4. HA^vjji^g very recently pnbhshed,* considers this sj^*'"^^
Sontain 2 atoms of water; but, for reasons which I'^StJl^tt
o^JiVslsftel^ still consider the determination of IJerzelius to be
lorreciV having prepared some pure bitartrate of potash,! ^tift
^re^jt^tpdVy by exposure to the air; 189 grains of *thi:i'4^lti
coijii^Tningy of course, hygrometric moisture, were boiled in water
viim'M grains =r 1 atom of dry carbonate of soda ; thesolutitifl
Wass^igBtly alkaline, but upon adding 3 grains of bitarti'ate'ot
otash, it reddened yegetable blues strpngly; now if th6 $aK
acl^^bntaiiied 2 atoms of water, it would have required Dtit)rfi
h^n f98 grains of bitart**ate of potash, instead of less fli'An192j
tor have supersaturated 64 of carbonate of soda. I heiated isbiiife
crystals of the conirilon bitartrate at a temperature* biii' IJttli
|)Spw that required for their decomposition ; they lost ovLtyy^b
ner (feent. anfl I, therefore, conclude that this, saltcaunptbe Ve^
oerei&''arihydrous by heat. With respect to the atomiq A^y^nt ot
aiitimony and its compounds, I also adopt I)r. ThomsPhV^Miiir
fefers, viz. 44 fpr the metal, 52 for the protoxide, and '60 ^f t|r|
jiei^pxicle and sulphuret. . , ' ' " .^^ti?^
'^Jtl; Thfenard analyzed tartarized antimony iii ' tht* feiJo^i
manner: — 100 parts of the crystals were subjected to hcat,*^liy
which they lost 8 parts of water, the remaining 92 parts were
dissolved m water, and th^ oxide of antimony was precipitated
by sulphuretted hydrogen ; 50 grains of dry precipitate were
Pbtsdni^d; which w^re calculated to contaia'38 paitd joC ^sid^
snch as it exists in the salt : by.means.of aqeta^te of.lead. 100
gr^ins;bf tartrate of lead were procured, which are e^iupklep tg
c6ntain'34 of tartaric acid ; and, lastly, 100 partsof tlbe silt tielnir
treated \yith nitric acid, there were obtained 30 of nitrate of
'0^ m^/mh^UAn,,^i^T4riaHz^mm^ \0i
potaah, ^ thefie Wffre Calculated tb cooti^ii 16 of p^^b^ Fi4«»
these resutu, M. Tben&rd condud^tf, that t||.r|aH£ed a^itiiMax i%
eompofte^ of
Tartaric actd 34
Potash 16
,^ . Oxide of anthnony. ••• ,,.•••, 3p.i) ^(j
^^^^ •••*..• V* •!> f./ j9i -lG/infx»
Loss .>.K. . V ..^rffftnn \o
< M4 Thenard asserts, that bitartrate of potash eoiltolnfitlBCstft
tartrate of potash thaa is necessary to saturate theiJtertndife
of antimony/ and he states that this exeess ' ofi'itbi^salt
'lieauiias in the mother water. This is certainly 4- midULk^i^
levystats of tartarized antimony are procured froin dmoBltinc^iftt
>^h>p>of the solution. " ii i^tib
j Ncnr if, as already supposed, 2 atoms, or 182 of tattarioigc&d
combine with 1 atom or 48 of potash to form the bittrtratei lit
'» efident that M. Thenard^s analysis must be ihooree6% fordu
that we find the quantity to be 34 to 16, or 132 td 6M»l;
aor will the error be rectified by apposing the 4 pai*ts of loss to
be tartaric acid» for the proportion even then woald be 132 to
66-67.
tn his Essai sur la Theorie des Proportions Chimiques, Berze-
litts has given the following formula to represent the eonetitutioii
fi# ^hat life terms taftra's kalico-stibicusj 3 Mt^ Aq* -f 4 Sb
r:^' Aq\ These symbols I have not attempted to decypW, Mf
JSaiAMt' iieeesaary to do so, for the composition of the salt in
hkiactaAtli 100 parts aa follow : ^
1'^ , Tartaric acid. «....••... .« 63-20
;,, Potash \ 12-63
Otide of antimony .. ..^ •.••.•• 4 .« • 27*10
-Witer. •.•..*...,.*... ....*. 7*17
ii.l
% i t
y. . lOO-OO
,i\'*S«:aiimiittg these results cm the same principle as the analysis
^ybf^M. Henml, it will appear to be alsb incbrrect, for if 1^ of
' i^Tpum atnd combiite #ith 48 of potash, 63-20 should untie wijth
t]#^MiiMtead oi* 12rd3'a8 above quoted ; the quantity of oidde
of antimony is also very incorrectly given, aiid the ofdy «tatddiient
which approaches exactness is that of the quantity of wat^ r.
Dr. Gobe)^ in Sehweigger's Journal {Afmalh vok viii. p^ 151,
K. ^4i^tates the results of his analysis to bei
H»lf 4<^.Jf«i#iiii>-.4i«i«Vi^^3VN<^^ ^
uxide of antimony •. •• •«^««.. ....•• 42*60
Water 3-7^
if v*-\'r'
Dr. Qdl^til considers the atomic constitutian or the salt to l^e
3iiivalei(^t to 4'atom of tartrate of potash, 2 atoms of subiartrate
anttm6ny; :«nd 2 atoms of water ; but as 132 of tartaric acid
require ^^fof potash, 46 must unite with 16*36 instead of only
O'tS as stated : this analysis is also incorrect as to the quantity of
afiatei^ilMiAf'tiiat^the oxide of antimony is not ?ery far:ilt)m
sMrantrlithiri ^
iljisMiritBrfeinde^ in his Manual of Chemistry, vol. iii. p.85, st^ites
lAc^^^Alrs Knllipa has shown that emetic tartar coneista of ICO
jaiiiallrtrtgtttfr of potasva 4* 66 protoxide of antimony. If we ^b«
•ider it, with Dr. Thomson (System, ii. 670), as a oom^untli>f
i]Sbpiopi«liiDiia]s of tartaric acid, 2'ofprotoxide of antimony, and
jil ,0ff pMbSia ; t>r as containing 1 proportional of tartirate 9f
opolksM «nd of flubtaftraie of antimony, its conmonehts w91
.iliifrdlhtts:
2^; r tait^irio apid 62-6 x 2^ ,. 125
Protoxide of antimony 62-4 x 2 =x , ., 106
Potassa =s «.,.. ^««»..««, •.«,, 45 . >
I xic:---" '■ • • 276''-
cc ]^<^ i| is to N ofas^rvod tkiil; my atoteatieat raspMkii^ iim
solvent power of supertartrate of potash (Experimental £xami«
i«atwiif« 86), is that whon eqiifd parts of ihe «dt and oipde tire
^boited logger in wtter, 70*100ais of the exide ateidisiMiiMiL
I It is« bowevaTj to be remarkedj that the composition of ta^talted
antimony cannot be inferred from the oxide dissohed by the
' common, bitartrate of potash, for it always contains about 6 per
cent, of tfirtrate of lime. In addition to this, it must also be
proved, either that the bitartrate of potash and the antimonial
salt contmn no water at all, -or only that quantity which pre«>
yiously existed in the bitartrate.
In bis Manual of Pharmacy lately published (p. 264), IMbr.
/'Bmnde observes, the '^compositmn has beea irsaietaB^Jriitecly
«:aiul. experiments are still wanting to demonstraite thib.Ma^il^e
:'{»ioport«ons of its component parl^ : its n^ost probtiide oooBposi-*
:3ttif n is 1 pftoporttonal of tartrate of potassa, and I of smbtMMMte
.K.:ef(mtiimQiiigr# oTy! • ••. . .. ,... ,^ ,.,
.., V, ., i ,. . , . ..« . » . . - ■ ■ • ■ i ' '* /.
« ,<
tm. 4%«6l»j(l^«aiiii^lu>^7<M«»(M^ {|Aet|
Tartaricacid •«••••••«••• = 67 v' c-: ?jr:i
Yp. .. ;: V TroUoide ofatii»moiiy.(53x2); r... » .106 i .a
'"^' •■■ ' " ^"'■'^^^^'^
r Thiiii however, is an incorrect view of the subjtol^ "for ifestq^
ponfifr the sait to be anh}rdrou», which it'i&.QOt^aiuitthc&t^atolhf'
oiloxide of antimony assigned is too small. Ind«^ Ymivkmanbi^
timed the results of my experiments to Mp. . Biwide, i£«idbM
stated the composition differently in the table of vequiifolmila^
^diog in a note, '^ According to Mr. R. Phillips r' iniw^itektoi^
igiy^&ij the quantity of protoxide is underral^..by{OQd-{n€np08^
tional." Stilli however, the statement is inconeect^ «Bqtieaali
{presently show. :jh io il^cn?
The quotation just made from Mr. Brande.'s. lVIati«idiQ€£SiBq^
inislary contains the opinion of the atomic constitt^tiooaf [tattar-
iked antimony expressed by Dr. Thomson in his Syst^^ ola his
jvsw work, already alluded to, Dr. T. observes (voLiiiip«'.f440^
'^Ijfo! accurate analysis of this useful salt having been^aithaIt0
silade, I took the following method of ascertaining itB>;Gdaii(b'
iuents: 50 grains of picked crystals of tartar emettOMmrtirilift-
bohredin distilled watt r, and a current of sulphuretted hydiamn
inffi passed through the • liquid as long as any preeipitaib^tt.
The bydrosulphuret of ahtimony thus obt^ned, when dtied Ibi
the open air, weighed 42*21 grains ; -but when heated ia ar^elnaa
tebe^wa^r was <hiven off, and a black matter remained, mibh
weighed 24*59 grains, and which was sulphuret of anttmou]^,
b4^u!vdentto 18*032 grains of antimony, or 21*31 -grains of pro-
idmle;o£ antimony. • -v^r
rf^Shebquidtbiisfreedfrom antimony was evaporated cantidtislff,
«ii|i'^iqnaiitity of bitartratC'Of potash obtained, which weighed
42fln69^.glaias4 But the inte£;rant partiole of bitartntte of potasli
hitai^ 24*76 ; and 28*60 : ^24-75 ;: 21*31 : 18*384 » the pn»-
)tD3Q3& -oif aptimohy united to an integrant particle of bitaittste
Jdf potash. Now the protoxide of antimony weighs 6'5^* ftod
lfe6rx<3'W 19*5; this is a little more than I actually- fomid,
b^anlse iteit of the sulphuret in my experiment adhered to the
'iglaa» tilfae^ and could not be coliected without loss. From this
eiperiment, which I thrice repeated, I have no doubt but <iHe
sDOnilitQBnts of tartar emetic are,
■ ' i atoms tartaric acid . . i 16*5
i/l<v. - >{■ y-**<'*°s protoxide of antimony.. ... ^^ 19*5 , , j '
lin.hru/V 1 atom potash • - • • - ., JJ . , ,, j^
'rAvHW •^"^^.' WPS water .. . • ...•*.... Z*^o .j , ^^^^
}o il j8haU i»ow proceed to state tli«: iffumU^rof 9»nfa||^yik,
iiig)ftlimd3r quoted from Mr. Bfan4fb( #ro* If'towjtblitifrf^^
tn»9 i^^^ifiMi^^ikfikif^ mt
ti Dr. Tllodbson kui, a eAems of pH$«^«^ir (N'^ftM^ony from
this sftlt. * • • . . ■ . ^ • v r * . b ^
A. 100' grainfi of briHiant small crystals DftaH^ftfte^^ antimony
reduced to powder were heated dunng eight hours at the tem-
perature oJr212°) they lost only 2*1 ^ains; but as bitartrate of
{ifiladi ir^aiM the trater of crystallization wbenexpcisediBo a
ffMugr^Kt^rhMt/I subjected 100 grains of tartcirited antitBetix
fedoc^rto {towder to a higher temperature. Takidig tho
BrtihaM^f s^era! experiments, I found that the salt los«^7*^rp6f
litfntJi^yrpeviral'^dars' exposure to a sand heat. Wketioiie
|s>ltiohpd#hich ksfiA Ibst 7-4 per cent, in this way/ was* heatedby
«(<Bnin|-hRom: so us to strffer a further dimintitron of 0*4, i(:i^at
Hsoeiipmea^ljiad becoming of a brOwn colour, it emitted. the
smell of decomposing tartaric acid. I consider, therefore, 7^
fBsiCbdoil^S' the quantity of water. . \'
-ifiBfiil tattempted to ascertain the quantity of oxide Of antfnieavf
mftito different modes. First, I decomposed a solution • 100
^iM^a^ofi the crystals by carbonate of soda, assisted witbhiaut^
4lte>ftn^n i>f two experiments gave '41^35 per cent;; butihe
-alkalies 'beipg imperfect |irecipitants of antimony, I treated -dit
^nihitivm' afterwards 'With sulphuretted hydrogf^n, which g&Fe/n
sBCpnlof 2^8' of precipitate diied at a modemte temperature,^ €rnd
.#ttcdi I conceived to be hydrosulphuret of antimony eomponoi
mi I "atom of isulpburetted hydrogen 17 + 1 atom^protioxAderldff
jniuinoiiy 62< =: 69 ; if then 69 contain 52 of oxide 2'8 3«>124h
iMiibh, added to 41*36y giyes'43'46 us -the quaintity contoincilfiii
«)60tpartftof thesalt« . ; r 7/
'Oi^.t^ Ailer this, and in order to confirm the above stateikB9iy(j>i
treated two solutions each of 100 grains of tartarized antimonymlAi
evtiphuietl^d hydvogen gas ; the precipitates aft^ being dn^d^bu
k^ihiid''heat gave a mean of 61*25 gntins. Now, if >weiq^Biii^«iii
HogPrn supposed, that this precipitate is hydro8uIpln»et?i>f ^ddUfi'
«oqy^ and of which it possessed the appearanee, i^fbimaii
BKtfmony contains only 3&*() instead of 43*46 of pro^oxidcy^clf
laotimony as by Experiment B, for 69 : 52 :: 51'25 sIdSffif it
.mw be further observed that the quantity of precipitate icibtaidoi
.^^Cy as well' as the inference as to the quantity of oxade wbicbjl;
jcOfitsinrs, agree very nearly with the> previous detefmjttaibiiDSiBs j^
.Tbebard'. • •- .^-'uvinitcixd
These discordant results, repeatedly obtained, ^pinzleklnmB
exceedingly, and I adopted two modes of detertpining the
quantity of oxide existing m the dried hydrosulphiirfe^
D. I dissolved 45*6 griains of protoxide of antith6ri^ in a solu-
tion of bit^trate of potash, and then precipitated It py sulphur-
etted hydrogen, after washing and drying in the sTame mode
as befoi^, tpis precipitate weighed 52*8 grains ; and, as it had
the appearance of being ian hydrosulphuret of antimony, I sus-
tinHs^d£thnt if<^«iy^Mbh^to^u}^uret consietinK'^ h^^ttx of
.tatplltli«tWiIh|^d!r0^ii^'atia^ ^ioxsA dl <)^id« for iwKikoiiy^rioh
fjwfti attppoBitiOB I ought to have obtained 53-06 of pvfcipiCaUit
iMtefid of 52*8; and it will be observed that supposiog ttiV^.|Qj)%
l^^^tFUe cqnstitotion of this eubptancoy the reftiMt* ikifiwdX^ag^^.
with those of C as nearly as 43-46 to 44*04^ for «HVh]HifMriK
|Jiuvei of antimony must consist of 52 x 2 + 17 =: 121^ and
121 : 104 :: 61-25 : 4404.
E. Further to examine this view of the subject, I .Jissol;^^
100 grains of sulphuret of antimony and 100 grains of the^ pi^
ci{>itate in question in separate and equal quantities pf nxur^w
acid) and decomposed tne solutions with similar pottiobs In
water ; the precipitate from the sulphuret weighed 86*7 grains^
and that from the hydrosulphuret 8/ grains ; and as in 1 atom of
subhydrosulphuret) 17 of sulphuretted hydrogen, and 16 of
oxygen a:33, would supply the place of 2 atoms of sulphurs=32
in 2 atoms of sulphuret of antimonyi it is evident tjiali ea^al
weights of these compounds^ should yield nearly equal quantities
of precipitate by solution in muriatic acid and tne anusioa of
water.
. .,F. The nature of this precipitate was then examine4by ^€|atr
ingSO grains in a small flask by a spirit-lamp, and I fdun4c|)|
}§^Y surprise, that it was readily converted ipto black «idphiqf||
O^antimonyi losing only 1*2 grain of water. It appeals, th^^i^
iofe, that instead of a subhydrosulphuret as I had suspecte^|,|j^
l^edpitnte was sulphuret, containing a small quantity of bycbc^h
8iiipburet,butyet sufficient to give so much colour as to coQCf^
Uh| liature of the sulphuret. The difficulty of the case wufi
increased by the fact already alluded to, viz. that 2 atoms loi^
Qxyi^n and 1 atom of sulphuretted hydrogen are so ne^y, equal
i4> weight*
^ G., Aa then 50 of the precipitate contain 48*8 of aulpb^ret oC
i^timmy, 51*25 the whole quantity obtained, (C) must cqptaiii^
$P;Q2 ?: 43*35 of protoxide of antimony, which is the qua^ti^
4<»ntatfie<l in 100 srains of crystallized en^etic tartar. '
^,*Wehjave thus obtained 7*4 as thequc^ntity of water, and 43*3&
a^. the weight .of the prptpxide. of antimony; and having fauadir
^ .steady m^ntione^, that crystals of tartarized antioiooy t^
obtained even from the last portions of the solution in preparing
yif^ iudt, the remainder of 49*25 will give the weight of the bitajr-»
te^te. of potash in 100 parts, or it consists of
Ft .
Bitartrate of potai^h (anhydrous) • • • • 49*25
Protoxide of antimony . • ,.«•• 43*35
100-00
r .t
/! (2alculatiw i^ com^titiitiw, aocpr^injt t9 ,%aWe^H;<^' jSfci
fttop^ia ahready mentioned, tart»iWfd «i^tm9n)(,^i|l ^JOIfSSSPM
acompoynd of
^ ItUt^l m.J^oM changing the lUtidm^ i9ft
**« .0> '^ •, • * . . . -. .:./•. ..mjoiijiite
ff^ litom of bitartrate of potash*.., »..il80 *...49'M^
7* 8lifetnsof protoxide of antimony (63x3).... 166 .i.^ 4&^
■^ I'it^tBS o^ water (9x3) 27 . , . j 9MW
363 TOO-OO
^ccQfdin^ to Dn Thomson, as already quoted, the atomi^
te&ht .o^ tartarized antimony is 354, diffeniig from the Ahoyp
ij\^topi lesp of prater.
to in"J' ' I
'k) ^'1 ^ I
Article VIL *
liOfi cAitmgzffg //le Resideme of Fishes. By Nicholas Mill| £sq4'
i* . . (To the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy,)
GENTLEMEN,
"■^•In feadine Dr. Mac Culloch s paper on '^ Changin? the
R^iiidekibe of certain Fishes,'" in the 34th number of the Quar^
Ichfty Journal, t was impressed with the importance of the t»ibi»
j#(tto society, and I conceive that any facts which can be <^-»
Rfcied in corroboration of his statements, cannot fail to b^
intelresting and useful. I therefore take the Uberty to forwditd
tt>u some facts which have come under mv observation respect^
mg the habits of the salmon, and the likelihood' of its being
ddmesticated (if I may use the expression) in fresh water lakeil
and ponds. The salmon has many peculiarities in its historjf
and mode of living which are common to most of the finny tribe
tttAi are inhabitants alike of fresh and salt water, and sotee
#hHSh others have not. The salmon during certain months df
fiie year is. an inhabitant of fresh water rivers and lakes that
communicate with the sea, and apparently for the sole purpiosie
0^ depositing its ova Or spawn. It then again betakes itsm to
At «ea lo recruit its strength and vigour, but, unlike other vtgtgc^
toty fishes, its retreat cannot be traced ; for it is a liingulaf mcf^
fhat salmon have never been taken or seen in the salt v\rat^flllr
from the mouth of some river, and there only at certain seiasohtf
of the year. The herring, the pilchard, the mallet, and the
mackerel, may be followed from one sea to another, and from
one creek to another, but not so with the salmon whose hidings
placeis a mysteiy, yet to be solved by naturalists. The genem
opinion entertained upon this subject is, that they do not wan*
d^r far from th^ ebores of the fresh water rivers they frequent^
irom the well known fact d&atthe ^a^Tie salmon will always return
to^ the sam^ river to deposit its spawn ; and if they do migrate to
^~ i nbrtlvsrti seas ^Whieh isome tiaturalists maintain where th^
!%&t^«ftf abtmaakl&e, but alw*ays, it must bie remembered; m
3otf' Mr.' miil on changing the Residence i^Jriskes. [May,*
communication with some fresh water lake or river), it is giving;
the sjpecies credit for greater sagacity than we usually find
amongstthe animal creation. In ascending fresh waJbor rivers,
they surmount the most surprising difficulties; wears or dams
of 15 feet in perpendicular height do not present ain effectual
objstacle to their progress, they are enabled bjr a sfi^figit^leap
to pass them with ease. After having deposjte^d f^,®}f ;i^|^Y^>
tn'ey become lean and covered with vermin/ and fi^^^^^^r^^pAf^
unless then suffered to return to the sea, they die; butflbjs ja.Qne
of the vulgar notions which it is my business to Q<jP'^Pi^'ff|-njg4A
order to ascertain whether sea water was i^^cessary f(^^1^|vc e^^
ence and growth of the salmon, I caught some <^^^K^,^XjpXJffl}g
fish as they were retreating to the sea with an artiffci^-tS^^
8 reserved them alive in order to transport them to la fisn-MU^ ;^
it dimension of which was about 30 yards square, witn^^^cte^
bottoin covered with mud ; the depth of the water ,\vaSfirpni
diree to four feet, and the pond supplied with a running stream|^
when first caught they measured from the tip of the nose v9 &J^
fip of the tail four inches : about twelve months afterwards, fne
pond was overflowed, when some of the fish, together with some
trout, were left dry ; they now measured in length eicrht inctjc^
and assumed the shape and appearance of a lean salmon. ^ lU
tfierefore, the young salmon wdl live for twelve months in a space,
of thirty yards square, and three feet deep, and increase iii size,
the presumption is, that in water where it may range at targe,^
aiid Procure that food and situation which are most congenial io^
fijefl^tiented by salmon, to the places intended for its propagation^^
c^boo^iiig* as nearly as possible the same situation as that from,
which it has been removed.
''The Chinese far exceed even the ancient Romans in the care.
iM^y bestow upon the propagation of the finny tribe. At certain
seasons of the year, they carefully collect all the ova as fast as it
i^ 'deposited by the fishes to prevent its being devoured by the^
dlhet tribes; they then procure some eggs, and after making a
^61e i^ each end, and blowing the inside of it through, the ov|b
i& iiitrpdiiced ; and the ends being closed, the egg is placed in
am jOyeiiofa certain temperature until the young Sy nearly make"
theif apjpearance, when the shell is broken, ana the contents put
ifit^ 'Water warmed by the sun's rays. When the young broo<l
■"^'quted by this means attain a certain size, a portion pf it is*^
jrfjedipr the purposes of food for the larger species of ^shV,
ra^Wie remainder is destined for the table. • ' ' ') *
Your obedient servant, Tf. BItiiL,
I.
tru\ -';. . Article VIiI, . • - . ..<, ...{^
.^7ov i ; 10^ jfj^ 5^fo^ Spots. By the Rev. J. B. Emm^tt: ^ ^ '7
liiiiiL^c:^^; . (To the Editors of the Armah of Philosophy.) : ),
.'"f M^b^few remarks and observations on the solar sp^ta,^
WM6%L'&^^'p^thws not be uninteresting to your readers.
^I'fn cominon with the generality of astronomers, I supposed t^ei^
£ilar-S£^^ are carried round by the rotation of the saa
""^*ljflm4fe^ to be visible and invisible for eaual,
JrviL]i of time : being a convert to the hypothesis of the late
M
^^' ^observations of Stannyan and Cassini are quoted,, proving
tlilLli' the time during which the spots are visible, is twelve day§^
&m t^^t they are invisible 15 ; the learned commentators observ^
^at bf alt the observation^ which they have seen, none prove
tiiat a spot has remained in view more than twelve days, or
Returned before the 15th. Kirchius observed one from April^O
f|a July 17, 1681 ; it was twelve days visible, and fifleen inyisiblev
'fliiis- observation is recorded in Chamber's Enclyclopedia, ^thi^
authoir of which work assumes this period as well known, and
t^eivecl generally by astronomers. In the Phil. Trans. I'^Wv
ttie observations of Stannyan in 1703 are quoted ; a spot whicu
he observed for some days, was visible in the mornii^g of
May 23 (civil time), again at, and after noon, but then upon t^e^
edge of the disc ; but at 3*^ it had entirely vanished ; it wa^ upp^\|
the edge junie 7^ 3^ ; again it was on the limb, and disappeared^
/line 19'* 2*\ Now from May 23, 3^ afternoon, to Jun^i 7f,^;^
afternoon, is precisely 15 days; also from June 7\ 3^ aft^rnQoci,
tp^June 19S 2^.is ll** 23\ In the Phil. Trans. 176? (wl^^ff^
telescopes had received great improvement), the Bev. S, j^lj^'^^
Bishop) Hbrsley, from these phenomena,, calculates the altitMde!
of that part of the solar atmosphere which the spots occupy im^'.
comimentators of Newton instituted a similar problem: 'ipLr«[
Hoir»ley takes it for granted that the spots are visible to|r,jt^j
davSj; and disappear during 15 ; whence it follows that the^sdn's
radius being I, the spots are at the distance 1,013767 frpWc^i^^
center. Yet all more modern astronomers assume that tH? '^PP^^i
a^ce .concealed behind the disc, and appear upon it during .^W
^fck interval of time. Besides the observations /q^c^ei.'j^
itii|;nt have advanced many others ;. yet I cannot find ^>^.y/wp^^^
show ther return of a spot before the fifteenth day, or continue ic
on.thfe arse more than twelve'.
.. Some may reply that the early observations may be erroneous
^\
i[\4}on$0(IueQiB&of the imperfeetioa of the teleoc^^ hfin0ik§
t^ctng «iid achromatic oqjBB w^i^ein^nted : hoM^ever, wie mmf
bear in mind that Cassini^ and some others quoted, were goad
olkservard | their telescopes showed the di¥isio& of Sattira's ling
-^hifl belMi--r-thQ spots on Jupiter^ and shadow of hvi fi^^^tellicteii^
the spots of Venus and of Mars, as well as many othi^Htoftthtf
m^t delicate objects^ some of which, as the spott of ¥eiiM| 9(0
p0t Msily «eea> erei^ with Q»r. improvied instcuvmits^ ibliliAM^
Uie teleiraopas then in use could traise a spot to Ibfr ^99^i^4gfii of
tho bua'fl diAc ; than which more cannot bo deaicedr ^p^miuUsr
since they showed the entire structure of tbespotHy jirbi^IJi
leqttires distinctness of vision* Also I hare }atel]r<oneti«uBle4
^Q aerial telescopes, precisely such as wereforiftedy iisto4l()^>tf
bai an aperture 1-7 inch, and focus 18 feet^ the ic4bQr M ^ptib
tore. 3 inches nearly, and focus near 60. feet: the S^fm^fbM
powers of 35 and 70; the latter 96 and 190; in distiiHStiimi
^ey iure very nearly, if not quite equal, to an exeeUe^t 2i#wM
nittigi reflector of hix inches aperture, which showf tbe qiuixtupi^
belt' and double rinff of Saturn, with a power of bOQ,- mi
showed the spots of Venv^, Feb, 21, of the present yeeJi, witt
towera 120,300^400. The shape of the nuclei and straati>0^idr
me umbras of tha solar spots are beautifully seen with all ilbe
instruments i indeed from observation I am certain, thikt: lb#
kngfocal lengths of the telescopes whose object^^ass is asia^
0Oiivoxlens» gives tliem an advantage of no amsyUl mt^niteiUi
pirer every other instrument in certain cases. As I ^fdl tfoaUa
l^ou with some observations made with these instruments, when
those I' shall have had opportunity to make are su6l£iently nnh
Mfirous. I shall dismiss the subject for the prei^ent, assuring thos^
who will make trial of a good plano-convex lens of crown gima»
^&oa^f20 to 50 feet focal length,, that they will find, under. judi«»
eioas management, a distinctness of vision possessed by fem
iaetruments. «
.fThese remarks I have been induced to make, to prove ihaltl
flimicoaviiieed fromactufid and long continued observationsytfaali
this extraoidinary phenomenon is not to be ascribed. to impoM
fection of the instruments ; nor can it be attributed to a^y wank
of care, for perhaps a more indefatigable and careful obseffTM
thaa Casuni never lived ; and besides it is not a little remaik«»
Ue^ th&t imtil very recently the two periods were not coneideHKi
tqhibe- equal, but were believed to be 12. and 1|6 days; yet oio
IMtnal, nor observations that I have seen, have been advaiieed
m support ^f the recently received opinion. Accordingly I haiBO
inalituted a 'Series of observations; but not having yet aaaadlilo
MiAsieiit number to enable me to disoover to whset &xteiltr^
li^riod maysftppear to vary in consequence of the |pi»per molMNa
(^ the spots, 1 do not propose them aS'isftfiii^ deaisiv»4r:ll
wieb to. make them publm iathe|r for the sake of tn4B0Uig other
IswiB t^oeiv^d much assifitanee from my friend Br. WmMy'^m
'^MA ftf&tflmdt dteapp^a^^ between thu 8th abd 9tbof I>«<i«8l^
bet lli^y attne western limb ; ou the 9thy 1^, there wad n^ tffkot^
wt^ti'riWtif iiiB feptdtt^ which I had constancy i^efi aboitif it:
<ta tii^€4tft^ P 4&^ there wag no traoe of the same »pot <da «ifg
W^liiittlb^'^bttt^mthof 29tl); the intermediate days beit)gelmi%^
|p b#%^tffuadefi nearly half way o?er the dise. By this obseiu
1stti(li^M«he.{^^eis(9 tiiene ia not ascertained ; yet it Ml<ywi» femtl
l^ptttHt iMl^t'was invisible) at leaist 15 days. f
b^Rfimi^'lS^&.'-i^l discovered a cluster of spots : on the 19ih;
yK4(y/>A[« meet easterijf spot was very near the edge of the siinM
ditq^ IM bmiidth was extremely narrow ; it was obs^r^ed wift dl
liiWkllliasi- mfleotor of si$ inches aperture, with powers of 99
midij190y untU about 6^ when it was not more (ban its o#if
biibViUh fi^m^e ed^e of the dkc, which certainly was ttot4^<^
•fqv ^weiftt t^le. ifow the apparent diumal motion of a s|)ei[ to
toti^O^ at a, mean rate ; hence the i; sine of the arc described
tf^asjl^ ill S4 boursy being on the edge of the disc at th«l
M^hmiligdrend ofthe time, is 25^'';,8gl6; from which dataj
omdlnde; ihat the spot must have disappeared about Feb« 13^
id> aMt^nottiical time. On the following morning there was no
ti^« of it) therefore, the computed time of its disappearing
wmmit be far wrong. Febv H^y l^S Dr« Wasse observed thd
Mehm spot, with an achromatic by Dollond, of three inches apet^
tlli^/ and pow^r about 100. The nucleus, or black spoty had
j«at entered, and the eastern part of the umbra was coiilcMe^
with the liinb« its magnitude was certainly not 4/"'; henoeii
ctttmot have beeti ou the dise above five or six hours i but I wilt
sfmipse 13^^ upon this hypothesis, it cannot have <i^ppea^etit
bdbttB 27S 18** SO*, which leaves 16* 3*» 30' for the time ia
remained invisible. The observations cannot be minutely acb»A
Hate) because the spot came into view, and disappeared in the
ni^t ; but calculating from the number of observauons- whiebtil'
have made upon the solar spots, during several years, 1 4.txi cetu
Hm the error cannot eji^ceed fivo or six hours. I have'n^
awtpioyed a micrometer in calculating the short intervals of tinie
doting which the spots could not be observed, because sin^i^
the extent of the radius of the path which the spots de^cribe'iii
liOt IftnoWn, such measures cannot be used without involving
hypothetical views ; the only certain plan is to observe tbisspie^
Wheti' jost upon the very edge of the disc, which ma<^ be doM
^ttring the long days in theTsummer) and it is on this afe<i<]riint
tbat^l^^lsh to call the' attedtion of astronomers to the sUbjeeryWi
Mriy^as^-possiible* Had the time^ which I calculate to h& %^
fia^sy been but half the sun'a period, the difi^i^nce f^uld be
l*lr^^ 90/!*, »«wBtlty ftr«o0> «tmt to fe^sowidutalfc rfM^
/rhe flwie spot diaappesred 12^ 2^ ; ami baviiig x^MiT^mM^'
view Feb. 27«» h^ 30% leaves 12* 8*» 30- for tbe thne^bfey' tifelS?^
visible. . . » «
Wheiher this be the true period, or the spots have a pcoper
motion of their own, subject to no known regular Jaws, which
sometimes lengthens the time they are invisible (but thea Jt
ott^tas often to increase the time during which W^ site m^
yiefiff} ^rnust be determined by observing tl^m wiieir nmtt^fSe^
veiy edge of the disc; and this will rarely be obiijBi'r^dfhit'^M??
entrance and exit of the same spot. Should tike p^64'iAiXi^V^
have, deduced be proved to be the true one^^ SirW; Hl^rlfcn^HlV'^
l^yp^^besis .cannot be supported ; for the luminous str^tfiiDlfVbMli?'"
what is G«dled the sun's disc : below this are the dpi^qu^^Uwdt?'''
andt^iow these the dark globe; therefore, the liude(j^t:ftf|^lj^||
first |iO diaappeiLr, which is not the case. It certainlj^ irifel
see^ whe^a tue umbra becomes invisible by reason of its p^:
to th«iedge of the solar disc : indeed, m 1818 I trad^d^f
whiob. w^ su.rrounded with a fine umbra to the very edg^ i^4A
thefe Wfui.a: fine line of light beyond the spbt, both the wA^Wfiff'?*
and uinbra were very distinct ; about half the nucleus prtj^bml ^^
beyond the umbra towards the sun's center. According to his
hypothesis, tlte nucleus should disappear, first, and even before
it comes very near the limb, which is contrary to observation;
then the umbra should disappear upon the limb, and return after
13^ days. His hypothecs does Qot .explain the .reason why. the
mai^n of the umbra is darker than the interior, nor the clouded
mottled form which large umbree commonly assume.
I dp riQ^ pr^aunjie .to produce auy. hypouiesis ; th«ir.stNota|^
is very remarkable, and tot^y dissimilar to that.of axty ^eH^ni.
with lyhi^h^we are acquainted. When viewed with ft tetoscopff
of ijjufficient power and great dislinctnesa, their fonn .preaentiint;
many-in^><^plH^^l)}6'Ph6<)^in«K^A) they are best seen.with<»lpi.i9^!)
aperture, and power of from 70 to 200. Two pieces of {)IitdI f ^
glass, each smoked .on one side, glazed with the smoked sidtff
towards each other, interposing a margin of cai*d paperto pr^^i
vent their touching, is a preferable screen to any of the coloured
glasses; and if made sufficiently large, the glass is.not UaUe.t^/
e split' by the heat, an accident to. which f have alwj^s fgaind^,,:
coloured ^lass fixed, into a brass ring sp liable, that I ^cm.w;^ .^ ^j
use such a glass more than two or three times, allowing, a ^^v^^^^^
cient aperture to the telescope. The mpttWd appearance of ^f
solas'' ofse/ €i^t paiticularly noticed by Sir W. Herschell^ n)i{yj(.^,y^
be constantly seen with a considerable apQrtui;e^jif tlie telescope
o
m mp eye, toe whole, surfaoe is seen to be coverea>^Wl» ndgw"
^^l^tMrt'^^T^^ ^f '^^^^^^ ; indeed I baveneverMM W^
'I remain, Gentlemen, yours very sincerely,
leqoicf B &vi:.'' . . J, U-lSMllBTT.
^^<^imf,|4^ ppper on die Maib^naticat Principles' ef
^^J^^^B 4iIm^^ J^anie f calculations on ti^ supposition tlUit
flpr^Qt3}jf%t|i)f<)\jtl)W« is proportional to the '
^^^A^Srfwi^P^^^ In making the selection of matt6r> I
^^t^HofhRIf ^^^ '^^^^^Mgbt to have been at the commence* ^
m^UljL^inljbj^tia this case, cohesion, and all corpuscular forces,
''^^^tfSldP^^^^^'^^^^ follows as a corollajiy from the.ordi^' '
iM^j|ifgi^.9)[ jil^ieviety treatise ^n Flus:ionB, ^* To find the attmc**^ -
tiojmc^^iptyrg^s^^ to ^a right line,'' or from Prop. 90, of Ifewtcm's -
^ru^f/j^f¥0%hi^y sjihstituti/ig 9n evanescent or elementary '
nrioiL; uued.the force becomes .infinite in contact, and indefi- *
nit^^^e^,: at indefinitely, small distances^ The cproUary ' ^\
adm}(]9.j)^jbwo cases ; first, where the forpe acts in Ihe direetioii
of 1^ jjItW ; secQudly, where perpendicularly to it.**^. B* B«
• Klrf- ^ -J V .^ . * : . ■ . . . ■ \' ' '
. ■■ " ■ ■ ' ■ ■ ■ ■
• ■ « • •
• PrtfceeSings of Pkilosophical Societief.
,.., Article IX.
; aOYAL SOCIETY. . . . '
«
. JtfM'H.'^M. Gay-Lussac was admitted a Foreign MeBb1>ei« ^;
and^enfy Harvey, Esq. -a Fellow of the Society. . . \]
~ "Bib reeding was con&menced of a paper, entitled, '^ A Mono*'
gra^ en Egyptian Mummies, wi^ Observations on the Art of ' ^[
Eomdmittg ei»6ng the ancient^ Egyptians ; by'A. B. 6rahville,[
MIXERS. ;
jtoifii 21 .-— The reading of Dr. Granville's paper was c6hti- ^ /:
nueck • ' , \^' r ^. -^f
LTNNBAX SOCIETY. 'j
March 1. — ^The readings qf Dr. Hamilton's Commeat^tPfjf^ c)cj
the 1|itrd parti of the H^ue' Malabaricus, and Messp». SpeiiToi )^
haid^SjimidWhiteBr's eclogue of Jforfolk and Suffolk JB^p^ ^^u
werg (^bhthiued ; aod on . .iirMiio
JHfaifch IS, the reading of the atter communication wa^ furtaeUr^io?
conSlftifedr • \ . ,,;.; r.-^ yd
dq^r^ s5.v .- ASTKONOMICAI4 SOCIETY. , .:, (. v-ry ^d
iCnri^s-TTA j^ap^t was^^adi ^' 0^ the ilesults of £k>tmitit^ '^^^
tioj^ l^nf^cat Observ^ns made at ParamatU, itt^ew
Imp MerieSf vol. ix. 2 c
> • • /
Soiitti WalM, TO^r tli« direction of SifTMfM
KGB' \ ^nd the apolieatioti tberedf to ior^tigatd th« jbeai
of liBdertatiobs maoe in Ih^ Hortherrd hemisphefre« Bf&e
John firinkley, DD. TRS/' Anxious tO thro# ftome new lieii^
on the Bubject of the discordance between the north polar dis-
tances of the principal fixed stars, as determined by Continental
and EogUsh astronomers. Dr. Brinkley wrote to Sit Thomas
Brisbane, to request his Excellency to make soni9 obseraitibiit
at Pammiitta. Sir Tho«nas immediately ocf mttentaetf ihsnitt^iBrt-
ant labour ; and on a series of three months' olMfrYatbtef^ftMs
November, 1823, to Febraary, 1824, eoammikafced to» Aiir^a^
ciety as well as to Dn Brinkley, the Doctor haa^foiiiididttK^
computations and compariscms which are commnuiidi$4 imiMk
|MiMr* - ui'>) "'A
The sum of the polar distances of a star obaefved iatbeftlfo
hemispheres ought to be exactly 180°, if both aitt''c<
observed* Also, on the hypothesis that the mean
the same in both hemispheres, we hate an otoortanifejr of<S|Jh'i'
taining the united effects of refraolion^ instead of the diffeiettdi
between the refraetion of a star ne«f the p<4e and of wi^Kgtim
]^lar stan^emoie therefrom. ;r lyi^hi
ia regard to ihe distance between the Ixorth and iifetk pQio^
by. combining Dr. Brinkley's observafions with those m-QU
Thomas Brisbane, the result is that Ae mean of 141 soutli pelar
distances deduced from 141 of his observations, and appliiadraa
Dr. Brinkley's north polar dtstancee » ITQ"" 59' 58'',^ or i^.QB
in d^ect. Dr* Brinkley's refractions wese applied to the-snitlifr
em observations, using the interior thermometer. The a
mean^, obtained by using Mr. Bessal's nmlh polar ^listanees
oopsputing by Mr. Bessers refmctions (^Asiron, ]?tmdam^M
|b<r f^^'ov* thermometer)^ is ISO"" (/ 1 V2 or I V^ m mrM^:
Pr Among the observations are some by jpefieetimi.
afford us the means of determining the zenith pointy and thenoa
the distance betwaett the senilh and polar points, or the eo^
latitude.
.. ,t
/■>
Oo^hititudebyOwioptts Bff" IV 8^68
=-a- Sirius 9 ,16
' « 'Famalhdid 9 ,96
Mem = 56 11 9 ,26
Latitude s 33 48 oO ,75
-■ 'S
3° The results of observations on &o^A thejK>Utice8 of li)sl2
SMear to show the latitude of Paramatta == 33* 48^ 42^f.—
^^f31f J^er Ast. NackrichtCjU^) . v . .i
tlie observations of the' Deb. solstice of 1821 dm ihe'nm
ifi^ dk^ttceof the solstiat poioi Jtm. .1^ iB^i ts lQf':21^2^^.
• * • • • *
'-^r.h . : ' Latitude 33 48 49^
IjUiic-r.;' ?:.'■■ ' ■ •
<{/?tf ^W^ wm Mr. Bessel'd oUiquitjr = 23P 07' 45'^66, the IftliM
-ii3^i3vri«ife of ^ %hB obs^valioBS shows thai Dr. BrinUeJ^'4»
jiiBlTf iinictrf t refcftctiott (67'V2) is as exact as can be demt^^
iifeB(llie)t#f0aMioiis itra coilipiited by the internal%hetmom6tet ^
^Mto ttiMf . li^hcsi^ daBapated t^ - Ibe exttfnal thennometef ^ Mf •
Brfsnt 1 'j^mftacrtw rcnifiire &o eorrection worth Dottce*
A commuineatioh was also read from Colond Beaufoy^ in*
ob^|jfiai}S^tie» cf obserraiiioils of JujHter's satellites^ at Bushey
MlaiA^»elar StttOEBOre, between Apnt;^ 1816^ and Deo^tnbefi
l68A^ojayb aaoAet series of obserralions of solar atid loaaf
entifM^ taid Menltalioiie of stairs fay the Moon> ock>itrft&g id
lIctMiite nteiral of time^ from 1816 to 1924 indosited 1^
iiii'i[iiUiil nriTiniilii'ii satellites wte so recorded ad to show tb6
memsk tim^at Boshey^ mean time »t Ghreesbwicb^ add then tb#
pHi»| as exhibited in the Nautical Ahaatiac The dist^pej^anoes
MMnii ikm reAultB olobserviitio& Md the Nautieal Ahnanad ire
bbM(Baf^:&mM terf coBsiderabk^ Breii with re^^lx^ to i^Jirs^
fMMki^ Urn .difii^ciaoes som^imes belied a i&ilMitl» and $i> imiS
imfiimi^^mik regard td tiie other sati»Uit^> tbe diffWonoee
sdtaMd d> 3> 4> Mid in Me o«s6 (July l&y 161%)^ nmn laiMto* df
fkum In this case the discrepance is the same with rs^eol f#
ikkGvmim^kfM db Tmu. Iki odiers Ael reflortMf has not Sad
^iiaiO to wmpars;
Tha reading of Mr. Atkinson's paper on reftaetioft wa» ielsd
mmB^ and e^tiiiii6d.
0'>fi"'' • - ' ..-•»•■
^^^ i OBOtOGlCAI, SOCtSTY*^ .
J4if^ 21.-"A paper tvas reftd, entitkA ^ On ffie f felfr#ikt^
Fdr&atlotii^ t^d^y discovered in th# Eirv^its ^l^t^ (tkdid)^
Kt ^ 6hoit distance trota th^ Md^teriMean, §fi^ Md# fte
Level of that Sea;" by M. Marcel de Serres, Pr6f« of Sf ifi. dind
Geol. to the Faculty of S^enceS of Mont|)etli6t.
The freshwater formations described m this cotnnftmielttlon
bAV^ beefi examined by meaits of sieveral wells sank at about the
ttenoe of about three-fourths of a mile^ and a mile aiid a b^
M ^ M^ditettatieanj neat Sete, in the south ^of PraH6e.
^~A oetiiied account is giren en the seVdral stfdtii {^dss^
tbt(5crgb.ifi the tbiree different wells^ ktiA of tbe ofg^dic tetniiM
^l^pjyciWtaiiifed.
^ stmta ttve for the most part paralM, tod nei
From the sections it appears, there are two freshwater fbrma*
2c 3
tions with an intenremngfonnatioii of marinetot^in^ Tke ftlnte
of the upper freshwater were found to vary from abont 30 to .40
feet in thickness, those of the lower from 13 to 28 feet, the Utter
being sometimes lower than the present level of the Mediterra-
nean.
The marine beds which are interposed are from 10 to 1 i feet
thick.
The freshwater strata are composed of niitnettiub tlteraatiDe
'calcareous and argillaceons marls, and campact jKimMriacMifBmQ
tiieir organic remains consist of a few bones of imi qotftr^ifedB
mitch decay ed, a variety of freshwater and tefreatiaiilfriwpW th^
'ktter in the greatest abundance ; the sfaella* ^ffeni% jittrtii|iifli^
but not in genera from the present inhabitMit»jof,liit ^iMie
cofUfitry ; and lastly, some traces of vegetaUes^-eUeflyKDMiaae
. ' The marine formations contain ostreoe, cerithfise^ftcbsl^^lHI-
^lete list is added of the organic remains ; inii IVhm'tihri itf nlif u0f
S reservation in which the mshwatershdleave^Miild,*M»dyh0aA
e Serres infers that they lived and were dej^ited-vtfaniilhAy
lire now found ; and from the resemblaofee of tbtise^eocNtaring^
the upper and lower freshwater beds, he cimaliidM '&ttilllie
periods at which these two formations were deposited >wfiftfLnot
^ery remote from each other. Ms ttlo
' The author considers all these formations to be more iMia^
than the calcaire grossiere, and ascribes the altenouliioiikl^
marine and freshwater strata to a return of the sea, 6iieh*aiasi|^
potion being rendered the more probable by the neiebbowhiNri
^bf the Mediterranean, where simdar retiurns are stSl knQimdto
^take place. ».:<•«*
• -Feb A. — ^This day being the Anniversary of the Socialp^iilfe
.^fbUowing gentlemen were chosen as the Officm .and .GkMn^
^fbr the year ensuing. > • ; . . b*i*)
Ftv^Mfenf .— Rev. W. Bockland, FRS.Prof. Geol. aad Ifo.
'Gxfbrd. i.i
Vice-Presidents.— Sir A. Cricbtoi^ MD. FR. and L& Hw.
Memb. Imp. Acad. St. Petersbi^h ; W. H. Fitton^ MD.FRS»;
C. Stokes, Esq. FRA. and.LS. ; and H. Warburton, Esq. JgRS.
Secretaries.'-^. LjeUy Esq. FLS. ; G. P. Scrope, Eeq^;
;T. Webster, Esq. - .-
Portign Secretary. -^'S.. Heuland, Esq. : . j
^ \ Treamrer. — J. T!aylor, Esq. :Ai
' Gouncil.—ttm. H. G. Bennet, MP. FRS.and HS.; R.Bri^
MD. FRS. ; Sir H. Bunbury, Bart. ; H. Burton, E»<i. jrw.
Clift, Esq. FRS.; H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. FRSh. and £L B|i.
and Asiat. S. ; G. B. Greenough, Esq. Fk. and LS. ; T. Hors-
i^j»,MD. FLSr; 6. ManteU,lE:«q.Fi&;.Hagh Diike6£V^^
«MM)erlaiid, KG. FHS.; W. H; Papys, Esq. ER& U^.dBiii
^fiS.^;- ^atid"?. Vetch, MD.- .- : .r -. ;i L:;ir ; •.«-;;.ikci>a
[} -• »iii8iit|ftr Mrfftlfi flC*«wVtf , q ^
isir^^ri ^ -: — Article X.
'•;:'7 -:y:.i:?
-ft?^:^'
C- ."'
SCIENTIFIC NOTICES.
'^''* '' ''' Cbemistay.
^nctL rn?>T h QM produced by the Combination of Metab.
oftia*)]e^diAntion of temperature and even brilliant ignition whic^
fUk^jAuof irtrliie ii»tant of the combination of certain mi^tab,
erii 9fifKAMKiim or sodiam with mercury, of tin or zinc with
^{plaitnpimv fee;* ^haire been lon^ familiarly known; bat chemists
9fMft«ite,}9ee' believe, acquamted with llie existence of aurjr
antfamitur-niftlaitceSy in wnich the combination of metals is
-fittDtkd'^ By the production of cold. Sir H. Davy, indeed,
'i«uRteAani4d- that tibe sobd amalgams of bismuth and of lead
thtBtfdAke{fiubi «ipon being mixed ; but he does not appear to have
^jftdhtidiiMcl'^Whether or not any dispression of t^aperature results
flArQfflitlHri^ctden Kquefaction. Some curious examples of thi^
^llfttlt^e0<$ription have been lately noticed by Diibereiner.
iofi According to him, the fusible metal is a compound of 1 atom
of lead (= I03'5), 1 atom of tin (= 69), and 2 atoms of bismuth
^fB^ -^^liyi' or it consists of 1 atom of Uie atomic combination
)«f4miMth and lead, united to 1 atom of the atomic combina-
-<^pMi^f bfttmuth and tin (Bi Pb + Bk Sn) ; and it becomes fluid
MMir exposed to a temperature of 210°. The melting points of
fliiffiGPwoys of bismuth and lead and of bismuth and tin in, a
teparate state, are respectively between 325° and 335^, and
aldtyv^ SI68^ ai^d 28()r^. If 118 grains of filings of tia^ 207
i^franis>of^lttingsoif leady and 284 grains of pulverised bismolii
(the ccmstitutents of fusible metal), be incorporated in a.disb;9f
•tdeiMkfed paper with 1616 grains of mercury, the temperature
instantly sinks from 65° to 14°. He is of opinion, that it woiid^
•^eb fail 80 low as the freezing point of mercury, were this
.eiChfefidient performed in temperatures somewhat under 32°. ,; /
^iiiik like manner, when 816 grains of the amalgam of lead
r(eoiiiposed of 404 mercury +. 412 lead = Pbflg), were mixed,
in a temperature of 68° with 688 grains of the amalgam of
iHsmuth (composed of 404 mercury + 284 bismuth » SrHg),
the temperature suddenly fell to 30°, and by the addition 0^808
«|aaftiiis of mercury (also at 68°), it became so low as 17^,:^the
•Itttal depressfon amounting to , no less than 51 de^reis^fi^-
•ISblMJr^ger's Neues Journal der Chemie and Phy^ik, Jni. I^B2^)
-lolHmiiai can be amore decisive proof that .raet^Hio jo^oj^^
iMe ^nndtt cqmBinations, dian the foregoiDg'e:q[ienmc^U^f
Dobereiner; and it is to be regretted, ther^of^i diat >q9r
nomeitoltlntt m ittpiMCDi tftate scavcdy iiffordiftMDeiBe^sBdy
qt die 8ua& time, a definite appellation for this class o£ eanb»
povnds. The German cbMnifty ni^^fs them without dBffioidt^
tad on precisely the same principles by which they express -^UB
compounds of metals wltb sulpm* l(6# We have ataready ass
hesitatioa in employing die terms seleniurety arsenktet/ :&fiu
Might we not extend the usage somewhat farther, and dengnttta
aBetaliic.aBim in g«mml by tJaa temiiiiaAiaoiffM ; thiia> {>etea»
siBfeti oliimburet* stannuret* Scc«? >* s^^
2, Cgmermn ofQalRc Add intg Ufmn hjf Qx^^^Gwif^A)
Aooordipg ta Dobereiner, vhe» % sobltioiai of g^lie ^it"^
i^[^il^ ammonia is plac^ in contact with pi^ygen g%ii it^gN^
4ufi}^ absorb! as much qf the lat^r 9S is r^ioiHte te e0i|||#
Uka wkole pf its hydrogeii into vat«r. 100 p^rts ^f «tbs f^
SJN>fb 38*09 pftrts of oxygen. In the ordiniry atwMiph^f^
|^jM|r%tareSy th^ absprption is cpiaplets at th^ ^nd pf ft^Q^ If
to M hours. While t)|i9 change is going oq» t)i6 <!^}H«ts
becomes intensely browii eolQi|re4 and opfK|uei and oft tb? MdU
tion of muriatic f cid, it lets fall a apale browu (iol$^Tfij^ey^i0
if^i^anc^, which jfo^se^m M the ciaract^i of Ulmin* Fromr
1^ e»QriQ^sn| Pobereiner cop^iders it piobable that vlmn coiii-
sisis 91 ao at»m of 03iid^ of carbpn (^iOi carbon -f* 8 wygw)
in combination with an at;om pf wstpr (s; 1 bydrpge^ -^ % Qf^y^
r) ; it is §fartaini at lesst, that if (he details of th^ efperimenl^
acottrate, the popstitupnts pf tbf^ gsllip aoid (aoQ^iM^
B§vzelius's an^^Wsis) tak^ ii| coi^iwctipfi with the sbsei^^t
COiygeq, are resolvable into this sii^ple ratio of ||toms*
VraUie acid prepared by Scbeele's process, even sfter bftviag
been crystallized from absolute alcohol, absorbs copsidieirahly
|(SSS pxwen than the sublimed acid, and it apppsffs^ therefprei
tp be stiU contaminated with tannin, or with some other forei^
lldiaisture.T^PaeumatispbP Chemie, Vierter Theil»)
3. Formic Acid. — Formic Ether^
Formic acid may be easily analysed by mixing it either pncqm-
\m^f pr in the state of a neutral salt, with froia 6 to IQ tiaiss
Its wpiffht of poiicpptrateU salpbivip acid : it is ipstantly rpsolv^
ipritb ^ervescepce into 24*30 parts pf water> md 75*70 parts of
aiMrbphic oxide gas.
]9enceitmay be regarded as oonstituted of I rolpmpoftb^
Tipour of water 4- 2 volumes of carbonic oxide gas. This supr
position is strep^hened by the facility ii^ith which it is conv^rtai
liito carbonic acid and water by the action of the oxides of silver
and of mercury*
When fonmc ether stands in ccMatact with water, it isgr^tdua)^
(Uipomposed into formic a^ ajid sl^^obol : dugjpg the wcoBipy
rflMn^'^aa ' tfaMtki AiAAIm ^Mtins jtlMQdbMt m -diseimidi^i JEo*
WWtem tli^'pi^ojiipA of fornMo ftcid wfaieh. 19 set at liberty
g^sa (imvi9«% rfctifiod bv di«tiU«tion i^ eblov^ o€«iddm)
wralat ]Dp into a splution or bicfurboiiate of potash atanduig in a
g^a tube ovfff aaerQwry. Tbq cliaei^iageiaiifaiit of gaa cowneiead
aftsr^ft &w «ibi«lM> and lasted for aboat three days 11 it was
W9#t<pQBiou8 iviiw the. }i^t pf the bhh lysa atroogest* Tl»
gaa evoiTed measuied 3*893 (German) eubie incbaa^ » 9rl^
Slina. This js equiyalent to V768 at. of formic acid. Now
e0ihbmM^igJ^ of formic ticid is 37, and that of alcohol is
IP»i»4 1:768 .: 2-232 (4 - 1:768) :; 37 : 46'8. Consequently
f^ff^ f^T w^. be regarded as constitiited of an atom 4f
&fW^ ^ii in /combination with an atom of alcohol,
bi j^>SW<^#^r d^d^ not beoome a<^id in alc.ohol slightly diluted
m^ ym^i and behaves, therefore, in an analogous manncar
g^i^iinfLny of the. compounds of chlorine with, thp acid metals
j^Jpri wit isrsenici antimony, &cO which are dissolved by slop^
b^ withovit iindergoing any alteratipn^ but are decomposed into
IMitatio ^d ^d metalliQ oxides when mixed with wiLter.-r-
(ISi)
t'J.'^ \^^ fabie of the Specific Gravities of several Minerals.
:^' The speoiftc gpravities of llie following substances, which are
disposea neaily in the oider of the system of Prof. Mobs, were
fidcen by WiUUm Hmdinger, Esq. FRfiE.
OROEii I,— Haloid B.
I* Crypsuni,. a perfectly white . transpfii^pt crystal Arom
Oxford ,,,,...•*»., .»•... r. •».• f f. «..« • S'31Q
% Anhydrite, a rectangular four**sided prism, obtained by
cleavage, grey, semitransparent, from Hall, Tyrol . , it^^
3. Alumstone, the crystallised variety on the surface ex«
posed in the drusy cavities, from Tolfa » . » 2*694
4. The compact part of the same specim^os* • » ^' fbQll
6. KryoUte, the white cle^vable yoriety* ••.«•>••*••*>» ,2^63
^, Apatite, massive, asparagvs-green, transparent, from
Salzburg. ;....,..,,.....;, ;.,.....•.. M«»
7. Apatite, asparagus-green crystals, from Cabo deXSata* 3^28&
9#:JFIaor, combinations pf the hexahedron andoctahedton, - ^
dark violet blue from St. Gallen, Styria ; . ^ • 8'I:4&
9.. Fluor, an octahedron obtained by cleavage, of a green*
. ish blae colour, frp^ the H^rtz ••«...•••• .^^ « * v . v « 3'16&
10. Fluor, twin crystt4si pale violet bine by reflected ligb<& \ . -
y . . • yellowish white by transnntled light, Alston « , . » 3*177
U «<Flttor| jan octahedron ^btiuaed by cleavagoi pale violet. '> < ':
blue, Alston • .•♦ • • 3*178
4
btystflb; from Bohemia ............ :•; • .v. i i . f=. S-QSl
13. CSsAcareoUB spar, a brown deavable Tart«ly. • • • v ,"4 ':\ 2*716
14^,. Calcareous «par, anotlier brown cleaveiMe fisrifily^tat^V^ :^!&
^ '' presenting curved faces of cleavage • .-• ...i iV^. ; • 2*721
16. Calcareous spar, crystallised in the form of (P+ 1) f
,R + 00 , white, semitransparent/ from Alston,
Cumbeiland • .H-'.^ar. b8A*7fil
16. Catc^ureous spar, yellowish grey, small «u)itidliftk
-^^ aggregated in a granular composition •'« < J y » w^•«• 2*727
17* Calcareous spar, individuals of a columnar oompoitfi^ .S '
tion, honey-ydlow, semi-transparent. -^.''^.^^^'iH. 2*731
IS. Calcareous spar, in large cleavable individiaak^^i^B? X
reddish brown colour, owing to the admi9Dtiifea«f
oxide of iron. Tbis variety was sent finimiPatwtdH .1^
the collection at Gratz, as chaux carbomi6t 3^-
' rigire. ...v..,.v,:i. . 2*778
19. Calcareous spat, white translucent cleavaMe .mgssggyT t
^ engaged in the hydrate of magnesia Itom Unst
(see Order 6, 20) • .;; -a-e*7
20. Calcareous spar, crystals of the form of the fundamen-
tal rhombohedron, associated with small crys^Bik^ .?
of adularia, epidote, and chlorite, from I>ai;^in6. 2*508
21.. Macrotypons Itme-haloide, brown spar,'greyish whitis^' .^^
crystds of the form of R, perfectly cteavabkJu
pretty even faces^ Inatre almost pearly; is foondi rr
, . mGolHnggraben in Salzburg, in fissures of a lime*
* stone rock .••... ; . . 2-842
. ^. Brown spar, greyish white, easily cleavaUe, affording lu
^ ^ ^ " brilliant planes, ¥?rieburg. ;..;.• 2-861
j23^ l^own spar, reddish white crystals of the form R; i i
V J r ^py^ ^j.Qjjj ijjg Himmdfarth mine near Frieburg . . 2*870
24, Rhomb spar, grej^h white, cleavable, from a b^ oC
octahedral iron ore, where it is associated With
amphibole, 8cc. from Presnitz, B6hemia. ........ 2-859
* ^5T Polomite, white granular composition, forming the
. , mass in which tremolite is imbedded, from 8t:
'''•'-' Gothard 2*869
f^ Rhomb spar, yellowish white, perfectly cleavable. •• 2*878
. Anfaerite, yellowish white cleavable masses £rom
. ^ ' Eisenerz, Stiria ...../. 3*€00
^ ^ 2o. Ankerite, in granular compositions consistiiig of small
. . ' individual of a grey c(S*oor, from the laidtng vk
'''^^^ mountain in Stiria. ;... v... 3-049
29, Ankerite, a ereyish white granular, variety, from the
-^^ji..\. Lr7» xaU^y.orRptey iii Sthpta • . . . ........ #.•••« 4,«.« . .^- 3*084
90. Aidcerite, large cleavable masses, of a creanL^jMillbw^^^c
colour, from Golrath, Stiria. 089
ISO-? .i!«riebr,' forming imbedded crystels, from ffi^ ~ '
cr ^. Tyrd •.•,; ,,..•..;.. ^-001
32. Wmnellitoy i^War sfaapee. oC a dirl^^asparagus gr^ea ; ^ t
JSv 1' .colour> from Barnstfiple^ Devonsnire • • • •.. • v.* • • 2*3§/
Vf Obdbk 11.^ — Baeyte. '
I3T fled manganese, amassive variety, compound parallel
^iofjdis planes of R — oq» like slate spar, from Bes-
TST-S! <chertgluck miney near Frieburg ••«.••••. 3*428
2. Spttn^iinm, crystals from the Pfaffenbergmine, near
1S7-2 . Hawgerode, in the Harta. . , . S-829
3. Piidnalatr.zkic baryle, yellowish white, semitranspa-
Iventioyslals, from Rossegg, Carinthia 3*380
4. Rlit«id»obedralunc baryte,noney yellow crystals, in
-iile shape of rough six*sided pyramids, from Alten-
8TT'^ . berg, near Aix-la-Chapelle 4*441
6. Tvmgsten, a fragment of a yellowish white translur
'«ent crystal, from Schlaggenwald, Bohemia • • • • • 6*676
Vi^0.iStrQntianite, delicate white crystals, aggregated to .
i fiktbular groupes, from Braiinsdqrf, Saxony . • • • • 3*6^^
7. Osbmttne, fragotont of a cleavable white translucent
80d i^ mass, engaged in trap, from tbe Tyrol • • 3*85£(
8. Witherite, a cleavable variety; yellowish white, and,
semttransparent, from Anglesark, Lancashire • • • • 4*3D
9. Heavy spar, very thin tabular bluish white semitran-
• spaient crystal, of the form primitive of Haiiy, from
C'rr. . Kremnitz, Hungary 4*412
10. Heavy spar, a number of small transparent columnar.
i •.'•- : crystab, of a white colour, from the Hartz .••.*.." 4*4l5
\ »
11. Heavy spar, cleavable, very pale yellowish grey, and-
translucent, from Marienberg» Saxony ....«••••• 4*41a
12. Heavy' spar, the variety called prismatic heavy spar by; ^. ^
Werner, pale yellow, transparent crystals, very
' . , perfectly formed, and imbedded in a large translu-
cent crystal of straight lamellar heavy spar . • • • ^ « 4v^26f
13. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage, white, and ^
'. ' .' semitransparent. • . . , ,.. •«/.,•• 4*430
ML Heavy spar, yellowish translucent crystals, from ' .-
Kremnitz .•.....••«• ^.^^ 4*430
15. Heavy spar, similar crystals from Beschert^uck,
. Fneb^rg • .•..•. • . .a. 4?|45
16. ifileavy spar, .white, semitransparent crystals, from
Beschertgliick , • .•••••••••••• 4*446
'^«-.' '
A C\.
*" Thi$. & the bmehjrtypoui limerhaloicle of Mohf^ the cwbonftte oTImd and maiM^
lirrdioDke;
^m p&nbanya, TrapsylvMiat • • » • « • • #• ^ « » « , ♦ f 4-473
l^f Heavy spar^ a white transparent crystalf frwi Paft<ni>
TVestmoreland t««f#..<Yf..\*ji.«ffl#««#4«»t 4*480
19. Heavy spar^ in white faintly translucent i^oluoipar
compositions^ commonly called columnar heavy
spar^ from the abandoned mine of Lorenz Gegentr
men, Frieberg • • » . > ^ ,.,••• ^ ••• ^ •« ^ ,,« 4 ^ 4*488
20. Heavy spar, ^ single columnar crystal, pale smoke
frey^ ^anslucent, from Hiskow» near Nissburg,
lonemian where it occurs with copper py4t^<. : ; :
blende, and calcareous spar, in a kind of septana* 4'4i93
21. Heavy spar, pale yellow transparent columnar crystals,
from PrziDram, Bohemia •»«,,•• 4*210
22. Heavy spar, prisms obtained by cleavage from wax
yellow, translucent, tabular crystals, frpm Bleibeirgw
Carinthia ...71 4-679
23. Di-prismatic lead baryte (carbonate of lead) columnar
compositions, perfectly white, almost opaque, from
the Hartz , ...,,,.•», 6-389
^. pi-prismatic lead baryte, similar composition, but pf •
a yellowish colour, supeirficially almost browa^
ftomthe Hartz , ;»••••.• ^^
25. I>i*prismatic lead baryte, greyish white, easily cleav-^
able crystals, from Blelberg, Carinthia , . « • • &461
26. Di-prismatic lead ba^te, fragment of a white strongly
translucent crystal, from Leadhills .,.,•.•«« 6-465
27. Jlhombohedral lead baryte (phosphate of lead), a
single green crystal, from Zschopau, Saxony. » . • , 7*099
28. Arsemate of lead, bright yellow crystals, from Johann*
gebrgenstadt. Saxony , ».«•••, 7*212
29. Hemi-prismatic lead baryte (chromate of lead), several
isolated crystals from Siberia « , • . • • « 6*004
30. Pyramidal lead baryte (molybdate of lead), lougish
deep wa^ yellow ciystals, from Bleiberg, Carin«>
. thia. 6*698
31 . Pyramidal lead baryte, fragments of an orange yellow,
. perfect crystal, from Annaberg, Austria. ••••,,«• 6*760
32. Pnsmatic lead baryte (sulphate of lead), broad,
deeply striated crystals, of a white colour, and
faint translucency, from Leadhilla »••*••,.«.,.«, 6*229
33» Prismatic lead baryte, a white translucent tabular
crystal, from Leadhills . ..,..«.. ^ .,...•.•.•*« , 6-298
35, Prismatic lead baryte, fragments of a large semi*-
transparent crystal, from Leadhills 6*309
36. Axotomous lead baryte (sulphato*tri-carbonate of
lead), the acute crystals coiaimonly called riiom**
- h
< *^ ^ tvaoBlucenty fromLeadhilUi • • . , « •»•••,,•* • 6*2^6
37. Ax0tP*9OU9 UfA baryte, the six-aided Umiose^ of t
" ^^ p^« yeUowisk \vhite colour, semitranapareat^ froo^
Leadhilla •..••••• •.-' ,,,,..••-• 6*364
38. WUte aotimoQVy. tnmspar^ cmtals. about V'^ in
diameter, y^lowish white, from BrauDsdorf, Sax-
DJiy« > t » . » « M • - ^ * • * f • < • • • • • f « • • V * * * ^ * ' * ' « • ^*^^
ObdbrIIL — Kebatb.
1. fj[orh-or^ $1 very pure, greyish white, translucent
ZM r- ^ijietjr, compounded of granular individuals^ from
Peru • , f . , , • , • . , , 5'662
Obpeb IV. — ^Malachite.
1. Copper green, masaiye, fracture Qoncboidal 9 colour,
dark verdigris ^een, translucent, from Siberia. • , 2*03][
St Copper green, thm botryoidal co^ts upon compact
brown iron ore, pale green, faintly translucent,
- Pannat..., 2206
3. Prismatic lirocone malachite (lenticular copper) sky-
blue crystals, from Cornwall r . . • • 2'92f
4". Prismatic assure malachite (blue carbonate of copper),
fr^mentis of very pure crystal^, from Chessy. .... 3*831
5. Mala^ite, a cleavable dark green variety, from Chessy 4-008
6^ Malachite, a fibrous dark green variety, from Siberia 3'802
r -
7. Malachite, jperfectly compact, of a pale green colour,
opaque, from Schwatz, Tyro) • • . , ,
% Prismatic babronememalacnite (phosphate of copper).
Lsmatic naoroneme maiacnue (nnospnate ot copper;,
dark green crystalline coat, from Kheinbreitbach,
on the Rhine. ,....,, 4*206
9f The radiated acicular olivenite of Jameson, oblique
priamatic arseniate of Phillips, globular shapes of
a dark blue colour, a little greenish, translucent . • 4*19^
10. Scorodite, pale green, semitransparent crystals, from
Stamm Asser am Graulji Sa^^ony • . . . . 3* 162
Obder V. — ^MicA.
1 . Vivianite (phosphate of iron), fragments of transpar-,
ent crystals trom St. Agnes, Cornwall « •* 2*661
2« Cobaltfbloom (arseniate of cobalt), red acicular crys-
tals, perfectly cleavable, from Schneeberg, Saxony 2*946
3. Cobalt-oloom, showing red and. green colours in the
same crystals, from Gotthold-Stolln, near Platten, ' *
^ Bohemia 3-033
4. Tale, apple green laminae, from the Oreiner mountain
in Salzburg • « «•••••• • • • • 2*744
99u
ScitHt^wrllfoihi^h^ JHiiiErabgy •
fMm
5. Chlorite, loose scaly particles of a dark green coloiuy
eardiy chlorite of Wemer^ • • • 2*706
6. Chlorite, massive, composed of large granular indivi-
duals, dark green, from the UothenKopf moufi-
tain in Salzburg. .;; .••.••••. 2*713
7. Chlorite, of the same kind, only die individuals
smalter •.•..•,. ;'^ aa29
^8r Ofatorite, a similar variety, consisting of ^till'smnBas^d.'It&I/l
individuals •.;;j.3fl}7a»
9. Chlorite in large laminae, and most perfectly <!3ea^;«i^«^^eJinf
ble, more translucent, from the same locality . • . • 2*775
10. Chlorite, liver brown rhombic prisms, imbedded i^^^/v
compact green chlorite, from the same locality^ %*ir^k
IK Chlorite, composition almost impalpable, and ^^^^^^\nqiitli
slaty, of a dark mountain jgreen colour • • * * • *.*A>d^fi^^
This variety contains mmute crystals of niftile, Vf :s
a. Green earth, a compact, celandine green rwnetff. nA
from Monte Baldo, near Verona '.•..•.;••• "B'ttM
On account of the difficulty of obtaining it ftee^ ' '
from mechanical admixtures, this specific
gravity is, perhaps, not quite exact.
13. Mica, perfectly cleavable individuals, engaged in
granite, showing iridescent fissures parallel to the
iaminee, colour oil green perpendicular to the axis,
more brown parallel to it, from the Schwamberg
Alps in Stiria , • 2
It has two axes of double refraction, like the
- white mica from Siberia.
14* Mica, perfectly black, in a granular composition, ^
exhioiting a tendency to slaty structure, from the /
>: -^ district of Pinzgan, in Salzburg 2'ff 1 1
|& Mica, silver white crystals, from^innwald, Saxony . . 2*946
16. Mica, greenish black, in large perfectly cleavaUe
^ ' individuals, Siberia •• 2*949
17. Lepidolite, peach blossom red, compound of granulaif '
individuals, from Rosena, Moravia • 2*83i
IS. Anotfier specimen of the same. •..•••...... 2*833
Ij^, Pearl mica, perfectly cleavable, reddish white crystals 3*022
Wr Hy^i^ of magnesia, white laminae, perfectly cleavar
ble and translucent, from Unst 2*3^
(Edinburgh Journal of Science.)
'9
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^ OOTSR —
Article XL i h
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Article XIL
NEW PATEifTS.
/^Cbevalier Joseph de Mettemberg, Foley-place, Mary-le-bonei phy*
iSaan, for a vegetable mercurial and spirituous preparation called
Qjuinlesserice AtSepsorique^ and also a particular method of employing
the same by absorption as a specific and cosmetic-^Feb; 26.
J. Masterraan, Old Broad-street, for an improved methmd'of coA-
in^bottles.-— Mardi 5.
rfjir H* Chambers, and £. Chambers, Stratford-place, Mary<^le-boiie»
Hide. Jearrard, Adam-street, Mainchester-square, for a neirflKeijiDg
i^paratus«<— March 5*. ^ . ol
1 W. Halley, Holland-street, Blackfriars-road, iron-founder and
blowing-machine maker, for improvements in forges, and on beU^atv
apparatus to be used therewith or separate. — March 5.
' A, Winchi Steward'JB' Buildings, Battersea Fields, engineer, fi>r \^
piipvements in rotary pumps for raising water, &c. — March 5. V, |.
''W. H. Jaines, Cobourg-place, Winson Green^ n^ar Birmingh^iDdL
engineer, for improvements on nul-ways, and carrfaiges tobe,epa]^yra
thereon.— March 5.
Vf*- Hirst and J. Wood, Leeds, for improvements in cleaning, millings
or fulling cloth.— March 5.
J. L. Bond, Newman-street, Mary-le-bone, architect, and J. Turner,
Well-street, Mary-le-bone, builder, for improvements in the construc-
tion of windows, casements, folding sashes, and doors, by means of
which the same aire hung and hinged in a manner adapted more e&o*
tnally to exclude rain and wind, and to afford a free curculation of air.
«-March 9.
T. Hancock, Goswel Mews, St. Luke's, patent cork-manufacturer,
for a new manufacture which onay be used as a substitute for leather
and otherwise. — ^March 15*
T. Hancock, Goswel Mews, for improvements in makins; ships*
bottoms, vessels and utensils of different descriptioils and various ma-
nufactures, and porous or fibrous substances, impervious to air and
water, and for coating, and protecting the furnaces of difiR»'ent metallic
and Qtber bodies. — March 15. ' ' .
T. Hancock, Goswel Mews, for improvements in the W4ceu^
making or manufacturing ropes or cordage and other artutte^ fl^oiti
hemp, flax, &c. — March 15. *>*
J« Colling, Lambeth, engineer, for improvements oir sfirfajjrmnf'
other apparatus used for closing doors. — March 15. - ^/
A. B. Bate, Poultry, optician, for his improvement on the ftam'cf^\i^
eye-glasses. — March 15.
H. Nuna, and G. Freeman, Blackfriars-road, lace-manufhcturers,
for improvements in machinery for makins that sort of laoe conmioiriy
known by the name of bobbin net. — Marcli I6i
S. Brown, Saville^row, Middlesex, for his apparatus for giving
motion to vessels employed in inland navigation.-^Mardh 15#
J. Barlow, New Road, Middlesex, sugar-refiner, for his process for
bleaching and clarifying and improving the quality and colour of
sugars known by the name of bastard and piece sugars. — ^Marck J 5.
W. Grisinthwaite, King*s Place, Nottingham, for hia improvement
in air-engines* — March 15.
R. Wmtechurch and J. Wbitechnrch, £tar-yard, Cary-street, Mid-
dlesex, for An improvement on hinges for doors, &c. whioh wOl enable
the doors, &c. tobe opened On the rieht and left (changing the llifl^)»^
and with or without a rising bmge.— Mardi 17. '
M. Cosnahan, Isle of Man, fora'new apparatus for ascertaining ttl*
way and leeway of ships, also vpfi^cuhle to other useful porpos^—
Marai 17.
R. Hicks, Conduit-street, surgeon, for an improved bath. — ^M^ciidtf.
f. Ronalds, Croydofi, for a new tracing apparatus to tkdiitkte the
drawing firom nature.^— March 23.
R. Wilty, Kingston-upon-Hull, dvil engineer, for an inq^tweilltfC
in tiie method of lighting by gas, by reducing ^e expense ffceredfl-i-
March 25.
J. Martin Handielt, Crescent-itece, Blackliiars, and JP. Dtalvafid^
Whitecross-street, Middlesex, for an improvement in looms fbr naft-
ing cloths, srlks^ and difierent kinds Of woollen stofb, of varioOi
breadths.— March 25.
J* Manton, Hanover-square, gun-maker, for an improvement inlA<oc.
— March 25w
J. G. Ulrich, Bucklersfoury, London, cfarofidmeter-makef, At im-
protrements on chronometers.-r-March 25,
A. Jennins and J. Belteridge, Birmingham, japanners, for imprcive*
ments.iathe method of orepartng and working pearl-sheli into %<flrtoiis ;
fbrduf Afrd devices, for me purposes of applying it to dtnim^fMi ^^^:
in the manuflactare of. japan ware and of other ^€led;-^B$drclt iSdl ,
r
» * • , ^
•\* 'i . ^
I :
:.■•'. ^
Article XIII.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
lo a*
4*^
Wittd.
■r^
$d Mod.
8
-.r.
6.
3lN
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
1^
13
U
i6
IS
19
201
21
22
^
25
s
s
w
N W
W
N W^
N
S
SSE
N W
s w
w
w
N ■
w
£
N
S E
£S£ .
£
N
N
N
E
N
£
!
27
2^
29
30
31
E
E
£
E
£
£
£
E
£
Maac
29-92
29-60
29*80
30-39
30-43
30-33
30-39
30-42
30-42
30-41
30-30
30-30
30-29
30*33
30-41
30-61
3070
30-73
3077
30-78
30*71
30-49
30-34
30-26
30-16
30-23
30-23
30-22
30-18
30-43
30-61
]\Iin.
30-78
29-39
29-56
29-60
29-80
30-33
29-89
29-89
30-39
30«4l
30-32
3026
30-29
30-26
30-26
39-33
36-41
30 6 1
90^70
30*73
30 71
30-49
30-34
30-26
3004
30-04
30-16
30-22
30-18
30-14
3014
30*43
29-36
Mi^
45
48
45
42
42
45
47
50
^50
53
52
50
46
38
38
41
40
45
45
53
54
40
48
52
52
50
58
52
48
48
52
58
1£ft.
Min.
34
32
32
28
30
32
32
S9
45
48
37
37
30
29
37
21
25
24
26
36
34
28
30
34
82
30
35
38
34
33
limp.
JUbB^
21
'55
■»«*•«
48.
'. i
11
10
02
05
•^3
•32
'38
76
TIm obfenwtioiui in each Hne of the tsUe apply to a period of twenty-^ENir hoiu%
bomnms at 9 A. M. on the day. indicated in the first columQ* A dash denotes that.
4^ Mr,fhiomri$MtitemkgiealJ<mrnaL [Mat, !«».
RBJsARKS*
T If
* 'jr
7%M M&iUk,-^!, IRat* 9. Fine day: ndiiy ni^t.' S. niM. 4. 8«im W^
p.m^: eo)4wmd all. day.. 5, 6. Fine. 7. Cloudy. 8. Hoc 9. Otoftlf-
10: CHoomy. 11. Rainy motning. 19. Clnidy. U. Olootay. 14. tan* M»
duamonlng. 15. Fine. 16. Some aiow at intorals daring the day* 11— 91. Hmw
tk. Gkmdy. 83—86. Fine. 87. Fine: a lunar ooraoA at night. 8I. White Afnats
cMdy. 8»-«l,
d&K
RJBSU|iT8. . l .*irtdm
'.., j%jD'**14
Winl«» N,3; NB,#; 1B^ 9; SB, S; S, 1 ; SIT, 4; W, 1 ; NW,>. ^^^4
* «
:fewoRieter: Mesnhca^t .V*jv«K
FWtfae month « ^lti«94N%d
For the lunar pedod, endims the litfa 9MM <^*
Fir IS dtqra, ending the 4th (PMOD noMh) :.. 30*1^ \^'*'
For 14day8, ttding the 18th (moon south) • 30*378 . ; i «/
rXwiiright ,, ,.;
« «
Fortfaemonth ••••• ••••••••••••^ 39*961^1
For the famar period^ endfaigthe Uth • ••••••.••..•.. 39^14,
• For 89 days, die sun in Pisces. .' ....•.••..•.. 40*;$^
Bnporation .....,••••••«••••.••• 1*30 hw
Mtin .**. >76
Aadhyaiieoond.gttige ..: (HH '
* .. .:;
i.
Uianaor^, Stra^M^ F<ntrih Months 15, 1885. , fU QOWi^BPt
ANiNALS
OF
PHILOSOPHY.
ISIJ^t:.. JU^E> 1825.
I Article I.
Additional Experiments and Remarks on Light and Heat.
By Baden Powell, MA. FRS.
(1.) In niv last commuDication I mentioned several experi-
ments I had tried, by way of varying the principal ones, on
which my conclusion relative to the existence of two distinct
species of heat, in the emanation from luminous hot bodies,
depended. I now beg leave to lay before the readers of the
Annals one or two other experiments having the same object in
view. These were made with a large differential thermometer
having the bulbs differently coated, as bereafler expressed. It
was placed with the bulbs exactly in a line from the source of
heat, each being alternately nearest; and each being tried with
and without the intervention of a glass screen. If the effect
were due to one simple radiating agent, the ratio of the effects
on the smooth black and the absorptive white with the screen,
ought to be the same as without: the following results however
indicate a considerable difference ; the divisions are not Lesliean
degrees. The first column describes which bulb was nearest
the source of heat. They were nearly three inches asunder, and
at about two from the flame, and six from the hot iron.
Fbme of a candle. Effect in 1 min.
Screened. Exposed. • ^Wi i
Indian ink 2 4 ,rfhuh
l^in brown silk 0 5
Aiguid Iwnp. No chimtiey.
Indian ink 3 4
Thin brown silk 1 3
-' Incandncent inm. Effea in 30 seconds
Indian ink 2 4
Thinbrownsilk 1 i)
Neto Striei, vol. ix. 2 d
402 Mr. Powell on Light and Heat. £JtKE|
Aigand lamp« Xhstniment itiitioDttrj at.
Screened. Exposed.
Indian ink ».••...... 9 12
Silk 1 8
(2.) In an account given by Dr. WoUaston of his celebrated
researches on the chemical effects of solar light (Nicholson's
Journal, 8vo. vol. viii. p. 293), after showing that the gree^..
colour which is communicated to guaiacum by the vFolet rays, m,^
removed on exposure to the red; and that the same effect b,
produced by the application of hot metal by conduction, Dr.W.
makes the following remark : —
*' The last experiment may possibly appear to have b§€p«
unnecessary ; but until it is explained why the heat that accom-
panies the sun's rays penetrates the substance of transparent or.
semitransparent boidies, while the radiant heat fron;i a fijr^ .ha»
scarcely jpower to enter even the most transparent, but princi-
pally scorches the surface, and is thence slowly conducted into;
the interior parts : no degree of caution upon a subject so imper-
fectly understood should be deemed superfluous.^' r. 297.
I have quoted this instance of the distinguished author's judi-
cious and well known caution as a contrast to many passages
which might be found in the writings of some of our most
eminent philosophers. The confessedly imperfect state of ow
knowledge upon these subjects must show the importance of
every step we can with caution and certainty take towards the
elucidation of them. Instances are not wanting in the produc*
tiouB of very distinguished men which exhibit a ^reat vagueness
and obscurity of ideas on these points, an evil which has pro1b»*
bly been much increased by the adoption of theoretical views
Inspecting " calorific rays," " luminous caloric,'^ " non-lumi-
nous light," 8cc.
(3.) As bearing upon an important part of the subject^ I am
led to notice the following theoretical view of the mode in which
a glass screen acts, on the supposition of an actual radiation of
heat through it, given by Biot : (Traite de Phys. iv. 636) . » • . r •
'* Si I'air a travers lequel la transmission s'op6re, absorbait une
portion sensible de ce caloric][ue, et lui laissdit un passage d'au-
tant plus libre, qu'il emanerait d'un corps plus chaud. On verra
tout-a-Uheure que cet effet a lieu pour les lames de verre, quand on
les interpose dans le courant calorifique ;" &c.
If this were the case, it is difficult to conceive how a thin
plate of glass should cause a less diminution of effect than a
thick piece, for the thin glass would certainly ^b^tract much leas
heat, and the more heated the glass became, the less heat it
would absorb, and therefore transmit less, both which we knpw
are contrary to the fact. '^
(4.) tn reference to the history of investigations f^^pecfjy^g
1896.}. Mt^PmeilmligkimiB^uT^ 403;
light and heat, itmay ttot be irrole vmit to ramarjc, that in a late pub-
lication, the originality of Prof. Leslie's theory seems to be brought ;
ipto question. His ^^ Inquiry" was published iu 1804, aad in his
preface he states, ^' that the leading faqts presented themselves
m the spring of 1801." In the Life and Remains of Dr. Clarke
(4to. 4§1), will be found a letter from that philosopher to Mr.
MiUtlkus, dated from Egypt, Sept. 9, 1801, in which he describes
some discussion he had had with the scavans in that country, in
^rtiich he had proposed and maintainea the theory that light and
cdlotic are identical, but only existing in different states.
' (5.) In reference to the history of the investigation, the fol-
lowing notice may also not be uninteresting. Dr. Fordyce in a
paper on the light produced by inflammation (Phil. Trans. 1776,
p. 604), makes a distinction between the light produced from
the inflammation or ignition of bodies, and that derived from
tiieir decomposition. He proves that the latter is the case with
phosphorus. This light he maintains to be totally independent
of fa^at ; but there is nothing in his paper which can amount to
a proof of this. He considers the blue part of flame to be pro-
duced by decomposition, not by ignition or inflammation, which
is subsequently effected in the other parts of the flame. He has
j^ointed out the fact that light may be evolved from some sub-
stances, as sulphur, by the ap|)lication of a less degree of heat
than that requisite to evolve it from the other ingredients of
gunpowder, though he considers this to arise from the former
process being not a true ignition, whilst for all real ignition onp
particular temperature is required.
These views must be considered curious ; and were perhapl^
tihie first steps towards the correct theory of inflammation, since
lio fully established by Sir H. Davy, &c.
(6.) In the Annals for May, 1824, Art 5, p. 362, the lovers
ef theory will find a view of the generation and nature of light,
as deduced by Mr. Herapath from his ingenious and r^condit^
theory of evaporation, neat, &c. which exactly accords with'
that here deduced upon principles entirely different. That phi^r
kmopher I believe in some other parts of his speculations opposes
the commonly received views of latent heat, and consequently
could not consistently bring light under the dominion of these
laws ; but it would seem that he regards light as in every respect
analogous to vapour; and thus if we admit the doctrine of
latent heat in the one case, the way is so far smoothed, even. by
^ opponent, for its admission in the other.
(7.) The difficulty which I before adverted to as attaching to
the theory of the conversion of heat into light, viz. that only a^
part df the heat undergoes this change, will, on the theory here
advanced, no longer exist. Any given body has only a definite
quantity of light m combination, and only a definite quantity of
kMt lift) wquisits to liberate \i\ th6 r^maitiing portion therefore
3 1>2
404* jiit.'PiMi in light ata'ihti^' ihiiAi
coniihues to act its Daturall part tirilSiOut ttHdei^^|% i^if^%JMfi^
:(E.y (Brande's Chemistry, i. 297/ 2d Edit'; lyaTyVSi^n^dis,
p. 2l5.) <^ Newton has put the qtieiy whethier ligM k^ti -Wii^
moil matter are not convertible into each other ? and if w€^W9i»
aider sensible heat in bodies to depend upon -ribi^tttiidds df iS^ir
particles^ a certain intehsitv of vibrations majr send'6ff^^l(itllilfal^
into free space ; and particles ihoving rapidly iti ri^^Hdes^^i^^
in losing tneir own motion, communicate a vibi^ting*itldtidiL^40'
the particles of terrestrial bodies/' . . ■^upjvAao si
Without any hypothesis as to the hatuk-e of beiat; i^'is^<)b^Mlli9
that the principle above adopted will readily explittA'^ife^icrirtWf
tibility of commofL matter into light, or at least ofWht e^ldlftte^
in a state of material combination, into light in « %^d^-MSiaM
state. Whether the light consist of particles of the btSdtii^^iHMi
which it is generated combined witn latent heat, or aF^i€^,Miri
particles entirely of a separate species, at first exii^ting litf 'O&m-
bihation with solid matter, and then liberated and 1]»roii^^4ilifli
the state of luminous elastic fluid b]r the agency of lat^t-liC^
we have probably no means of deciding. It is po'si^te^lAwi
light may be formed from certain particleiSi of the body wM^eft^lM
made to assume a radiant state in a way analogous to thtrl^Miki
tion of vapour ; but the opinion that the light is a peculiar ^lAib-*
stance in combination with the body from which it is ex(^ttiiB)l
seems ^o be the more probable one from the fact of the aibnorp^
tion of light by various bodies. -P'^
(Phil. Trans. 1817, Part I. p. 75.) Sir H. Davy has cbndlttdiSli
that the luminosity of flames is greater in those cases wtoi^
^olid particles are volatilized and ignited. This is exactly* Olflp.
foripQiable to the principle here advanced. Solid partides d^^lft
to be more readily convertible into light, tiRlerii paribliip *thAi
those of elastic fluids. They have less capacity for heat | thlM&
~ ire of the heat communicated to th^m, a larger share oaii'gcKM
le evolution of light, and a greater quantity of light is ciDn-
Sensed in the same space. ' i*
'^ Hence it would follow also that the less soKd the product tbsteMi
{iiminous would the flame be, and therefore the less heat UNSlM
)e employed in producing light, and conseijuently the ift(Mr'&
raising temperature. -i
, It may arise from the peculiar constitution of bodies/ 'dM
their lieat may in some cases be more employed in prodwiitt^
Ij^g^t, and in others more in increasing temperature orTadiiitfif^.
neat : tt|us the ratio of heat really produced in flames mtij^be
very different from what appears. **- •^'-^iJa
^ ^^i have alluded to the production of light ftbm.s<»ne Wrtiti^ttir
source^ only. There are^ as is well known, several 6tiief^4rrai MMf$i
it if <;eaerated, and to these miist the 6t^tdiAMlicfigl4)i^6iW!lliifl
i r^e can, strictly spisakih^ 'cOti^^HW't^bfiaiilldir as.
imifiMtir !«*• ITppftjOi^w. topics I ahaU p|!9b«ibly .9% scp^
feafivka at a future opportunity. - • . v .< ..
'^^^^IS^ f^Vipl^^S ^temafks ,of M^ Biot ia reference^^ to J^if
.cuibtHr M>/lfMEQ^^ IM;^. int^restiag jia counexion with the pre^^t
"Mpj^y*^ !^ i ■-■ • ". . . . I. J
:iiiM<ih iFwftt^ 4fJ Physique, vol. iv. 617.) ^' Enfin, puist^tieV
pritetoil^LQ'^firy^iqos d^ JDe la Roche, le calorique obscur',
4tJ^^^ilQi!^Pf> que Ton echauffe gtaduellement, approchW
f0y^M)Bi^u^^j^^t de^ ppnditions et des propriet^s que possMe^
le calorique lumineux, on conceit que, lorsque Teinanation com-
]Blf6M?foi^jd^^?W visible^ elle doit etre d'abord analogue &^Ia
pWl4ft)¥^9U^.c^QnAque du speptre, qui se troiive a rextr^miti^
^^t^fyh j)i^|ifS9i. G^^p^f ve-t^on quetpiites les flammes^ lorsqu'elle^
.ffiilii9lj|nQi^^ .a :naitr(Q, sont d*abord violettes on bleues, et
ll9%M^SIiS^^ %t Mapobeur que lorsqu'elles oat acquit; un plus
hitti^^^d'iutewsite., .
-ind^P4fi I^.Cette f^pgression de teintes a ipeme lieu pour let
}nifii1^r^ que retineelle ^leclrique exerce dans I'air. Je m ed 6uis
9W}f4 §fl/tnrant ces etinc^Ues a diverses distances, entre une
|l$vh^tQ .fiu^us^e et \ine sphere m^talliques : disposition qui pi^-
iqi^n^j^'oii^ir ua jet continu, dont on moderait si votontS
rirtWlait^ par FelQiga^ment."
^(i^ApMFduig to the tl^ory I have proposed, we may make tm
fettd^/reii^kuppti the points just specified. ^
rq^Vlcd^trays have le^s latent he^t than red; and if two flames be
€qual in other respects, but one of a red, and the other of lai blu4$
l^lQ!l}$A.t^^.,$empefat|ire of luminosity for re<^ lipiy^ will be lesd
|lpis#,>tbat for bU^^ rays^ ] Less of the heat will be occupied ii^
4Kmreft}og,th? ix^tter ipt.6 blue than into red light. Or agaitt
Ifj^^ thi^ ehemtcQ^l action is te$s, le^s heat qan.be affotdedfo^
lll^iforiiiiation of lights and blue rays will be formed. Wh^)^
jQM^i^ hqat is, generated by an increased action, yellow, red, Scd*
fi^ys^miEty r^?4lt. '
-o((.I0.)* 3E*h|9 incandescence of metals may clearly be regarded
the lowest sts^e of combustion : a combination with oxygen' ,
ifgiwtolM^iy gping oi|| i(vhich)L in the. ini^tance of iron at a white l^e^t^
b^QQWQiYfiry. perceptible^ from the o^ide breaking off in scates^
Xlwtitfkiqg the whole range of thephsenomenonironi a dullfi^ijl
heat up to the most intense combustion in oxygen gas^ ,we may
jS^b^e^vfJ^e m^tal giving. out light which passes through all ihe
|mto. successively Kom the deepest and almost invisible ^ed i^
;|M»disrpe5fect whiteness. ^ ., ( • "
jd TilQ^ob^^vation of the process, of combustion in some otli^i
cases, as in flames, exhibits a. different $uccession of .a|>peai'-
•AiMM^k:£^l^.at th^ loweat or 'most imperfect stage, the laVa
i|^KMif^|t:[1^lFe, violet the^e ^raduall^ pass with the
iHM9ltPgdCjR^p^<^^i■^9 0,^ comjbustion into whiteness.
«fi %lijHfi(J^vffj^w^,:^».^8Qf the ph»^ of corabtE^tion*
466
Mr: Pcm^wL^ mtf^Hut*.
tSUfm,
in which the effects seem to paiB through two different brdefe iPt
changes, but both receive their completion at the same point ^
and this difference would seem to depend on some peculiar
difference in the nature of the sources from which the -light
emanates.
. If we attempt to enumerate the various sources of lieht which
comprise the two classes described, the only distinction which^
as far as I know, we can fix upon, is that of the one 6)aisfo'Gon«
sisting of metals and carbon ; the other of sulphur, phosphor Qs,
and hydrogen.
(11.) To Sir H. Davy we are indebted for the most itnpt^rtMl
acquisitions which have been made to our knowledge Ok the
nature of flame. The observation of the different peculiar tein-
peratures required in order to produce luminosity in dilferent
species of inflammable gas, and the constant maintenance of
that temperature, while the emission of light of the same int^n^
fiity is continued, are circumstances clearly indicatifig the
employment of heat in some way in the production of light. A
body of gas must be raised to a particular temperature to enable
it to combine with oxygen, and to evolve light and heat. But
one of the most curious circumstances connected with this
inquiry is the different proportion which is maintained in differ-^
ent instances between tlie degree of heat required for combus-
tion, and that produced by the combustion. (See Sir H. Davy'A
paper, Phil. Trans. 1817, Fart I. pp. 48, 62.) These differences
woidd seem very difficult to explain or account for on any
known principles ; but if I rightly apprehend the aiidior'a
meaning, it would seem by no means an improbable conclusion^
that a portion of the heat disappears as heat, and becomes "the
latent heat of the light : of this inference, however, I only speak
doubtful^.
(12.) 1 have made these various brief remarks, being fcrily
aware that they give nothing like a complete view of the subject;
h^i I am desirous of laying them before the readers of Hie
Annahy in the hope that some persons possessing the requisite
ehemical knowledge will be induced to give a more complete
examination to that very interesting topic of inquiry, the con-
iiexion between the colour and heating power of the light, the
radiant heat, and the chemical or electro-chemical nature of (he
process which evolves them, and of the substances from which
they are produced.
ri:
** .► ,»».' .»:
^MfMK) Jlh:6ny.«(» i«M( ^(Muwi ^r $»^, s^c. ^#7
■
Article IL
ii iiW atid Description of some Species of Sheik not taken Notice
. of by Lamarck. By John Edward Gray, Esq. MGS.
, {Continued from p. 140.)
. it(>.£dif AEQlliuiiA Sicula. Testa 8ubconvexaconica,albida^toiu»,
^pPfH^tellis loDgitudinalibHS striisquemiuutis U-ansversis caucellat^;
vertice recurvo, subcentrali; apertura ovata;fis8uraa|ig\i8ti|aima
yfh $in^t\ QUoradiata* a« tnQarinatai jBom.t.18^ f« 62. /S.P.ocI^-
. ntrftdiataj Gmeliny List, 532, £• 1 1 .
.fy.^rfyl^r^sqtukmata. Testa subconvexa Qonica; costellis Icmgi-
^, tu4inalibus ineequalibus^ confertis, squamatis ; vertice recurvo sub-
^n^mtifdi; margine orenato ; fissura brevissima.
.wit MmoiT, notata. Patella notata^ Lin, Chemn. x. yig« 25,. f.
/. . Emar. elongata. Testa subconvexa conica, pellucida albida ;
.« fitriisQQtifertislongitudinalibuSjtransyersisquecancell^tai vertice
^..feouryo submargUxali ; apertura oblonga; fissura breyissima»
FxafttisE^LA cancelhta^ Patella grsBca, Montoffie,
. Fi$. cremUata. Sow, gen,
> Ms. vmttrioosa. Patella yeutricosay GmeUn,
, , Fi9^ clypeiformis. Sow. gen.
PiLEOPsis rosea. Testa oblique depresso Qonica; apertynt
i0fbiculato<iyata, iutus rosea, long. 1 unc.
, jRii. mUrula; suhrufa; pennuta et squamaformi^ shpiild
, be removed to the second section, to which also belong
Pil.crenulata* Testa rotunda, obliqu^ qonica, lufo cou<fftiv-
trice sublamellata, dense radiatim striata ; apice iniCurvQ sub-
.Allirali ; margine minute crenulato.
Pit. albida,. Testa rotundata, obliqu^ conica, albida> cmcaiv-
tric^ aubstriata, dense radiatim striata; vertice recurvo acutow
Calyptb^a Dillwynii. Patella equestris, Dilfw, G« eqfes-
.tris. Lam. is P.Neptuni, Dillw. G. Tectum GhinQni^s i^^ears
.to be a variety of the former.
G^pt. auricula. Patella auripulata, Gmelin, Pa^lU dupli-
«aita« Ma'ive pat. Galypt. extinQtorium, Sow. not La^.
Calypt. puncturata. Testa orbi^ulata-tt^nui^, albiflc^'ftk^ca,
nigro-punctata, Isevis, irregulariter subcostata> marginet siauato
angulato ; vertice recurvo, subcentrali.
Calypt. spinosa. Sow. gen. f. 4. f. 7.
Calypt. striata. Testa ovato-orbiculata, convexo-conica,
ftlba^ dens^ striata ; apice recurvo acuto ; margine crenulato.
Calypt. costata. Testa ovato-orbiculata, crassa,. convexo*
conica, pallid^ fusca, radiatim striata et obUqu^ irregulariter cos*
lata; apice acuto recurro*
4^ Mr.^fftlf«i^dikg^1Spa^ trvH^l
Cafypt. allnda. P^ojla^' 6hidetuik> Mmh^, t^ '\9f^^ 11
^ra«ea,mtu8 rosea. ^„. */ .:r;"-.v'^l /I
CalypU lineaia^ MitellaCteneiisisiJba, MtfrlfW, i: )d> f^^Idtl
122. p«^ Ga«. t«i; fni. ' --^.J
Calypt. undulata. Calyp. extinctbiium, Xam. ? ' .MiteUn CbfJ
nensis undalata, Mart. t. 13, f. 123, 124. JDm^ t. 546, ft^Qj^ -^
Calypt. alba. Testa subdepresso-c oniii^a, ulbiSay lin^tt tQww
• fusca notata, concentricd substriata, subtubikt^uM9t)f^4^di-
subspirali anfractu unico; colmnella perforatav .' '^^o»ut*)y .H
CalyptrtBa ^mma notata. Sow, gen. ' ^ • ^^^ u\\o\.Vl
Ancylus Spina Rosaj i>tip. and Lam, is la speeMtyf^Stii^
taceoua animal, and should therefore be exchidect troiii^thl^^bitrt^
shells. '" 'H''^7^ '^
BuLLiEA orientalis. Testa ovata albida peltaeil&i^'>B^lMi^
aperta similis s^d'otata. . . . .v^^s\ .n.
Bullaa li^nariay Bulla Ugnaria, Lam. on account df -llMSllbfft
•of'the shell, gizzard, and animal, should certain^ be JtllUM-^
this genus, as should also one or two of the fossil ^ped6is. ^ ' ^ -^
BuUeea alba«^as«e/^ . vv^.tt
Bulla avitralisr. Testa ovato^blonga, subpellucid^^'lim^
fusco rufoque marmorata; vertice umbilicato, long.' l^'-tai^
New Holland^ ^^S?* South Seas, Barnard^ X^pt., G. Kif^^^
Build Blesans. Yesta ovato-cyHndrica, albido-lutea^ pelhmdki
dens^ spiraTiter striata ; vertice umbilicato; columella coktato^-'^f
marginata ; apertura patula, long. 3-4 unc. Mare BriianiiiMIn e^
Mecfiterranfiupa. - - ^ ;•. >
^ BimaWhlRsii.^ 'testa ovata, pldonga,lutea,pellucida;^intK
•tissime spiraliter striata, concentric^ substriata ; margine Cola^
mella$ suoreflexo albo; vertice tmperfor&to; apertura poMM^
coarctata; long. 1-4 unc. NoNr. HollandieB, Capt. WalHt. '" }}
' Bulla Savigniana^ Testa qyatb-oblonga, Imea, tenuis, p^Ul^
cida, IsBvis; vertice imperforate ; apertura angudta; margin^ e^
-lumelloB subreflexa ; long* 1-3 uhc. Red Sea, J; E. Savigny.
IJhei^. three. shells are allied to B. hydatis, Mmhtguei ttiA
th^M^ftte sjbveralpther distitict species in the Museum.
Butld ttheStai^ Testa ovatb-oblonga, peUucida, dens^ spifH^ -
liter striata, alba; fasciis duabps spiralibus, ' et lineoUs cocclnels
concentricis omata; spira cotiiea ; apertura elongata, integta.
$ spira depressa, long. 2-3 unc. Kew Holland, Mr. B. BMutrd.
' Bulla nitidulaf Dtllwyn. Priori affinis. /
• Bulla soluta. JJillw. ■ " i V
Bulla solitaria,-^Say* ' * >^-. : .m
Bulla, Say. ^ '. : ^ ^ - \
Testacella scutulum, Sow.sim* f.3, 6. '
Te9t. anMgua,, Fer. t. 8, f. 4. Parimicepft calycohmV fi^i|^«
ViTKiNA Cutkri. ftelitarfon, -Fer.t.9, f. 8>t. 9,d>^ ^^
V. FteydnML , UcilicaruMi, jRr-t. h fi'3J * * % '^^^^'^^^^ -^^
K 4w»^'^TftKfcOliwax,\ftr^ t.«;f.^*^^ - ^^'^ ^'^^'^^ -VI
F. Pyrenaica. Helicolimax, Fer. t, 9, f. 3, , . ., .; ,, . ;,
K£(tfiij|iffcirif. H^lmoliouix, JRsr, t.% /• 7^ . {
V. pellicula. Helicolimax, JPer.t. 9,A f*.6, 6,7» ^. j
If. ;^*\^^. 1. 10, f. 2.
Jtt8^J^««^fn J&r» t. 9, A f.. 8.
«if%feWfV F0C. i. 25, f,3,.4.
If. verstcolar, Boixu jfer. t, 17, f, 1 , 2, 3* .
H.foUis. JR?r. 1. 17, f. 4.
ttir«0lt*i^«^f iV.:t.l5,f. 1,2, Xi5f , 1. 1056, f. 4*
8-lS^i^ttWU : iV-t 25, A fc 10,^
JEf. crtspata. Fer. t. 16, f. 7, 8 ; t. 25, f. 7, 8.
&mf«tOx MuUec* JPer. t. 22, f. 7, 8.
H. ligataj Muller. jPer. t. 20, f. 1—4 ; t. 24, f. 4. .
Mf4immnh JPer. t. 26, f. 7, 8, 9. .South^ea,
#aRfew. Fer^ t.2l. ^ £.1. ...
H.gyrqaomn; J!er. t. 32> f. 5^0. Tripoli. ,
Haddita. jFVr. t. 25, B. f. 2. 3,
/»*. Per. t. 27, f. 3, 4. New Holland. Teneriff.
{Wiiusa^. iFer.U31,f, 1 ; t.39, B. f,j5,6« .
H.4^armi$. Ftr.U32, A. f.h
ht^S^f Muller. fer. i. 25, B. f. 5 ; Chemn. ix. U 122> 4
H. irregularis. Fer. t. 28, f. 5, 6.
"7 fmculosa. Fer. t. 28, f. 9, 10. a. J&r. t* 32,. A. f, 9, JO* i '
iJSlicaensis. IVn 1 28, f« 1, 2, , ' . ,
.^%tt/ate. .P€r.t.31,f.2,3. ,./::;
H. simplex, hBxa., j^r.t. 26,.B. f. i^. ■ ^^
M, (Maheitaiia. Fer. t 29,£ 4, 6/ . .
M^simkris. Fer.n^2G2,t. ;i5, B.£ 1/ ^ , .: ,,
H.Mgnata. Per. t. 30, f. 3. .Italy.: . * .
ii.MeUien$i8.: Fer.p.25,£.U,12. Malta. g
H. aspersoj var. scalaris, Coraucopia, Born,. t, 13, f^ iO* llU -
Copi/beliG^ia, Shaw.. Sierpula Coraucopia, IHllw. It.^ IQ8U
JL fii/ia^tf, OUv. -Per. t. 38, £ 2.
. ^M sfiriplam, Oliv. JFer. .t . 38^ f. 3, .6..
ffln^ftrmorata. ' JR?r» t. 40, f. 8.
H. Carseolana. Fer. t.,41, f.L
JFf. circumomata. Fer. t.41, f. 2.
If . squamosa, fer. t. 4 1 , f. 3.
« H. muralis. Fer. 1 41^ f. 4. 6iia/i^. t. 3, f. F.
Jf. modesta. Fer. t. 4St^ f..l. . .
fj^»»6i;MW. -^1^.4. 42,f.2
.J^hfi^ Fer. t. 42L f..3- Adam. 1 1, f. 2.
li. cognata. lety. pt'^f» ^?f* - -
H. aspera. Fer. U4i^i\-f^. .. jj X^M- S^^P^v, 4'v.4 ^^
•t » :: ■»
'r '
■; *A
"•..-ri
» f •
■^ 0'
■.-/.•i
•
■,'.^■1
#
^ '»
-■'1 i
<
i(
-:'•/
•
j1 ,'
V
Ol Sti\Qn^9mmm1^ftsimj^.akdh iJimtt
< *, *
w
*
V
\\
I
• \'
M
r. dhceior. Per* t 46, f, 3, 6.
H. Lima. Fer, t. 46, f. 1 , 2.
H. indistincta, Fer. U 3S, £ 1.
H.formosa. Fer. t. 47, £• 1. Lirf, U 74, f. 74?
H. sobrina. Fer. t. 4S, f. 6, 7, 8%
Jf. Carmelita. Fer. t. 32, f. 4.
if. orbiculata. Fer. t. 42, f. 3, 4.
jff. dentiens. Fer. t. 49, A. f. 2 ; t. 48, f* 2.
If. punctata, Born, t. 14, f, 17, 18. Fer* t, 48, fv 3*
H.parilis. Fer. t. 49, f. 2.
H. elevaittf Say. H. Knoxvilttna. Fer. t. 49, f. 5« fii
H. Thyroidus, Say. List^ t. 91, f. 9L $ edeniuim^ . ^ .'■ '
H. avara, Say^ r :\
H.auriculata, Say. List, t. 93, f. 93«
H. hirsuta. Say. List, t, 93, f. 94.
H. convexa, lUfinesqyA, Fer. U 50, A. f. 2.
H. palliata^ Say. H. denotata. Fer. t. 49, A. f. 5,
H. clausa, Raf. H. reflexa. Say. Ftr^ t« 51, f* 2«
H. tridentata. Say. List, Syn. t. 92, f. 92. Fer. t. 61, t »
/3 edenttlla«
H. monodon, Racket* JJn, Trans, xiii. U 6, f. 1*
if. holosericea. Fer. t. 51, f. 6. . .
. Jl.pUeata, Say.
H. caribanata. Fer. t. 51, B. f. 3. '.
H. hbyrinthica. Say. Fer. t.b\,$.i. \.
H. Imperator. Fer. t. 52.
if. Sor^r. F4r. t. 54, f. 4.
H. bidentata. H. bidens^ Chemn. ix. 1. 126.
H. Cobresiana, Alten. H. unideHtata, Dr4tp. i. 7> f. 15.
H. edentula. Drap. U 7, f. 14.
H. Pyrenaica. Drap. t. 13, f. 7.
H. Quimperiana. Fer. t. 75, B. f. 1, 2, 3. a. t. 74, f# 2, .
H. zonalts. Fer. t. 70, f. 3.
H. excepiiuncuia. Fer. t. 73, A. f. 1 ; t, 70, f . L
H. biga^ia^ Fer.
H. pemobiUs, Martyn. U. C. t. 3, f. 1 17.
H. zodiaca. Fer. t. 75, f. 2. -
H. bipartita. Fer. t. 76, f. A. f. 1.
H. dilata. Fer. Ferry Conch, i. 51, f. 4.
if. collapsa. Fer. Perry Conch. t.51, f. 5.
H. divaricata. Fer. Perry Conch, t. 61, f; 3.
If. Sene^alensis. Chemn. ix. 1. 109, £. 917, 918*
H. conctsa. Fer. t. 78, f. 3*4.
, JEf. frifasciata. Chemn. xi. t. 213, f. 3016, 3017.
H. unguicula. Fer. t. 76, f. 3. H. unguliiia. Chemn^ ix.
1. 125, f. 1098, 1099. A. Per. f. 4. 01ab.iiit.ui«fliMM(i, Mus.
Cracherode. , . .• .-, :^
H. ciroumdutM* -Rr. t,76, fH;.t, 77, f. !•
H. pofygyrata. BorUj 1 14, f. l9| 20< Sr&i&ll, M^sdlaiflk.
H^i lineata, Say, . ,
Ji. rt£e2ts. H. rotandata, Tution.
H. perspectiva, Say,
H. pygmcBa. Drap. t. 8, f. 8, 9, 10.
H. umbilicata. Montague, U 13, f* 6. H» rt^estrisi Dfap,
t. 7, f. 7, 8, 9.
JET. glaphyra. Say, t. 1, f. 3.
H. nittdula. Drap, t. 8«
It, rdtidosa, Ftr. H. nitidula var. Drap. t. 8> f. 21, 22*
Jf. nitefns, Macket, Lin. Trans, viii.
jy. subrufescens. Miller, Ann. Pkil. iii. 379.
H. arborea. Say, t, 4, f. 4.
H. crystallina. Drap. t. 8, f. 13 — ^20.
H. Candida. Martin, N, Magn, iv. t. 3, f. 22, 23.
H. lavipes, Muller. Fer. t. 92, f, 3, 4, 6, 6,
H, leucas, Lin.
H. cicatrtcosa, Muller, Chemn. ix. t. 109, f. 923 ; %i. t« 613,
f. 3012,3013.
H. nemorensis, Muller. Bom,t. 16, f* 1, 2.
H. Janus bifrons. Chemn. xi. t. 213, f. 3016, 3017.
H. Javacensis. Fer. t, 92, f. 2.
H. exilis, Muller. Chemn. xi. t. ix. 1. 129, f. 1149. Ftr. 92, f J •
H. Mapa, Muller. Chemn. ix. t. 131, f. 1176*
H. Clairvillia. Fer. t. 91, f^ 1. B. f. 2, 3. Manitta^ Htmph.
H. Trochiformis, Montague. H. fulva, Drap.
H, aculeata) Muller, H. spinulosa^ Montague, ■ • ^
H.fasciola. Drap. t. 6, f. 22, 23, 24i
"H.limbata, Drap. t. 6, f. 29.
" H. Olivieri, Fer. Drap. t. 7, f. 3, 4, 6.
tf. Cantiana. Montague, i. 23, f. 1. H. palida. Dew. ^
H.strigetla. Drap. t. 7, f. 1, 2, 19.
H. villosa. Drap. t. 7, f. 18.
H; glabella. Drap. t. 7, f. 6.
H. rufescms, Montague, t. 23, f. 2. H. hispida, D99h
H.sericea. Drap. t. 7, t 16,17.
H. scabra. Chemn. ix. t. 133, f, 1208.
H. variesata. Chemn. ix. t. 133, f. 1207.
H. camtcolor, Fer. Chemn. ix. t. 132, f. 1 18fl, US'?.
H. Trochus, Muller. Chemn. ix. 1. 102, f; 1066, 10S».
H. subdentata. Fer. t. 27, f. 1, 2.
H, pyramidata. Drap. 1 5, f. 6.
HI conica. Drap. t. 6, f. 3, 4, 6. »
H. ochrokum. Fer. t. 30, f. 1. Chemn. it. 126, fi 1105/
Il06.' ' ' •
B. unidentaia. Chmn, xi. t. 208, f. 2049, 2060.
H. pellicula. Jftf. t. lOS, f. 1,
H. mirabilis, fer. t. 105^ f. 3 ; t 31, f. 4; t.:iO^£ fipTi^hfilo
H.strobilus, i%r. 1. 10*, f* 1. ». /<.ulf-. ^jsiool
. fl. avelletnea. Fer. 1. 103, f. 4, 6.' •- ; ?r«uK .*! ,
^ Wtitaude. Fer, t. 103, f. 2, 3 ; 1 104, t 4,6„k; ,nuK .1
Jf. diaphana. Fer,t. 104, f. 1, juvwl ^BfTivoff
iI}Ros$ittna. jR?r. t. 104, f. 2, 3.^ '• ^ ^v./ooiwobo .TL
if. comformt. Fer:t. 108, f. 1. .M,u.ittM:i3h .*i
H, ^tAplicata. Sow, Zool.Jour. i, 56, t»'8y-f. b^.ij\o'Ao(l .H.
H, punctulata. Sow. ZpoLJour, i. 56,t«3»f»l2« .nsVtxJ. .*1
/f. nivosa. Sow, ZopL Jour, i, 68, t 3, f* 3. i iviViVii^iSL .^
H. nftidiuscula. Sow, Zool, Jour. i. 67, t..3;^. 4^ va.si^ ,*1
'H, PortasanctantB, Sow, ZooL JouP. i. 67, t4 3,-£'s64\ii>^:) .*!
f, tectifonu^. Sow, Zpol, Jour, i, 67, t. 3, f. 6. .-v^
. hicarinata. Sow. Zool, jour, i.68, L 3, 1 7» i .» ».ui'^ .S.
H, innominata. Nob, Zool, Jour, i. 68, t. 3, f. 8. .V .1
Carocolla, J^/ia. Helix, Fer, Listj t; 88, f. 8?cl/,i ci cH
C angustata. Helix, P^r. t. 61, f. 1. .
^ .p. angulaia, H^ix, i%r* t. 61, f. 2.
^^'e.Lampa^. Jlelix, i%r. t, 60, f. 2.
C. pyrostoma. Helix, Fer, i, 16, f. 3, 4.
C. marginata. Helix, Pent. 63, f. 3-r-l2.
C* ^if^Arosa. Helix, JFcr. t. 63, f. 1,2.
. C. Pikolw, Helix, Pen t. 63, A. f. 1 , 2.
C. bifasciata, Trochua, Burrows, t. 27, f. 2.
C. l^ircica. Trochus, C/iemn, xi. t. 209, f. 2066,2066* H
& cariosa, Oliv. Voy. i, 31, f.4. Helix, a. 84, Xotnv ^\
C. Tripolitana, Testa orbiculata^ suprst conyexOreofiftogB^ A«r»
ginibus carinatis, crenatis,iofrsl convexa,inipe£forata,alb%ptfllii«
cida, tep^s, concentric^ acute corrogata ;. PeHstomate^Gomf^eta
''llt^^flex^; niin t-^, diam. 3^ttiie. Tripoli^ Miichiei::. {
^JiCy.imms Li8t,t. 66, f. 64; Mus. Brit. . „,t j.^,
*^^' j3,^wHf^SiMs-^ nob.' Testa supr^ con vexi^ouk, infi^ eoArm^
iimbiltoitl^jCpmea, pellucida; anfractibus, 7 v. 8, acute j»«^atli^
"^ftdJi^fHsi^^toe^ coQceiitrice striatis-; apertova lijafianrlitfUtta,
peristomate Teflexo,aIbo ; axis 1-4, diam. 1-2 unc« tiidi«k>QriMi-
tiklis? , , .; .: •'., '^
Pij^A? 4*m Xqw)fw/ ' Auriciila LepOT .;>
P. Jtiti^SUenw * Auricula Sileni, f^m, n« 3. . :..,.; '>
P. jiKm oervina, Helix Auri^ cer?uia« fSrn. lfatae>uBhif « Jl 4.
.. P. goniostoma. Helix goniosUioia, Per. 24i«t Joacr^ii .')
*^^^^P. C%^e2Ai» AufiMla 4a^f ella,i Lam. GapriaHlL, .utfdilhta,
Guitdifyr. Born, t. 9^ f. 3, 4. \ T <t aH
' P. distorta.^ Val/^ustraliik, Hil^, :Ciemn.^^Lhi&^£iJ^95^
•sjev^JJW.;- ekem^ja. t. 2io^t,4W6^^«7i^ii^^^ A ;
>i
;v,..*-.f
.Tl
■.-yj
.*i
. X
■•-••e .1
:■ > \vi
HL
.-^.v".
>l
• :--^;
H
t > • .
>\
p. Auris wlpina. Chenm. Ja.i.»y^t^9l(^20^
P. melanasiof^* List, t.29,f,37i ^ Figpra jffllcheirfflf^Vy g*
lecta, JUtis. Shane. BuL melanaslomm, ou^^iiii. ^ , \ ,v -4 h
P. Auris Malachi. Ckem. ix4 U 121* £.1037, 1008,. ..:^ p
P. Auris Botifki. Chm. ix. t 121, f. 1039, 1040v.Ai|nciiIa
Bovina, Lam. - ^ ,>
P. odontostoma. Bulimiis, 5ot£?, j3oo/« Joum. i. 69, t« 4i £^]$«
P. deeufkana. List, 588, f. 47; HeL deaimaausy^^r* va
P. Dolioluml iJprap, t U, f. 41, 42. . " ]i ■
P. LM^ert. /:L1st^ U 31, f. 29* H. listen, Per. . . . ;
P. Brasiliensis. KMawe-Trav* f. 6.; H. Brasiliensif^ ter.-
P.tridenu PttZMtor*, t. 19,f. 2. H. Good#, J^,
P.cy/iiidraaGA«^n^ix.t. 136^ f. 1266, 1257. K. <^yHn4]^«,
Per. , ...!<•
P. truncata.. > Gyctlost* fasciata, Loito, J5m:y. iUr«(i^2» i. ^i^
A tortuosai . iCAew. xi; t 195, A. f- 1882, 1$83. / .^ ^ > >
P. 2'm^eiist5. Balea, nob. ZooL Jmirk, ut. 6, iT* A^ i
P.ventricosa. Balea, noh^.ZooLJaur.i. t..6, f.£. /^
P. Chemnitziana. Helix, n. 612, Per. ^GAemi»* ix» ^^ ]^1«^
f» 066« ' ,,..-'»
P.edentula. Drap.i.3,(.28,29i.
P. muscarumm Drop, t. 8, f.26, 27#
P.pygmaa. i)rai». 1.3, f^ 30, 31. : ^
P. antivertigo. Drdp. t, 3, f . 32^ 33. . ^
P. i?€W%«. Drap. t. 3, f. 34, 36i .. r :/:?
P.cotttMctdfSay. .. • .< . , M^-. ' ^
-a^^JB^QWia^ Vertigo, Soyw- : ,» : , . - ;>:.r-,y^
I have removecL several oiL^vasiXclk^Auricidm |o. -tjiis^eia^
as they agree better with hit eharacter, and aivith same ofyuie
jBfWrai Irat be has placed in it himselfy than with, amy of the/or*-'
t^'€«/Air4»fA bukm. Drap.^.Af f* 6^ 7. Torba lami^Ujflg,
C. veniricosa. Drap. t. 4, f. 14. < -jffr.|
C Moviagm. Turbo biplicatus* < Jkfon/agKl, tr H, ^a 4^1
C. iolida. Drap. t 4/f. 8, 9 • T. labiatus, MoiUtngM^^ >i .
'^ C^fHtutUy; Drap. L 4,f. 16, 16; v a. A
C.<inAia.' Drop* t. 4, f.J0; , - ^ . .jtiMv, <i
v^i4l;;Jio/ptir,.f|4i&. Med.JSiep. H. Everettif MilhKt^4mK^^*
aV377.? i : -...\ .WibiaiO
,fiCButi«Ws.^«a^jrt4m^ Helix, Per. U 108, £ 2. /,^ ,^;V A
J3. maxima. Cochlogena maxima. Sow. ^ dOSl
B.ventri(U)sus/mu&^^^kntJ)np,) CMmuititMXi
B, decotatuu Hehx, 1 1 12^ C 3, 4. ■:> U$t, 1. 13, f.
«I«r li^aH^im.imt>SpMm^gktlb i$im
■ « I
jB. Taunairiu Helix, Fer. t. 113, f. 4, 6.
• B, -papyraceus. Helix, Matue Introd. t. 1, f. 7*
JB. septenstriusi Helix, n. 46. JPer. Pet. Gat* 1. 17> f. 4«
jB. fWontu^* <Sow. JSIoo/. Jour* i. 58,t«5, f» 1.
' JBtii. itrigatus, Brug. Helix, JP4^.
B. striatulus, Brug. Helix, Fer.
.B.Jkmmem, Brug. Chemn. it. f. 1024, 102&.
B. stramimm. Sulimulas stramiaeue, Chdlding, Lin. Tf^^i
xiv. List, t. 8, f. 3. : ^
B. rufescem. . Testa OTato<conica, perforata, glabra, mihutfs-
sime 0tnata, luteo^albida ; apice aouto fosco. rerktomttteBi^-
plici, longtf 1 uno. Jamaica. "^
, B. Bmtia. Helix Bontia, Chemn. ix. 1. 134, f. 1216, UMi
B. Columba, Brug. Seba, t. 71, f. 6. '
. M. hvuSf Brug. Chemn. ix, t. 1 11, f. 940, 949. '
B. trifasciatusy Brug. Bui. zonatus. Sow. Helix trifaseiatilfi^
Chemn. ix. 1. 184, f. 1215. Helix trizonatus, Fer. "'''■
B. lineatuB, Brug. Chemn. ix. t. 136, f. 1263^ '
B. Goodalli. Helix Goodalli, Miller , Ann. Phil. ill. Helix
fflarulw, ier. n. 381 ?
Bulimus pulcher. Testa ovato-conica, tenuis, albida ; fas^d^.
tribus purpureo*fuscis ornata ; aufractibus convexiuBculis. Peiis-
tomate simplici, labio interiori roseo long. 1-2 uno*
Bulimus cylindricus. Testa conico-cylindrioa, perforatm al-
bida, dense concentrice striata, fascis 6 fuscis interruptis or-
nata; anfractibus 9y.l0; convexiusculi8;aperturasuborbiCulata;
peristomate tenui, long. 6-10; diam. 3*10 unc.
Bulimus Kingii. Testa conico-ovata, perforata, albida, peUu-
cida transverse nigrofuscolineolata ; anfractibus conyexiusciilts;
apertura spirae longitudine ; peristomate tenui, intus porputeo
Qigro, long. If diam, -^ unc. New Holland, Capt. King.
• AlcHATiKA exarata. Bulla exarata. Chemn. ix. t, 1S0>
1 1081, 1032.
A. melanostoma, Sw. H. regina, Fer. t. 119, f. 3, 4. fi Bitm^
tra. A. perversa, Sw.
A. vittata, Sw. fi sinistra.
A.fulvescens. List, t. 582, f. 35 a. Bom, 1. 10, f. 2.
A. marginata, Sw. lUust. 30.
A. rosea. List, t. 1059, f. 4 (non Pupa goniosioma). HeMx,
Fer. 1. 136, f. 89.
A. striata. Chemn. ix. t. 120, f. 1030. Helix, Fer. n. 657.
.^4i; Bareii. HeUx, n. 368. Fer. 1. 136, f. 1-^.
A. decora. Helix, Fer. Chemn. xi. t. 213, f. 3014, 3016;
/3 dextra, *
A. lugubris. Helix, Fer. Chemn^ xi. t. 209, f. 206&, 9e6di
A0 TerOrt^ter. BuUmtts Terebiaster, Lam. List^t. 20;fs|5.
A, octona* Balimiui oGto^uSf litMr QJmmiii*^ lfM^€iif)o4#
I have removed these twf species, because they hav^ tlie
truncated columella of t^is geous, and are very nearly allied to
A, acicula, as are also the two following.
- A. sulcata. Testa tttrrita, pellucida, oomea, apice <4>tuia^
anflpactibus 8 v. 9 convexis, medio concentric^ smcatiB, basi
Isevibus ; labro tenui ; long. 7-10, diam. 2^10 unc. ~ * .
A* nitem. Testa ovato-conicai turrit^, hyalina, corneal I^vi
polita, apice obtusiuscola ; anfractibus 8 convevis; aportUrsi*
TAtoi i)eri8topaate tepui, a^^is 7-lQ, diam. 3-10 unc«
SucciNEA tigrina, Leseuer. FerA, 11, A«f. 4.
Si.^mlih Say. Fer, t. 11, A. f. 1.
, ^4 jdii^rulU, Helix, IL Ftn 1. 11, f, 11
S. campestriSf Say, Fer, t. 11, f. 12.
$f angulam, tfelix, n. 13. Fer. t. 11, A. f, 5.
5. suTculosa, Helix, n. 14, Fer, t. 11, A. f, 6.
Partula, fVni5^ac
^€ifa ovata, spira conica. Apertura longitudinalis, antice^
integerima, peristomate reflexo ; columella aniice callosa,'
AnimaL Tentacula 2 retractilia, apice oculata*
: Tbi$ genus is most nearly allied to Lamarck's Auriculae, but
the animal has retractile instead of contractile tentacula, ana-
pediQ^Ued instead of sessile eyes.
P.pudica, Fer, Chemn. ix. t. 121, f. 1042. Lkt, t. 24, 1 22,
F. atistralis, Fer, Chemn^ ix. t. 121, f. 1044.
P. unidentata, Sow^
P. gibba, Fer.
F,jrapUs,Ferf
P. otaheitana, Fer. Chemn. ix. f. 960, 961 . fi dextrorsa.
P. auricula, Fer.
Apricvla lineata. Drap* t 3, f. 20, 21.
. 4- corticaria. Odostonia. Say, t. 4, f< 6.
A. pUcatus, Scarabus, n. 2, Fer. List, t. 677, f. 32.
^ A. Petiverianus. Scarabus, n. 3, Fer. Pet.Gaz. t. 4, f. lO,.
A.pmderosa. Fer, n. 4. Mus. Kerc, f. 412.
4« bidentata^ Fer. n. 9. Vol. bidentata, Montague, t. 30, f.4f
A. alba, Fer. n. 10. Vol. alba, Montague, 1. 14, f. 27,
A^pmata. Fer. n. 11,
A. Matpni. Vol. fluviatilis, Maton, Lin. Trans.
A. bidentatus. Melampus, Sai/. & Uneatus.
A* obliquus. Melampus, Say.
A.fabula. Fer. n. 24.
A, nucleus. Fer. n. 26. Helix nucleus, Gmelin.
A. buUaoide^. Vol. bullaoides, Montague, t. 30, ft 4.; Tor-*
nateUa^ n. 7, Fer.
A. pedipes. Tornatella pedipes, Lam. Adams, t^ ], f. 4.
A. mirabiles. Pedipes, n* 2, Per*
^ A. ovulus. . Pedi|p^> n«d^ Fer,
;4/ 'OjS^^ity Pedipes^ n« 4^ Fer.
Article IIL
r
On ihi Action ofjinefy divided Platinum on Gaseous Mivtulre$f
md. its Ajmlication to their Analysis. . By WOliani Heiiiy»
MD.FRS* .
. • - -■
Several years liave elapsed since the Presideml offlieltbyal
Society^ in the further prosecution of those Researches ^ iOn
Flame, which had already led him to the most nnpdrtant
practical results, discovered some new and curioils phsBmiUMipa
m the combustion of mixed gases, by means of fine wivesJ^f
Slatinum introduced into them at a temperature bdow Jdnitibn.
L wire of this sort being heated much below the point or ladlble
redness, and immersed in a mixture of coal gas and oxygteigas
in due proportions, immediately became white hot, tad contboed
to ^low until all that was inflammable in the mixtare wair coii-
iumed. ' The wire, repeatedly taken out of the mixtura i^d
suffered to cool below the point of redness> instantly rcjcoveicd
its temperature on being again plunged into the miited 'gaja|eB.
The same phaenomena were produced m mixtures of oxygedieith
6leftaht gas, with carbonic oxide, with cyanogen, and wibdi
liydrogen ; and in the last case there was an evident prodiictioQ-
or Water. When the wire was very fine, and the gases had
been mixed in explosive proportions, uie heat of the wire bdoaoMe
sufficiently intense to cause them to detonate. In mixtures,
which were non-explosive from the redundancy of one or dther
gas, the combination of their bases went on silently, and the
same chemical compounds were formed as by their rapid <io&»-
bastion.t
Facts analc^us to these were announced, in the autumn^ of
last ]^ear, by Frof. Dobereiner of Jena, with this additional and
staking circumstance, that when platinum in a spongy form is
introduced into an explosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen,
th^ metal, even though its lemperatare had not been pre vidusly
vaised|( immediately glows, and causes the Union of the two
l^es to take place, sometimes silently, at Others with detona^
tion. It is remarkable, however, that platinum in this fofm,
though so active on mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen, produces
no effect^ at common temperatures, on mixtures of oxygen with
those compound gases, which were found by Sir Humphry Dtfvy
to be so readily acted upon by the heated wire.| Carbonic
oxide appears, mdeed, from the statement of MM. Dulong and
Thenard,§ to be capable of uniting with oxygen at the tempera-
* T)taak the Philoiophical Tratuwctiont, for iSS4^ Pnt II.
+ PliiloMphical Tnnsatdoiu, 18I7« p. 77. . ■
T Ditbgeuierin Amu de Chinu ct d> rYim» f yiv**»cf» ••
f Pittozn&,44& .
* * ^^USSB.^ fintly ^div^ajnathm^ on Uaseous Mixtures. 417
ttnre of the atmosphei^ By means of the sponge ; but though
this is m strictness trtrc, yet^the cbtnbination, in all the experi-
inl^l ^Y? made,, has been extiemd^ «t««/aad' tlied^nOtai-
*wV.9J^wlume* has not been corapleted jtiill se^^raVdb^^have
jse*S. ***0n mixtures of olefiant gas, of carburetted Uj^diogen,
or of cyanogen, with oxygen, the sponge does not, hj aiiy-ndura-
lB^uAsfm*\SDt/lmtk, exert the sm^est action at comiAon*^ l^inp^a-
jxiBtibqinis tliisriiiefficienw of the platinum spoiige 6n tti^'^com-
gijptiiiuidBtiif ehftycoat «nd hydrogen m ihi^tiire with oxygen^ wHile
Iic0t88dt» asp ^reJtnarkably on common hydrogen, an'd also^ though
.aatoiiBfa^ vori^caribcnic oxide, that suggested to me the possibility
9ltf£M)mn^y'b^ft^ meaiis, soriie interesting problems in gaseous
^aigpeifffi(Mi i tkdped, more especially, to be able to separate, from
bflMAuiudibr th^ gases constituting certain mixtures, 'to the com-
.dBeeifaion of tvhi^h approximations only had been hitherto tiia4e,
bW mntpmixty^ the phiaefnomena and results of their combustion
b9^A<fse't^ich ought to ehsae, supposing such mixlure^>o
«abcua|diit)af 'Certain hypothetical proportions of knowii gases, ^it
iilnight;:for instance, be expected, that from a n^ixtiire of hycjro--
li^Bfi tbid ca^rburetted hydrogen with oxygen^ the platinum sponge
flmMiUb catlike the removal of the hydrogen, leaving the car!|iji-
bnltcd' hydrogen unaltered. To ascertain this, and a Variety of
dMBolaar w3ts, I made artificial mixtures of the combustible ga^es
^^BihiKiwii' volumes; aiid submitted them, mixed \yHh^^o^y^^,r
isciiaetimeft to contact with the sponge, and sometimes wi,th, me
drilU&'iiiade of clay and platinum, described by Professbf '!p!qpV
•mueiM*'' ' ' ' \ "' ■'**; "a
'ijgM?! I.— Oit the Action (^finely ditidtd Platinnm &nGhs'eous
jbiXir '.; " " Mixtures ai common Temperatures. •"' * * ""'^
?,?
). Mixtures of Hydrogen and Ol^iant Gases mth Oxyg^m^^^i
yvWheo to equal Toliimes of oteAant gas, and an • ex()|Ibi[lf^
^^^xtttTB (whica is to^ be understood, whenever it i^ so nanftM^
9f .-{pQBBistitig of two volutoes of hydrogen aiid on^' *df btj^tt
mes)} o&e of the platinum balls, recently l^ted by^ t^^bltKt'-
p^% and allowed to oool during ei^tort^n seironch; 'i^' tMt^
^Q^d through mercury, .a rafnd ^iiauttatFern^of Voltinie'tSWi^
;.the wb^le of the hydrogen and oxygen -gaii^s t^ ^^8h^
but t^x)lefiaot s^wi' is eitlter not at dl, or vefy^tttii
^^^gk^'^gtio^^&t^fMm nihldi'I useA^but ifb^ pe^apft are not of n]tA;li' iMj^f^ce,
vera two puts c^ fine china day^ and three parts of spongy platinum mixed with waiter
into a paste, which was moulded into small spherules, abcMit U^ m^ f>f peas. The
nnrnge, best ad^itedtb-tfiie purpose of actbg on inixed^ gases, 'is oEiauied by using a
httle piessure to the ammonia^munatfe; after piittln^ it into the crucible. - If too light
and poroas, the linagvlk A^Vtiy fib^torb mercury by b^ug repea,tedIy'f>B$ped through it,
and to become amalgfunated. In order that the balls or sponge might be cemovcd aftex
Ifadr full action^ they were fastened to pieces of platinum wire.
New Sertes, vol. ix. 2 £
^Qt^d upon* la a few experimented when ike tobe.was naitoon,
and the ^uaotit^ of mued gases small, the olefiant gas ^eso^ed
combustion entirely ; but^ in general^ an eighth or tenth of it
-was converted into ivater and carbonic acid. It h -dit&tult,
Iiowever, to state the precise proportion of any gaawbk^^/Vhen
added to an explosive mixture^ renders the latter io^Qo^ible to
th^ action of the balls or sponge ; for much, de^eaadAi.an.tliftii:
temperature when introduced into the gaseous . mil^ureiljJic
diameter of the containing vessel, and other, cireumntanoei^
;ivbicb, in comparing different gases^ should be .so .-regnlal^tti
to be equal in every case. , . > ^ . a. » i^d i
. When the proportions of the gases are changed^ M tliat^di^
es^plosive mixture exceeds in volume the olefiant gas^ there) i^a
more decided action upon the latter, manifested by anifMrnaiied
production of carbonic acid. Thus, for example, theeBphisare
mixture being to the defiant as 2-^ to 1, about one*nfo«rtk;Qfcih«
olefiant gas was consumed ; and by increasing the proportianiof
tl^ explosive mixture, the defiant gas was stul mc^e acted ^ipoih
On using oxygen sufficient to saturate both the hydrogen (ted
the defiant gases, the ball acted much more rapidly ; in aevefff^
instances it became red hot ; all the hydrogen was xonsuiti^^
and the whole of the defiant gas was changed into waJteriand
carbonic acid. In this case the use of the sponge is inadmks^ir
ble, as it kindles the gases, and occasions their detonatioa. ; . .
2. Mixtures of Hydrogen and Carburetted Hydrogen Gases with
Oxygen.
When carburetted hydrogen, procured from stagnant water,
was added to an explosive mixture, in various proportions be-
tween equal volumes, and ten of the former to one of the kttjdr,
the action of the hydrogen and oxygen on each odier took piked
^$ usual, on admitting one of the balls. When, reversing the
SrO{k>rtion, the explosive mixture was made to exceed thecaiw
^retted hydrogen, but not more tlian four or five times,. <^e
l^ttergas was entirely unchanged. With a larger proportaoaol
tl^e explosive mixture carbonic acid was always fouiui to have
been produced; but still the carburetted hydrogen was very
imperteotly consumed, and fully three-fourths of it weregeaer
i^ij fomid to have escaped unburned. u
When, to a mixture of hydrogen and carburetted hydrogen,
oxygen enough was added to saturate both gases^ the effect of
the sponge was found to vary with the proportion of the simple
hy4iH>g^Q4 Jn several oases, where the hydrogen did not exceed
t^ ^MArburetted hydrogen more than four times, the latter gaa
reiQ^iiined unchanged; when in larger proportion, there wa£l a
decided action upon the carburetted nydrpgen* BiJit.itrwas
mooh more «asy to regulate the action of the baUs upoositi^ n^
3^|b^|0ji S!Q as to act upon th^ hydr9g!$aa|ld:tP^yigejpi:0>il]S|itQaa
^,lfifi$l^ Jinefy divided FicUinum'4>HiSrme(>Uil!^i^^ 4119
imA^eicnm^of^B&eiht gas; wltiob^ under similar ciroirtHStaDceA^,
i»<flwi^s more fatpgdy converted into water and carbonic acid,
^ji,jS^vM*Vwrcs of Hydrogen and Carbonic Oxide with Ojygen*
fid91lei«ddttion of one volume of carbonic oxide to two volumeii
0f ab^)^jspk^ive mixture produces a distinct effect in suspending
tfe^kcflion^ of'fj^e platinum balls, and even of the spongy metM
sltelfv'^ 'The^ action of the gases upon each other still, however,
^©is?Jidtt«i«lowly, even when the carbonic oxide exceeds the
cK^teiuW^jmixture in volume ; and after the lapse of a few days^
the oxygen is found to have disappeared, and to have partly
lidtoiedu^ wat^r, and partly carbonic acid. I made numerous
jn^^aii^ntS'to 'ascertain whether the oxygen, under these cir«i
biuMesuiiiees of slow combustion, is divided between the carbonic
owdd' wd ihe hydrogen, in proportions corresponding to the
9rfiluine8 of those two gases. The combustible gases being in
%iqoat ^volumes, and the oxygen sufficient to saturate only one of
tlief|i^ (it ^eras found that the oxygen, which had united with the
bioriboDic OQLf de, was to that which had combined with the hydro-
|p3Q3/as about 5 to 1 in volume. Increasing the carbonic oxide,
aMll'laarger. proportion of oxygen was expended in forming car-
bonieaeid. On the contrary, when the hydrogen was increased,
u^&^t proportional quantity of oxygen went to the formation
of water; But it was remarkable, that when the hydrogen was
made to exceed the carbonic oxide four or five times, less oxygen,
hi the whole was consumed than before; the activity of the
carbonic oxide appearing to have been diminished, without a
^acresponding increase in that of the hydrogen.
>In cases, where the proportion of the carbonic oxide to the
fKiilQisive mixture was intentionally so limited, that the platinum
bail' was ca|)able of immediately acting upon the latter, the
oairbQiiic oxide was always in part changed into carbonic acid,
the more abundantly as its volume was exceeded by that of thci
exij^losifve mixture. Increasing the oxygen, so that it was
^equate to saturate both gases, and causing the hydrogen tKy
exceed die carbonic oxide in volume, a speedy action was
sibvays exerted by the ball, and the whole of the combustible
^ases was silently converted into water and carbonic acid. %h&
introduction of the platinum sponge into such a mixtuiil wa9
ahsost always found to produce detonation.
'i, • , ■ ' - . '
' 4. Mixtures of Hydrogen and Cyanogen with Oxjfgm* < j
y- When one of the platinum balls, after being recently Uealedy
B8 intrpduced into cyanogen and explosive mixtuiPe in eqcr^l
iK)l|iiiiesv nO apparent ac^tion takes place. With half ai vt^ktttie*
ef'cytatndgen there is a slight diminution ; and as we reduce ^
jfn'afcKMticlii ipf ^t gas, the action of the elements of the eicplb^
siyaiKifKtumi'Oii'eaieh otl^r becon^s more and more didtincl?,^
2£2
42d Dr^Htnfyimti^Aethni^ Ifv^Si
There is not, however, fis with carbonic oxide, any productio& oC
carbonic acid ; but in the course of a few minutes the inside of
the tube becomes coated with a brownish substance, soluble in
water, and communicating to it the same colour; having a smell
resembling that of a burnt animal substance; and yieldiog
%mmonia on the addition of a drop or two of liquid potash. . iA
was produced ia too small a quantity to enable me to submit itlia^
a more minute examination ; but its characters appealed ilfl
resemble those of a product, obtained by M. Gay^Luasac^ :iif
mixing cyanogen with ammoniacal gas.* .«:♦,.>
If oxygen be added to a mixture of hydrogen and cyanogM^
in quantity sufficient to saturate both the gases, it is BtiU nec(M^
•ary^ in order that an immediate effect should be prodtteedijVy
the sponge, that the hydrogen should exceed' the cyanogen •tfi
volume. A decided action then takes place; an immedifaM
absorption ensues ; fumes of nitrous acid vapour appear,i vbieJil
act on the surface of the mercury ; and, after tranftferring i^Q
gas into a dry tube, carbonic acfd is found- to hav« beeapjA^
duced, equivalent in volume to double that of the cyanogen*
5, Effect of adding various other Gases to an Eajthsive Mixture
of Hydrogen and Oxygen. . .»
It had been already ascertained by Prof. Dobereiner, that one
volume of oxygen, diluted with 99 volumes of nitrogen, is still
sensible, when mixed with a due proportion of hydrogen, totliEe
action of the sponge.f Carbonic acid, also, even I find when il
exceeds the explosive mixture ten times, retards only in a sUgfat
degree the energy of the sponge. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitroua
oxide gases, when employed to dilute an explosive mixture, are
equally inefficient in preventing the mutual action of its ingre*
dients. Ammonia may be added in ten times the volume of the
explosive mixture, and muriatic acid gas in six times its volume,'
with no other effect than that of rendering the action of the
Sponge less speedy.
6. Mixtures of Carbonic Oxide and Carburetted Hydrogen wUh
Oxygen.
] When mixtures of these gases are exposed to the sponge, th'd
carturetted hydrogen ^eems to stand entirely neutral. The
carbonic oxide is converted into carbonic acid, in the same
gradual manner as if it had been mixed with oxygen only, and
the carburetted hydrogen remains unaltered.
« Annalesde Chimie, xcv. 196. ^ U u
+ In analysing atmoepheric air by adding hydrogen to it, and acting on thd mbEtuR
by a platinum ball, I have generaUy obtamM a diminution indioitiag more than 81 per
c^nt. of oxygon. This I find to be owing to the absorption of a smaU quantity of mtro-
gen by the ball, especiaJly when, after being heated, it' has been rapidly {M^eA' hot
^ixOogh the mercury. ••■ '•/',•/ vd
¥SB9!] Jinely divided Pkitiikm <m Gaseous Mixtures, 4S1
^. lilixtures of Hydrogeuy Carburetted Hydrogen, andCarhomc
Oxide with Oxygen,
•^ 'fijtmixtares of these gases, it is of little consequence whethei:
yiB^oxyedn be sufficient for the hydrogen and carbonic Qxidje
^ly>*ovl>e adequate to the saturation of all three. The circum-
6tiBiic<dy which has the greatest influence on the results of expo^
ilig «oeh sdixtures to uie sponge^ is the proportion which the
dimple hydrogen bears to the other gases, and especially to the
carbonic oxide ; for in order that there may be any immediate
sfil$lh>n; the hydrogen should exceed the other gas in volume. In
thi^ case tiie hydrogen is converted into water, and the carboniQ
Hijide^ififto carbonic acid ; but the carburetted hydrogen, unless
fbeMgg&eess of hydroffen be very consideral:)le, remains unaltered*
tf the p?oportion of hydrogen be so small, that no immediate
nblioii IS excited by the sponge, the ingredients of the mixture
nevertheless act slowly upon each other ; and after a few days,
^ti .whole of the hydrogen and carbonic oxide are found to have
united widi oxygen, and the cai*buretted hydrogen to remain of
its original volume.
8, Mixtures of Hydrogen, Carbonic Oxide, and Olefiant Gases
with Oxygen.
IWhen the oxygen^ in a mixture of these gases, is sufficient tq
flWKturate the first two only, and the proportion of hydrogen is so
adjusted that the action of the sponge is not very energetic, th^
l^drogen and carbonic oxide only are acted upon ; but if the
difitinntion of volume, which the sponge produces, be rapid and
considerable, part of the olefiant gas is converted into water and
earbonic acid. This effect on olefiant gas takes place still more
readily, if the oxygen present be adequate to the saturation of all
three combustible gases.
. :It is remarkable, that if to a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic
oxide, and oxygen, in such proportions that the sponge would
act rapidly in producing combination, olefiant gas be added, the
Action of the gases on each other is suspended. Thus 20 mea^
Sures of carbonic oxide, 31 of hydrogen, and 28 of oxygen, were
instantly acted upon by the sponge ; but the addition of 20
io^easures of olefiant gas to a similar mixture entirely suspended
it9 efficiency. By standing fourteen days, rather more than half
the carbonic oxide was acidified, and about one-twelfth of the
hydrogen was changed into water, but the olefiant gas remained
unaltered.
St.. Mixtures of Hydrogen, Carbonic Oxide, Carburetted HydtO"
•■^] gen, and Olefiant Gases with Oxygen.
ll-iifi mixtures of these four gases with oxygen, it was found,
by varying the proportion of hydrogen, that hydrogen and
4^^ ' 'DKHmy on t%e Action of - {J^^lf^,
carHonic oxide are most easily acted upon; fheh oleBaiiC'giuB';
and carburetted hydrogen with the greatest difficulty. 'Wheii
the action of the sponee was moderately intense^ only the hydr6-
igen and carbonic oxide were consumed, or at mo^t fHe "6t^adt
gas was but partially acted upon. Adding more hj^drogeli/^ifc
as to occasion a more rapid diminution, the olefiant^ai^ afsowiib
burned ; but the carburetted hydrogen always escaped' 6d1iibtt^
tion, unless the hydrogen were in such proportion tfiat'^tJfcf l)a|l
or sponge became red hot. , ' " '^ '"^ X
From the facts which have been stated, it appears tWit'''%WfiSi
the compound combustible gases mixed with each othel^^ ^Hi
bydrogen, and with oxygen, are exposed to the platinunttbaHb
or sponge, the several gases are not acted upon with eqiitil'fliflf-
lity; but that carbonic oxide is most disposed to uttltc^'VWBi
oxygen; then defiant gas; and lastly, carburetted hydrd«B.
By due regulation of the proportion of hydrogen, it is i^ossiHfe
to change the whole of tne carbonic oxide into carboiiiti ac1|3,
without acting on the defiant gas or carburetted hydiro^ey.
With respect mdeed to defiant gas, this exclusion is attended
with some difficulty, and it is generally more or less converted
into carbonic acid and water. But it is easy, when defiant g^
is absent, so to regulate the proportion of hydrogen, that the
carbonic oxide may be entirely acidified, and the whole of tb^
carburetted hydrogen be left unaltered. This will generallr'bie
found to have been accomplished, when the platinum ball has
occasioned a diminution ot the mixture, at about the same ra^
as atmospheric air is diminished by nitrous gas, when the form^dr
h admitted to the latter in a narrow tube.
SecT. II. — Oh the Effect offitiely divided Platinum on Goieotis
Mixtures at increased Temperatures.
The effect of varying the proportion of free hydrogen to the
. compound combustible gases, on the degree of action which is
excited by the platinum sponge, will perhaps admit of beinjg
explained, by examining the facts that have been stated, in con-
nexion with the degrees of combustibility of the compound
gases under ordinary circumstances. The precise degree of
temperature at which any one of them burns is not known, oh
a(icount of the imperfection of our present methods of measuring
high delgrees of heat. It has been ascertained, however, by Sir
Humphry Davv,* that at a heat between that of boiling mercury,
and that which renders glass luminous in the dark, hydrogen
and oxygen gases unite silently, and without any li^lit being
evolved ; that carbonic oxide is as inflammable as hydro^eri ;
that defiant gas is fired by iron and charcoal heated to redness;
* On Flame, 8vo. p. 12.
^(9^} fif^h diviJkd Phtimtm on Gas^ou9 Mixtures. 433
but tbat casrburetted hydrogen, to be inflamedi requires that tb§
wire should be white hot^ Now this is precisely th^ or^^lii
^wl}io)l the three compound gases require hydrogen to be. ad^ea
j^]ht^cim«.m order to be rendered susceptible of being acted upoiiL
hj.tb^ platinum sponge ; carbonic oxide being acted upon wit&
Ji^ ^Ittjaliest proportion of hydrogen ; defiant gas requiring moi}$
Jlj^rjQgen,; and carburetted hydrogen a still larger proportion* ,
L.Jt.is, extremely probable, then, that the temperature, produced
by the union of the hydrogen and oxygen forming part of apy
mixture, is the circumstance which determines the combustil)Ie
^f^torpoite^ or not, with oxygen by means of the sponge. It
m^ desirable, however, to ascertain the exact temperature a±
^piph.^eaoh of those three gases unites with oxygen with the
Jjnl^nfj^ntion of the spongy platinum. For this purpose the
i^^a^ taixed with oxygen enough to saturate them, were seve^
j]i)iY' exposed in small retorts containing a platinum sponge,
^a immersed in a mercurial bath, to a temperature whicb \y^9
gradually raised till the gases began to act on each other. In
fj^ way the following facts were determined.
[. :IsU. Carbonic oxide began to be converted into carbonic aoi/i
ilttatemperature between 300° and 310" Fahrenheit. By raising
ihe temperature to 340°, and keeping it at that point for 10 qr
14 minutes, the whole of the gas was acidified, the condensation
4^ volume in the mixture being equivalent to the oxygen which
Jb»d disappeared. ^,
. . 2dly. Olefiant gas, mixed with sufficient oxygen, and in con-
1;act with the sponge, showed a commencement of decomposi-
^tion at 480° Fahrenheit, and was. slowly but entirely changed
into carbonic acid by a temperature not exceeding 520° Fahrei^-
heit. MM. Dulong and Thenard* state the same change to
take place at 300^ cent. = 672° Fahrenheit ; but haviiig
repeated the experiment several times, I find no reason to
deviate from the temperature which I have assigned.
3rdly. Carburetted hydrogen, exposed under the same circun^
stances, was not in the least acted upon by a temperature Qf
655° Fahrenheit, the highest to which, by an Argand's lamji, J
, was able to raise the mercurial bath. This, however, must h^ije
been near the temperature required for combination; for on
removing the retort from the mercurial bath, and applying , a
spirit lamp, at such a distance as not to make the retort red hot,
a diminution of volume commenced, and continued till ajljl tt^c
parburetted hydrogen was silently converted into wi^f^.^o^d
, aarboi^ic acid. * .i:Jti;ii^
4thly. Cyanogen, similarly treated, was not changed at a t^^fjx^
/p^rsitnrepf 565° Fahr. and on applying the flame ofci spiritlj^ip^
to f^ tube^ it produced no action till tne tube began tf^ .^Q^t'eff,
* Aim,.de Chinii et de Pbys, xxiii. 443.
N
Rifely* ,&!k^al<|Ci9x:id gas^ mused with half ita vobwie i0f«o»r^
?:eq|,<l)ggaa to h^ acte4 upon at 250^ Fahr. Water was. eTidaotly;
ormed ; and the disengaged chlorine, acting upon the mereuriaX
yapQur in the tube, formed calooael, which was con^ensed^ aodt
coat^d its inner surface. i -.>
6tbly. Ammoniacal gas, mixed with an equal volume of oiijiK .
geiv, ^owed a commencement of decomposition at 380^ Fatoisef / *
heit Water was also in this case distinctly generated; audi ait -
the. close of the experiment, nothing remained in .the t^beibilt/:i
nitrogen and the redundant oxygen. . . > . .u^ t
I. proceeded, in the next place> to examine the ageiM»jiru^j^
finely divided platinum at high temperatures, on those mixiui^ •;
of gases, whicn are either not decomposed,. or are slowly de^QmtJ it
posed, at the temperature of the atmosphere. -• "«i<
When carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases, in equal voluuti^o
mixisd with oxygen sufficient to saturate only one of thefii» vnssb
placed in contact with the sponge, and gradually heated iaifiyf
mercurial bath, the mixture. ceased to expand between 300^ and.
310^ Fahrenheit, and soon began to diminish in voIuomu Qo/^
raising the temperature to 340^, and keeping it some time at thati* >
point, no further diminution was at length perceptible. FroiOi \
the quantity of carbonic acid, remaining at the close of the.
experiment, it appeared that four-fifths of the oxygen had united .
wiih .the carbonic oxide, and only one-fifth with the hydrogeo*^
When four volumes of hydrogen, two of carbonic oxide, and one
of oxygen, were similarly treated, the hydrogen, notwithstanding .
it9. greater proportional volume, was still found to have taken
only one-fifth of the oxygen, while four-fifths had combined with
the cai^bonic oxide. The^ie facts show that at temperatures ben
tween 300° and 340° Fahrenheit, the affinity of carbonic oxidd
for .oxygen is decidedly superior to that of hydrogen; as, firOBi
the experiments before described, appears to be the case also a^
common temperatures,
jBut a similar distribution of oxygen between carbonic oxide
•and hydrogen dpes not take place when those three gases aie
fired together bjr the electric spark. This will appear firom tha
following table, in which the first three columns show the quacH .
titles of ^ases that were fired, and the last two, the quantities of
oxygen that were found to have united with the carbonic oxid^
and with the hydrogen.
-. <i Before filing. After finng. '
/ •^' ' ' "TT^
Measure of Measure of Measure of Oxygen to Oxygen , to
^ carb. oxide, hydrogen. oxygen. carb. oxide. hyOTOg^,
'■Exp. 1 .... 40 .... 40 .... 20 6 14' '
2 .... 40 .... 20 .... 20 12.;'.. 8 '"
3 20 40 20 6 15
When equal volumes of carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases',
imttSPi finely divt^1?i4ti9ilmmt^GMm/t$Miku^ 4Bfr
wgn^ wiiiv oxf^m su^eient to aaiuraU wly ^le of ihett, vmq
expirtWMLin a gfatts tube to ibe flame of a spirit lampy witbout
the presence of the sponge, till the tube began to soften^ the
comBination of the gases was effected without explosioUj^ aa^
was merely indicated by a diminution of volume^ and an oscil-*
latocy motion of the mercury in the tube. At the closie of th«
experknent, out of twenty volumes of oxygen^ eight were found
to Wire united with the carbonic oxide, and twelve with the
hydrogen, proportions which do not materially differ from th«
results of tne first experiment in the foregoing table. At high
teileiperature, then, the attraction of hydrogen for oxygen appears
to^eaoeed that of carbonic oxide for oxygen ; at lower tempera*^
turB$ty espocifidiy when the gases are in contact with the platinum
sponge, the reverse takes place, and the affinity of carbonic
o^^e: for oxygen prevails.
JBac^eadiDg the comparison to the attraction of olefiastt and
h^ri^ea gases for oxygen at a red heat, I found that whett
sii^ volumes of defiant, six of hydrogen, and three of oxygen
weito healed by a spirit lamp till thie tube softened, a silent com-*
bitiation tdok place as before ; all the oxy^n was coiisamed}
bttt'jonly half a volume had been expended in forming carbooib
aeid, which indicates the decomposition of only one quarter of
a Jvolume of defiant gas. On attempting a similar compariscii
between carbonic oxide and defiant gas, by heating them wiib
oxygen in the same proportions, the mixture exploded as soooi
m the glass became red hot, and burst the tubob
The property inherent in certain gases, of retarding the actioi^
of. the platinum sponge, when they are added to an explosive
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, is'most remarkable in thoM
which possess the strongest attraction for oxygen; and it kt
pKObably to the degree of this attraction, rather tJiantoaair
agency arising out of their relations to caloric, that we are ta
a9cribe the various powers which the gases manifest in this/
respect.. This will appear from the following table, the first
column of which shows the number of volumes of each gas;
required to render one volume of an explosive mixture of faydrot^
gen and oxygen uninflammable by the discharge of aLeyd^i j«rj;>
wl^ile the second column shows the number oi volumes of eaell
gas necessary, in some cases, to render one volume of an eotjdoA
sive mixture insensible to the action of the sponge, and in otheo
cases indicates the number which may be added without pre-
venting immediate combination. In the first column, the num««
bers marked with an asterisk were determined by Sir Humphry
Davy ; the remaining numbers in that column, and the.wholaof
the second, are derived from my own experiments.
70$ ^M w \i Iii^Jbm^>(m.$keiJmim^ ptam.
\\himlp9^^}>^ nflamcd by ekctri-
1 ^Ct wfasn mixed with
> ■^y\ ■• •> — -^ I I ,
♦About 8 vol. of hydrogen. . .
f ' ' ' 6 nitrogen. . . .
'»*" • 9 oxygen
/^ 11 nitrous oxide
• 1*6 cyanogen. .,
* 1 carb. hydrog.
4 carbonic ox.
^ 0*5 defiant gas. •
^' 2 muriatic acid
2 ammonia • • •
3 carbonic acid
of «Kpl<MiT0 mixMe on tlp.iMtf|vi.ar
the sponge*
^ ^ — . — ' *p— 1
not prevented by many VoIbj '
ditto. ' -
not preventeid by lO-vrf'.;^ ^'^^
ditto. '" ;<- ift
prevented by 1 vtrf. ' ^'^'^ ^^'f^
not pevented by 10 n^ofbyrf
prevented by :J. a' v^It * f ^ ^
prevented by l-'S vol. »^ {» 'i^oi
not prevented by 6 vd^ '/«> tcj
not prevented by 10 vol. i' '^'/it
ditto. ' ' > <;^ni
^ • • ■ ""t'ur)
; .. Frdm the foregoing table it appears, that carbonic lOKtde fg^
'dinMa the greatest e&ct, in the smallest proportion to en. wpHi-
■lire mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, in preventing the ^wJ^w^
^{'^hose gases on each other, when exposed to the sponge^i^
temperatures below th^ boiUng point of mercury. la generiJ
.ikxmo gases which either do not unite with oxygen, or umte witji
•it' only at high temperatures, have little effect m restraining the
effioimcy of the sponge. There is an apparent exception, now^
isiiftft, in cyanogen, which it would require more research thfin I
^IsMDe yet had time to devote to an object merely collateral, .tp
viseconcile (if it be capable of being reconciied), with the •geeertl
iirinnii^h^i
\ . Fisom the fact that carbonic oxide, olefiaixt gas, and oarba-
4ret4ed hydrogen, when brought to unite w^ith oxygen by means
^f tihe ;platinnm sponge assisted by heat, undei^o this change ^t
*J^ex$nt temperatures, it seeimed an obvious conclusion^ thai by
(Exposing a mixture of those gases with each other and with
Mif^efx to a regulated temperature, the correct analysis of such
damtlj^es might probably be accomplished. Mixtures of two or
tllloicejQfithe combustible gases were Uierefore exposed, ia mii*
4fiotw<id^ oxygen gas and the platinum spong^e, in tubes bent into
-the-^hs^e-Qt rejtorts, which were immersed in a mercurial hath.
jTliiisrW^h. was gradually heated to the required temperatutes,
<Md;by. proper management of the source of heat, was prevented
,&am T^ng, above that degree.
i.t^itotKiBjT: subjecting 26 measures of carbonic oxidtf, 16 of
'iltedfl^l ^as^..nnd 67 of oxygen, in contact with the sponge, tq a
(beatiiWJ^^ was not allowed to exceed 360^ Fahrenheit till tJbie
IdtoinuUQQPf volume ceased, all the carbonic oxide wa^ con-
jtM»49d;into carbonic acid, and the defiant gas remained tnttt^
original volume. .•! >..
2d. By exposing in a similar manner 20 measures of carbonic
oxide, 21 of carburetted hydrogeui ax^ 3j& of oxygen, to a tern-
jaUl^ ^lydlmiiilPlAti^^tmG^Aemi Mixtures. 313^
terttttfo fallow 400^ FahreiAeit^ llie earibmiio emd^fvf^e(»eaikNsify
fecflSfflted j Ahd on washing out the carbonic ^«M|M^t^
potash, the cttrburetted hydrogen was found unalteirea, jAiied
witlk^tJhQre^andant oxygen, - '; ,»A^
3d. A mixture of 10 measures of olefiant gas, 10 of ^carburet*
ted hy(farQg0|iK^nd 58 of oxygen, being heated in contact with
the sponge to 510^ Fahrenheit, the olefiajut gas was silently
but entirely, jt^nged into carbonic acid, while the carburetted
liydrogw WfLSjiiQtat all acted upon. ^
4th. Byi^^tlng with the sponge upon 42 measures of carbu-
retted hy^|rag0n^ 22 of carbonic oxide, 22 of hydrogen, and 36
of oxyg^ 6rat'at a temperature of 340^ Fahrenheit, which was
raised gradually to 480 , all the carbonic oxide was changed
into carbonic acid, and all the hydrogen into water; but the
carburetted hydrogen remained undimmished in quantity, and
'iv1i|4buind,'aheir removing the carbonic acid, mixed ofeii^ #ith
-ititj^i^dAtiidaiit Oxygen. In this experiment, the dimktatioi^ bf
^icei^toniie had continued some time before there was an y pwpca]^-
%l^fbriaQiation of water, the attraction of carbonic oxide (o»6tf»
tett^n^ppearing to prevail over that of hydrogen. The mtt^
ipriiicede^Eicy in the formation of carbonic acid is always appareM,
^h$ii' carbonic o:!tide and hydrogen, mixed even with OieygM
HAfotigli to saturate both gases, are raised to 360^ Fabr^nhdt; i >
1 ^1 By dittos earefullj regulating the temperature of the ttter^oml
^1iatfa>'tbe action of oxygen upon several gases (carbonic . oseuiii,
(dlefiant, and carburetted hydrogen for example) may be madi^tio
take place in succession ; and by removing the carboilie 'ttdl),
^Ibrtned at each operation, , it may be ascertained how ticmch of
^i$lit$h of the two first gases has been decomposed. The eatlftl^
^ett#d hydrogen indeed always remains unchanged^ and iCs
'|)tilMftlity must be determined by firing it with oxygen^by^ tite
4lbetric spark. If hydrogen also be present, it is >dtffl<mH}^4»
'i^vefnt the olefiant gas fVom being partially acted upMf jbM
tiiis is of litde consequence, as I have shown thatit is ^Sfakj^ilO
Y^move that gas in the first instance by chlorine.^ Itm^y>te
r^mark^d, that this method of operating on the arerifortti doftf-
E6unds of charcoal gives more accurate results than ra^ ic^^
u^tion by the electric splark, being never attended wi«lit&ilt
'precipitation of charcoal, which is often observed when thiE^^cuMts
are exploded with oxygen. A regulated temperature,' 'fltsii,
•^ects the analysis of such mixtures much more corr0^tly llban
'tb^ aetfon of the sponge or balls, because in the lattel^ ^6^tife
Mail? produced is un<iertain ; and though sometimes ajdet^^^^^
'tte» m&ct, yet thcire is always a risk that it diay i^^cee^/''Dli^iyll
^4h6tt bf tiiat degree) which is required for the suece^iiil>)^l^
of the analytic process. » ^ fr.ii -.no
-mt>j IS 01 jy^/A h^ifiio^s^Thimcmgy imip^ ^'' — t^-^'^^»^
• • Dr. Hmry on ih^ AtttM ^ IjirbK^
• ' Bmn Uie fleets which have been sUted^ I derived attethad of
obtaining oarburetted hydrogen gas perfectly free from olefiaat
1^^ hydrogen, and carbo;xic oxide, and mixed only with a fitd»
oxygen, which, had it been necessary to my purpose, might aliui
have been separated. The early product oi the distillation - of
pit^oal was washed with a watery solution of chIoriti9,'^aiM
afterwards with liquid potash, to remove a little chlorine that
fopose into the gas from the solution. The residuary-gas^wte
next heated with one-fourth its volume of oxygen, at thd temi
perature of 360^ Fahrenheit, in contact with \S% spong^^ wfafidh
converted the carbonic oxide into carbonic acid, and the hydro-
gen into water. The carbonic acid being removed by aquid
potash, there remained only the carburetted hydrogen, the
redundant oxygen, and a very minute quantity of nitrogen intro-
duced by the latter gas. Hitherto, 1 have prepared this gas
only in a small quantity, but it would be easy to extend the scale
of uie operation, and to remove the excess of oxygen by obvious
nftetbods. , / >
Sect. III. — Application of the Facts to the Analysis of Mixtures
of the Combustible Gases in unknown Proportions,
At an early period of the investigation described in the figrat
section, I proceeded to apply the facts of which I was then po^
teased, to the analysis of a mixture of gases in unknowA propor*?
tions. For this purpose, I caused a quantity of gas to bo
collected from coal, by continuing the application of heat tot^e^
retorts two hours beyond the usual period, and receiving the gi^i
into a separate vessel. Gas of this quality was purposeljf^
chosen, because, from former experience, I expected it to con«
tain free hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carburetted hydrogen^
but no defiant gas, the production of which is confined to tKa
9|irly stages of the process. After washing it, therefore, with
£quid potash, to remove aiittle carbonic acid, and asceitaining
its specific gravity when thus washed to be 308, I proceeded at
once to subject it to the new method of analysis.
Having ascertained, by a previous experiment with Volta'^
ewjUometer^ that 10 volumes of the gas required for saturation
d^yolumes of oxygen, I mixed 43 measures with 43 of oxygen,
(:*s. 41 pure) and passed a platinum ball, which had been recently
heated, into the mixture. An immediate diminution of volume
took place, attended with a production of heat, and formation of
]9(^(»8l;ure. The residuary gas, cooled to the temperature of the.
atmosphere, measured 43-6 volumes. Of these 4*5 wereabsorbefl
by liquid potash, indicating 4*6 carbonic acid, equivalent to 4*^
carbonic oxide; the rest, being fired in a Volta's eudiometQf
with an additional quantity of oxygen, gave 11 volumes of car-
bonic acid ; the diminution being 22 volumes, and die oxygen
con8BBied22 also^ circumstances whidi prove that 11 vBOlvniwd
* »
iSH&^ Jinay JS^ded Pha^m m<MeoUf Mixtures. 4SB
^{sarfmietted hydrogen were consumed by' this rapid' comHus-
tiortv But of the loss of volume first observed (viz.. 8ft — .43*6
^42*5)3*25 are due to the carbonic acid formed ; and deduct^
to^^tiiis from 42*6, we have 40-25, which are due to the oxy^d
Iwad- hydrogfen converted into water ; and 40*25 x |^ = 2o'8
tti0^w» 4;h«' hydrogen in the onginal gas. But the sum of these
imijih^TS (26-8 +4*5+1 1) being less by 07. than the volunle
frf-ggaa^Bubmi^ed to analysis, we may safely consider that frac*
tto&tof a measure to have been nitrogen. The composition then
fi£kb9 mixture will stand in volumes as follows :
l\ii[' : Hydrogen 26*8 62*32
^.^i^ . . Carbonic oxide 4*5 lO'SO
I^.j . , Carburetted hydrogen . . 1 1*0 25*56
. Nitarogen 0*7 1*62
>F
43-0 100-00
On calculating what should be the specific gravity of a milt-
ture of gases in the above proportions, it was found to be 'SOS,*
which coincides, as nearly as can be expected, with the actual
specific gravity of the gas submitted to analysis, viz. '308. To
place the correctness ot the results beyond question, I mingled
the gases in the above proportions, and acted on the artificial
mixture in the same raannec as on the original gas, when I had
iSie satisfaction to find that the analytical process again gave
flie true volumes with the most perfect correctness for the hydro-
gen and carbonic oxide, and within the fraction of a measure f6r
the carburetted hydrogen. Notwithstanding this successful
result, which was twice obtained, 1 should still prefer, for the
p^ason which has been stated, having recourse to a temperature,
careftilly regulated, for the analysis of similar mixtures, in all
eases wnere the hydrogen is in moderate proportion, and wh^
^eat accuracy is desirable. Whenever (it may again be
remarked) defiant gas is present in a mixture, it should alWisi^
be removed by chlorine, before proceeding to expose the mixturie
to the agency of the spongy metal.
* It can scarcely be necessary to enter into further details
respecting methods of analysis, the application of which to par-
ticular cases must be sufficiently obvious, from the experiments,
which have been described on artificial mixtures. 'The apparatus'
required is extremely simple, consisting, when the oalls ar6
employed, of graduated tubes of a diameter between 0*3 and 0*6'
of an inch ; or, when an increased temperature is used, of tubek;
bent into the shape of retorts, of a diameter varying with thW
quantity of gas to be submitted to experiment, which may be'
<
I
' '* JDa (his esdmate, the spedfic gravity of hydrogen is taken at *0694 ; that of cat«
'" at 'fTa^s of durbiueltcd hydrogen at *55&5; and of nitrc^en at .•lia2&.. j
from half a cubic inch to a cubic inch or more* These^ when in
use^ maybe immersed in a small iron cistern containing mercury^
and provided with a cover in which are two holes^ one for the
tlbbey. iaud die other for the stem of a thermometer^ thd dilgreidid
of which are best engraved on the glass. The gas is^ of course,
confined in the tube by keeping the open end imix^rsed in a
small basin of mercury i ' ' '
By means of these improved modes of aoalysidy'l't^have
already obtained some interestin,g illustration^pf ^thj^ ^fi^titr^ lof
the ^ases from coal and from oil. I reserve^ ho^^Af^^ tl^ll^Qjnt^
munication of them, till I have had an opportunity QSip^mmif^
the inquiry to a greater extent, and especially ^oC^^aAi^fjtie^
myself respecting the exact nature of the compoimdof chtlcQQ^
and hydrogen, discovered sonae years ago by Mr. J^s^toi^/iinilMlb
gas and coal gas, which agrees with olefiant ^as in bei^g %99t7
densible l>y chlorine, but differs from it in affording mQre^oa^blWVtt^.
apid and consuming more oxygen. Lai^fid
I _^_ • • . \n iM
Article IV. }il
Astronomical Observations^ 1825. 'T
By Col. Beaufoy, FRS. : '^'
Btishey Heath, neat Stanmore. . <
Latitude 6l» SV 44*S" Kortfi. Longituac West in time 1' 2(hM". "
Afrit 19l Emetrion «r Juinter's fint C 9h 34' 03'' Mean Time at Buahe^f. "x ^'
, MttUite }0 35 S4 Mean Time at Oree<iwic|i,{
April S5. Ingress of Jupiter's third C 9 08 55 Mean Time at Bushej. ,
satellite ^9 10 16 Mean Time at GreenwibH;'
Afttil^^^. BtattviMi of Jupiter*s second € 9 88 05 Mean Time at Busbay.
satdlate {9 33 26 Mean Time at Orecniridh^i
Maf 6, Emersion of Jupiter's third r 1 1 53 SO Mean Time at Bushej,.<
/ satellite JH 54 41 Mean Thne at Greenwich..
AprU24. Immerrio^^^ 3^ ,Q.g gi^ierfj Time. i
tne moon \
ObMnred Transits of the Moon and Moon-culminating Stars over the Middle Wire of'
the Transit Instrument iii Sidenal Time.
Y'-' ' 1S25, Stars. Transit.
AprU29.— 167 Virginis llh 4& 09-28"
;'■.'. 29.^M«Mm'» First or West Limb 11 55 07*6T
,..j.. .:. 29.-14 Virginia 12 10 24-17 .i
/•.«'.' ,/> '. ♦ / ?i
€biv i^. CAe9»ioer/ Camposition of Sponges. By Jobti Edwanlil
^or-.T-r- .. •. Gray, E«q. MGS. . . .- .i.vV-
' iflTb the Editors of the Annals of Philosophy,) v^ .
^oliritttyijpipiefr dn Sponges iu the ZoblogicalJournal, Ibbserve^';
tfaat^^b^^ipikYges ^ all appear to be essentially formed after the'
$§Blii^'lililAtiiitTy iliat is to say, of longitudinally placed transparent;
fJpi^iitt^-^Ajtife/' and further, that ''the fibres are composed of
Jpi^^hd ^iinit€fd by a cartilaginous substance/' I collected a-
4vi^tltitty*of spicute, by washing them from a sponge in which they
w«P^ 1K^ large and distinct. I accidentally foubd that they
dl^dlvea gla^s, when rubbed hard against it. My attention -
having been attracted to this fact, having before considered ^
them as mosdy composed of carbonate or pnosphate of lime, I
applied to my friend Mr. Children, stating the circumstance^
when he informed me that he had just observed that a sponge-
like body lately given to him by Mr. Heuland, which
proved to be a Tethya (a genus, which, in the before referred to
paper, I stated to be formed almost entirely of spiculse), consisted
wholly oipure silica^ and a little animal matter. On subjecting
some sponges to experiment, considerable quantities of siUca
were found in the ashes ofSpongillaJluviatilis^ Sponmatommtosa^
and two or three other allied species ; and a small quantity in
Spongia officinalis, and a distinct trace, sufficient to totm. a^h^
bdfte nefore the blowpipe^ in the ashes of a piece of the as^is of ^
C^gmdaFlabellum. '*'
XSe quantity of silica araears, as might be expected', iolaeaim.
pi^ortipn to the density of the fibres of the spoiige. ,
Shojtiy afterwards, on looking over Ellis's Zoophites^ p. lU1»;
I found that he, in his description of Gorgonia Briareus ^wbich^
is now considered to be an anomalous species), states, that its
hard part (axis) or bone is composed of beautiful purple glassy
spij^uf^lyiog lengthways almost parallel to each othea:»- r .''^ - ./m
After considerable search I have not been able to get or even
see a specimen of this interesting species, but there can be very
little doubt, but that these spiculee are also siliceous^ < r
This fact is exceedingly interesting in several points of view;
first, because silica is very rarely found as a product of tibe ani-
mal kingdom, and has never hitherto, that I am aware of, been
said to be found in the zoophytes, but only spoken of as aeon-
gtituent of hair and horn^ to which the axis of the sponges and
Sorgonias have some resemblance ; secondly, as proving a consi*
erable affinity or resemblance in chemical composition, as well
as in external structure, to exist between the sea mid freshwater
sponges, a fact which several natui^sts, since the appeaTatfce
of my former paper, have, appeared to doubt; and lastly, "^lisSch,
Is of ^uch more consequence, it proves a considerable afiii([^to
eiist between the Sponges (both the manVi^ 9,nd Jlwoiatii^ a^fl^e
Gorgonia, which latter are known td be the habiiatixia aiM ffo-
ductionof individuals belonging to the animal kin^oir^^iid
this greatly strengthens the idea of Ray, Lamarck, and otters,
that the sponges are true corals, nearly allied to An:ihipih»9!kd
Gorgammf and not vegetables ; nor aaoiBalooa«aiiB«ls^^lQei«ll&e
Infmorioi. ?fn^\B
Article VL « '^^^^
On the Red Colour of Crystallized Felspar^ * ^^ /j'^o
(To the Editors of the Annals of PhitosopJiy,) '' ^'^^
GENTLEMEN,
It has often occurred to me as a peculiwty in erystafltzed
felspar, that it exhibits a decided red colour, though acu^rsb
points out no substance in its composition to which thai ookii^
can be attributed ; and that this colour, after exposure to a slidbng
lieat^ entirely* disappears, leaving a very pure colourless ^iass*
It cannot be attributed to iron even if a mmute quantity aftoaU
exist in the felspar, because the colour of iron is not destrneifbla
in this manner ; and if a few iron stains exist on thefelaparyrtfai
same heat which destroys the red colour of the cfystal-dnly
m^es those stains stronger. Hence a question has s«gg>eBC^
itself, are chemists justified in supposing, as theyuniform^do,
that the colour of a mineral may always be referred to soone
specific colouring ingredient ? It appears to me that felspar is
an instance to the contrary, and an accidental experiment has
enabled me to show that substances may be produced^ ^hteh^
tiiough composed of perfectly colourless materials, shall, uildef
certain circumstances, exhibit a decided colour. If a eheniiil
should undertake to analyze the substance (of which I now need
specimens), he would find only lime, alumina, silica, soda, ami
boracic acid, and he would be much puzzled to account for the
red colour which it exhibits^ particularly when he should find
that the colour might be made to appear and disappear at
pleasure^ according to the degree of heat and of comminution to
which he might expose it.
The method of producing the substance was as follows :—
The ingredients aoove indicated were coarsely mixed together
and exposed to a strong white heat, which produced a semi*
vitrified mass of a pure white ; a portion of this was finely
ground, and after exposure to a low red heat not above that of
wMkig silver, was found, much to my surprise to hinPd^fitiMlliflied
ara(.] On tJxtkd. Cohuf of Oysfmi%e4^ebpar. ^SS^
• a r«d colour; which colour, with the increase of befit, tras
.: fimiid antirel]^ to disappear, and the sttbsfance assumed at last
. as pure a white, as it possessed after the first fusion. A lutnp
of the originarmass was found' to undergo no change of coldur
nt Uie same heat, and I have uniformly found, soler several
tutaids^ l^tt the depth of the colour depends on the fineness of
tlhiligruuling. * A portion was mixed with nitre, which almost
h entirely destroyed the colour, a proof that it cannot be attri-
3lB(iiloll'to^»iHiiganese9 which might perhaps be suspected, as: nitre
always deepens the colour of mangstnese in a remarkable
numner.
• I observe some doubts were expressed in your January num-
ber as to the nature of some specimens from Caernarvon : for
my own part, as soon as I found that parts of the rock naturally
ot a red colour became white in strong fire, I had no doubt those
parts consisted of felspar.
If .No; 1 is the result of the first fusion, the materials having
. bem imperfectly mixed, it is porous^ and not uniform, but of a
igood white.
.. No. 2 is the same substance finely ^ound in a porcelain dish*
' :Ko. 3 is a portion of No. 2, which has been exposed to a low
imt heat, nearly that of melting silver .''^
. 'No; 4 is another portion of No. 2, which has been exposed to
a' heat somewhat stronger.f
; 'No; 6 is another portion of No. 2, which has been exposed to
a moderate white heat.!
. >N'o. 6 is another portion mixed with one-fifth nitre, and
eaeposed to the same heat as No. 3.§ C. C. C.
#•'"■' . . "
*^* The phflenomena related in our correspondent's paper aro
piobably merely optical, owing to the different action of the
•abslances on light from their different states of aggregatioti,
according to the degrees of heat to which they have been
exposed.-— JSfiltV.
* This fipedmen has a peach blosisom colour.
+ Pale Uuiah lilac colour. .
\ Slightly greenish white enamel.
§ Similar tint to No. 4, but lighter. ;^
ijUmS^rmy yoh. ix. 2 f
4M fy^mtmf(ftl^Tk4qf^itfJk* [fvm
Article VII.
£xpl^nati(M of the Theory of the Barometrical Mea^wn/^ ^
iieights. :,
(To tiieEditoTH of the Annals of Phiiasophy.) •'«)
'-♦ /
0£NTI«E]M[£N, -.
Thb barometer is an economical inatrameat capable^ evioBtUt^
the bands of the most unscientific, of readily furnishing da^
sufficiently exact for the computation of accessible heights. Thff^t
4}onsequent calculations, in spite of repeated sacrifices of aocu^j?
racy to dispatch, are however disgustingly tedious, aad>9pt ft>
little liable to error. In the most approved formulsa, appro^i^
matiods seriously affecting in many cases the aeouraoy of ti^\
result are admitted, whiUt minor corrections strictly censtittttf^^
ingpart of the value of the coefficients are unnecessarily kept*
distinct, and form a notable portion of the labour of the comr;
puter. The tables expressly constructed to facilitate and ensure^
accuracy to the nicer calculations of the philosppber, as vreil a|:
those designed to abridge the labour to the geologist, the bota!i.t
nist, and the general traveller, for whom the offiromnate height:^
iMybe sufficient, are capable of v^uable improvement, not only
in regard to accuracy, but to the attainment of the other obJQQt?!
in view. To point out these errors, to remedy the defects, and.
to render the theory of the instrument and the various fornsill^i.;
inteUigible to general capacities, will form the |>rincipal obje^ ;
of the present paper. The task imposed is sufficiently difficulty
the ei^ecution will therefore require the extreme indulgence of
your readers. . .:
Having formed a correct idea of the theory, we shall be able,
to propose some alterations in the construction of the instruments,
trifling in themselves, yet enabling the observer ii(iaterially to
reduce the number of the data requisite for the calculatioDn
widiout affecting in the slightest degree the cpf raotness of IJ19
result.
D^nilion of Difference of Level, Vertical Height, 8^c.
1. The earth being a sphere at rest, any two or other number
of points equally distant from its centre are termed level points^
-—on a level, — or level with each other. 2. A level surface con- .
sists of such points, and is every where at the same distance.,
from the centre of the earth. The level surface being of incon- .
Biderable extent will be sensibly a plane, parallel to the horizon,
and is consequently occasionally termed a horizontal surface or
j)lane. 3. The difference of level, or the vertical height, eleva?« ,
tiQD, 01 altitude of one point, or of one level surlace aboj^e^
HSM'^: B^ifmttrie«l HitiunmM tfHftt^ts.
m
.1
T
m*mm
A.
VJ
•notbQr* U equal to the difference of their di9t«Qoef firom the
centre of thq earth.
Of the Pressure of Fluids.
4. Fluids gravitate in lines directed to the centre of the earth
(also that pf gravity), and are so constituted that their particles
yirid to the action of the slightest pressure in any direction.
& Eveiy point of the surface of a fluid when at rest is equaUy
distttHt from the cental of the earth.
^^,- Bie pressure downvmrds on
th^ horizontal plane A (or upwards
against the similar plane B) in
conhict with the uniformly dense
fliifd contained in the vessel V
(placed m a vacuum), will vary
directly as the vertical height of
the surface of the fluid above the
plane A (or the plane B), without
r^ard to the figure or volume of
the flaid ; for the pressures are as
thii weights, and the weights are as the heights of the incumbent
columns of the fluid.
7. The pressure depending sokly on the vertical height of the
fluid aho'oe the planes, without regard to its horizontal extent,
depth below the planes, &c. the sur&ce of the mercury (or other
uttfformly dense fluid) contained in an inverted syphon, will be
level (or stand at the same height) in both branches, however
^flfereht or irregular their diameters, and without regard to the
degree of inclination of either. (The tubes are supposed to be
sufficiently wide to render the efiect of capillary attraction insen*-
sible.)
8. The pressure downwards
vrithin the shorter branch of the
inverted syphon S, exerted on the
surface A of the mercury (or other
uniformly dense fluid) therein, in
contact with the fluid contained
in the vessel W (placed in a
vacuum), will be equal to the
weight of a cylinder t), having its
base of the same area as the hori-
zontal surface A ; of the same vertical height as that of the sur- f
face of the fluid above A, and uniformly of the mean specific '
gravitv of that intercepted portion of the fluid. - ^
9. The equiponderant uniformly dense cylinder D, representing
the weight pf the counterpressure upwards of the mercury in thi '
ayphbn », will have a base equsd to that of the cylinder C ; its
2f3
436
JShitplanaUm of tie Theory efike
A
fveigbtmUbe eicjaal to like difference of level of tihetwobiatiebtts;
Its 8f»ecific gravity the same as that of the mercury. *"^
10. Any ratio of the height of a cylindrical column imilbniily
dense is the same proportion of its weighty and of its Tofaune. •
11. 'The diameters and weights of the two cyKaders beoag
^emial/ their heights will he reciprocally as their spedfie |gm,Ttl&ffs.
Ine mean specific gravity of the column of thenuid tKr>the<«eBibl
W'f intercepted between its surface and A, being less tbani^faat
of the mercury in the syphon^ in the ratio of 20 to l/theiTieHi^
height of the fluid above A will exceed that of liie diffiurdnofa^if
levelof the mercury in the same proportion. ' '' /••n ni
12. To ascertam the vertical • * :. « ?d
height of the section b c situated
below the surface a of the fluid
contained in the vessel T; note the
heights (differences of level) of
the mercury in the syphons S and
S'y placed at b and c. Conceiving
the fluid abwe the level of b to be
removed, the difference of these
heights, in addition to the mean
specific gravity of the intercepted
ftuid and that of the mercury,
form the whole of the requisite
cktta.
Theory of the Barometer. '^
13. Mercury (water, or other heavy incompressible fluid) bdng
poured into the vessel U, will ascend, and finally stand at ^e
•«••.«■*•■»•»•«»
same vertical height, or level / /, as well in the tube C, and in' the
inverted syphon Jd fixed within it as in the vessel itself; kiidin
the erect tube D, and the inclined one A forming part of it.
• 14: 'Oie whole being in a vacuum, if we intro^fide 'intoMe
4 I
.-^flt
; vesscL^'qiutBtity of aoy fluid spedfioaUy lighter >ibdl»^tbff:i&4Q¥-
cury, the resulting additional pressure iiouY^u^urrc^s will give li^e
^ & tocresponding pressure upwards, and consequent asceixt of
the merisury withia such parts of the vessel D and A^ as wellfiis
zjicddthiB the tube C, and the closed branch of the syphon B^ to
•^nvAicbthecarerfhiid has not access^ and upon whose upper. sup-
^fiHses k (^liitiot exert any part of the pressure incumbeut {Oa the
iini^rovr^ kt the body of the vessel. The equilibrium of pressure
li?ailir3have taken place when a cylindrical column of the mercuryi
'^oeqafiJ^inihei^rt to the (vertical) difference of level of that fluid
in any one oi the closed tubes (their heights m, m% m^% vaidmf^^,
being the same), and in the body of the vessel (or open branch
of the syphon) form an exact counterpoise to a similar column of
the j^upenncumbent fluid of the same base/and of its total height
Ji^bove the (reduced) level /', l^ (or surface of contaotof the two
fluids).
jRemark, — The subsidence of the level of the mercury in the
vessel from ^ / to 1% 1% is occasioned by that part of its origistal
voltime having ascended, on the introduction of th6 superior
flui4> into the closed tubes A, B, C, D.
Cbnceiving the light fluid pressing upon the exposed sur&ce
of the mercury to represent the atmosphere, then will the vessel
U with its various tubes form so many varieties of the barameter
having olie common cistern.
15, Whatever the construction of the barometer, the vertiml
height of that surface* of the mercury to which the atmosphere
.^ has not access above the surface in contact with it, equals, and
;'i8 termed the pressure of atmosphere, or more generally the
height of the barometer.
Of the Density of Dry Air.
Variation from Pressure. — 16. A volume of perfectly dry aip
of any temperature, contained in the cyfindrical ves-
sel C, supporting only the pressure of the gravitat-
ing uniformly dense cylindrical weight W, will have
its volume and height diminished in proportion to
the augmentation of the weight (height) of the com-
pressing column.
17. The weight (height) of the superincumbent
cylinder W being diminished in any ratio, the volume
(height of the column) of air will be increased in the
same proportion.
18. Hence the elasticities of perfectly dry air are directly , and
•;, 'the volumes and heights reciprocally as the pressures (or h^o^ts
i.i ftftibe- comprising weights).
19.: The volume occupied by any fluid being increased, or
<^t/{diiiiinish0d:in any ratio, its density will be ^t&^^^di inversely in
the same proportion. The densities will consequently be
^1 ]Biy&nifft'MdfiM^IM«^>4i!^. ' (9#Mf»
directly aft the pressures, and reciprocally as the volames ot
heights.
Variation from Temperature.^20. The dry air, uniformly of
the temperature of 32^ F. contained in the cylinder G bein^
exposed to increased temperatures, will have its volume, elasti-
city, and height, augmented, without regard to the pressure it
supports at the uniform rate of .^^ per degree. 21. Diminution
of temperature will occasion a corresponding decrease of volume,
elasticity, and height, in the same ratio. ^
Temperatures +32°F. +8® +80° + 512^
Volumes and heights 1-00000 0-950Q0 1-10000 2-00000
DensiUes 1-00000 1-05263 0-90909 O*60066
Mr. Daniell has adopted, in his barometrical tables, &c« a most
erroneous method of calculating the alterations of densityfrom
variation of temperature. Calling the volume of dry air under a
fiven pressure (30 inches), and of the temperature of 32° JF. ass
*0, he proceeds to find the densities at other (more elevated)
temperatures by subtracting the corresponding increase of
volume from 1 *0, the assumed density at 32°. Had Mr. Daniell
extended the table to. 512^, at which temperature the ori|rinal
volume becomes doubled, the incorrectness of the method would
have been detected, — the density would have come out 0 ! The
heights computed from his table will consequently exceed' the
truth, especially when the mean temperature of the air was high^
or the elevation of the mountain considerable. The altitude
being 6000 feet, the error at 80° F. would be about 60 feet.
Well might the author of the Traite de Physique make the
remark, ''semblables d. un.riche malatsi qui n'a point
d'ordre, au milieu de nos theories les plus briUantes^ nousjaaik
qnons Bouvent du fjus simpb nic^siMure."
(7b te ewHittni.)
•t
♦',-s^:>i;«
JAUli A^fktibeHfi»llMhifat.Wi^nf^tt)m, S[c. |^
Article VIII.
^Alphabetical Table of the Weights ofAtomSy accardiwib Berze^
lius, corresponding with Phiuips^ Table, Annals of Philosophy,
• ' yoL xxiv. p. 185 (vol. vii» New Series).
Wdgbis.
o
I
Add, acetic
anenic.
aiwsuous.
Bcn9nc...««« •••»>.
baradc
caxbonJc ••
cbloiic
duomlc...*
otnc ••••*.••■.•■
ailiimbie. •..•....
flnoboric
flttodlicic.
Iodic .
molybdic...
mdybdovu*.
muriatic. •••
nitric
nitrous. ....
oxalic
perdiloric.*.
pbofphoric..
phoiphoious
Fbnnuli^
A
• ••
As
•••
As
B
• •
B
• •
C
•• ••
•• ••
H
•••
•••
Ch
c"
»
Ta
• • ••
F B
• •
F
F
• ■ •••
F>Si«
O
■• ■•
•• ••
I
•••
Mo
Mo
M
• •■
• ••
N
••
N
O
•••••
M
« *
• •a
P
• ••
P
r
64Mfe
1440-7*r
1240*7t
1509-56
Sd9*65
875*313
942*65
1303*6«
727-85
1983*15
544-66
875-0$
463*93
8017*91
791-78
8O66-70
896-80
796*80
348*65
677*86
477*86
8710*6
1148*65
898*30
698-30
687*85
.«*«W»i
^*f
(Aelium dstymMriatiemit.}
(AMm tmOotteumO
(AcUUm^aMoHauiu^
( (Considered as oompofted i»f t!^e mn-
J fiaiic radicle « 148*65, and two
( atoms Of oxygen.)
(As deduced from the oompositioa of
n
^ AlphabeHc^U^^MIttiiflthe..mig/UiO/Aiom^ [l«^
Acid, sulphuric
snlphunoos
tartanc •••••••...
tungstic
"lAliiinina •........,,.,
sulphate..
Aluminum
Ammonia
acetate.
bicarbonate.
borate.
carbonate
dtrato
iodate
molybdate
muriate..,..
nitrate.
oxalate.
phosphate
phosphite.
succinate
sulphate
sulphite
tartrate
Antimony ^ .
chloride
iodide............
deutexide
peroxide
protoxide
sulphuret.
Formula.
Wa^gk
..a
s
s
401*l6
T
634*49
...
w
1607*69
Al
64«*S3
Al^
9145*80
Al
34S'98
NH«
S14«6T
NH«A
$56-56
NH«C»
766*10
NH«B
485O0
NH« C
490^T
■• ••
. a. a.
NH«I
943«98
SS9S-14
NH« Mo
UlMi
NH«M
558^
• ••
• •••
NH6N
891-8S
NH«0
691*81
8NH« + ?
iS9I'44
2 NH« + f
1191-44
NH« S
1
849^
NH« S
715"J|
ifw s •
1
61M3
NH«T i
1049*06
Sb
1612-90
... a ■
8b M3 ?
2940-85
... • • t
8b P I
63J3-0
• a . a !
Sb 1
2012-90
Sb :
2112-90
Sb
SbS»
I9I2-90[
2216*88
■iMMiMaMa*HMki
•i. '•-l'!/.
1. . ♦
(Ojrtoilsr ammonkui.)
(Stibkm.)
iAcidum ftWoiunif)
iAcidum SHhicumfy
r i.
•■ .'. li
'♦ .t »<
■ 1
V-^
^ ■ - ^ -
imi
,<i5tv"» V. o
ocigii^lhig^o J3M(dbtt*'
Kii.A i
A
^
**»9Wi
Aneniate of ammonia • .
potash
floda
Rmnwlg.
AlBCDlC • • M» »^.«i»« • • • •
Axote
Baiiiim.
dilondo •.•••••••.
iodide
pcnmie. . •••.•••.
phosphnitt
Buytea
anemate.
anenite ..
benzoate .
bocate....
carlMwate.
cUflrate..
chxomate
citrate...
hydrate..
iodate...
nitzate...
SNH« As
• . •• •
KAs
Na As
Aa
N
Ba
• • . *
BaM*
. • • •
Bal*
...
Ba?
BaP?
Ba
BaA'
• • •••
BaAs
• •••
BaAs''
BaB""
. ■ . •
BaB«
• • . •
BaC?
.. ..
. . .. .•
BaM*
...
• m ...
BaCh
BaC""
Ba + 8 A^
.. ..
......
Ba P
•••
• • «•■
BaN« '
muiiate (cryst. I
water)
\
oxalate. ..
phosphate.,
phosphite. .
SttOCIDatiB. •
sulphate...
sulphite ••,
BaM*+4
Aq
BaO*
. .
• . ...
BaP
• • ...
BaP
i
|BaS«
BaS*
. • . .
BaS9
1871*65
9620*60
98tS*61
OIO-TI
17T««6
•
nis*86
S509a6
4847^6
9018*66
9106*16
l«18<d
8196*1
8854:63
4895*40
4088-96
9458-17
9464^59
- «
S799!l6
8917*50
8869^6
91S8-78
6047*96
3968*38
S048«90
* > * •
9817*40
980616
9606*16
3169-56
991618
971618
[(GoDsideNd as aj^rotoxide ^nitfU
cum^ an ima^mr hass^nHilB^
whise number is 77*96.)
•
iit il^iAakftefff t>Mr^/iAi VPk%^ f^Ht
Baiytei, taKtnte.
tcmgBtelB . . .
BeDaoicadd ....
BicK|tax«tt0d hjdrogen.
i%% .^ ««•*>•<•'.
icstite
dilorid0<
dilate.,
iodate...
BaT«
• . ...
Ba\P
^•c
• • •••
BiAs
• • a .
BiM*
BiC>
Bi P
Bitxate
» •
)%••••■••»
flODdiO
pbonhatai
ndphale ..
tartiate ..
Boncicadd
Gadmnnii* • • • •
caibonate.
dilofide..
iodide.
nitrate.
pboiphate .
n^plniiita
•••••••
ronnnlB.
Bil«
• . •••
BIN*
BiOf
• •
• •
. • ••*
BiP«
• • •••
BiS^
BiS*
B
B
Cd
• • • m
Cd P
• ■8
• • •••
C*N*
• •
Cd
• a ••»
C*P"
• • a..
C*8»
C*8»
S58ff*M
150d*M
Htm
M14«5T
4998^9
Mt9*5
490l<4
8928^11$
10
964ft*Y|
1909-5I
4d80<M
2948*06
(FToj^Himlili tarylfMI.)
in thik eountrjr.)
' 1
::0
^3
■^^
( Af AedAM ftte lift takfe Bbtoabo
JS«Mi, ip. 145.)
■^ "-r* 1
♦ :<?•!<; 3'.: j-cj
jaM9 '""'^'-'^ '-'■'■ ■md(lkiiit6-jmtMk-^''^^'ih
Calcium
chloride*
fluoride
h$fj s iwiipe^Nr. ♦ • •. /» • A • ■ •
•x!deQi«ke}\.*..»
phosphuiet •••••••
Calomel
Carbon
ox ifle ••••••• •••■•
sulphuret. ••••••••
Carbonic add
Carburetted hydrogen..
Cerium
Chlorine
Chromium
deutozide ••••••..
oxide
%^ODai* • ••••••••••••»•
acetate* ••••%»%•»•
arseniate
bensoate* •••••••.•
^ • \t liovate* ••«••••••••
carbonate* •••••••.
diloride ••••
citrate .•• ..
iodide
mtrate • ••••••••••
oxalate •••• •••••
ptroxide
liboijibait »••«•«••
Fonnuls.
X.
Ca
• • • •
CaM*
• • • •
CaF
• • • •
CaP
Ca
CaP?
• • •
H M
C
•
C
cs«
• •
c
H*C
Ce
M
Ch
• «
Ch
•••
Ch
Co
. :.t
CeAf
• • .a
CaB»
• • • »
CoC*
• • • •
CoM*
CoC«
•• • •
CoP
•••
coii-
CoO«
•••
Co
.. :.>
CoP
51906
I89rst
tST'Of
90iM
wm
ITMt
tt4M4
Y0M4
IIOMI
tOOMi
^SIDO
WfWTt
Iftf«l
ItSMi
ISMW
■r'/, ,,j.^.,jrj|
,. :. ■*.
>1
-/
-v-.jr ^.^
. . "-V-sJ-^
■ -,A
«#«»« 'I* 'J. ., V J
. _•- . J
•* ■ ^ ■ - ^ y
(Car^t^nMNll IWyJi igmUlMf'-
See ^«Mi/p. 126.)
• - If-.
,1- »--. - r*^
^^^c-x.
^AdcfxSM
imsx^fs^
M AfyhabetieatltdhK'ofihe'Weigh& of Atom, iS^i
GoMty {protoxide,
flo^luilo ••••
n^iiret ...
Ctfptt....
iodide.
pcniitnite.
penbenhiite*
•Q^phuiet*
Iflnflriiie******
GlueiBa...**-
OJacuimii ••••
Gold.........
CBHKide • .
UIOBOBKlde*
pevBzide.
mlphmct.
HydfOfen . • • •
Iodine
Imu
. Fqq9ii1|q«
|iHitocHlonflf>«
Co
• • *••
CoS«
Co8»
CoT«
Ta
Cu
CiiA*
Cu C«
• • • •
CttP
• • . •
CuM*
•«
CttN»
■ ■ ••.
CuS-
• a •••
CuP
CttM
Cu
Cu
CaS
Fl
•••
Be
Be
Att
•.. . .
AttM^
Att
•••
Au
Att S»
H
I
Fe
• ■ .v..
FeM*
••« • •
FeM*
Wdglits.
». — .. K «ab, » - ^ ,
038-00
. . . - . '
1940-S8
. « * ' *■ ' t J
1140-32
A
2606-08
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(Tanialumi a name the tnetatlfiiu no
8273-6
. .' . •;.'■-• J .•<
1542-T)5
3924-79
•
1676-69
2345 91
•
1993-71
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1883-69
■ ■
1234-04:
891 -39
. ^ m . §
991-39
• » « ■ «
992-55
•
75-03
« -
962-56
(Oriiftf in heryWeum.)
662-56
>
248600
'• •
3813*95
•
2686-00
..
2786*00
• •
3089*48
6-2177
• •*
1266*7
• • •
678-49
i56:r-73:
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^i^«^BB
lion, peroxide. ..•••...
protoxide* •.•••••.
sulphate. . . .
persulphuret
on d
urotosulphuret . . • .
xjcxul* •••••••••••• ••••
acetate
sub-tritacetate. . . . .
arsoniate* •••••.••
Denzoate • •• •■••••
borate
carbonate* *•••••*•
chloride
chromate
citrate, ..
deutoxide
iodate. . * •
iodide. • • .
molybdate* ^ • • • • • .
nitrate •
oxalate.
peroxide •
phosphate •
phosphite*
protoxide
succinate ...*.,...
sulphate
sulphite
sulphuret. .*••••..
tartrate
Fonnuls.
Fe
• •
Fe
••* *.*
FeS3
FeS«
FeS»
Pb
PbA«
Pb»A«
. *
• • ■••
PbAs
Pbi*
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PbB«
. • . •
PbC«
Pbikl«
■••
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PbCh
PbC
*••
Pb
. • • •
PbP
« • . .
PbP
• • •••
PbMo«
PbN«
PbO«
••
••
Pb
• • •••
PbP
PbP
• •
Pb
PbS«
• • ••■
PbS«
• • • •
PbS«
PbS*
PbT«
*■ ■ *j«»* — i "
973*43
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9481*91
1080*75
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4844-70
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i .
mt
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phonhilt^
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pwii^^
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tl««<»
«
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1
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l7U*8i
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•
QiT*
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*
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3T97<44
{W0fframi90Ct'iciai$.)
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h
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%
J*
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r
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%
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it^Ail} «»n'^UL V 4i«pil^,«p-'49«MllN(>.'. .^'ua<>K
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hydrate
nitrate
phosphate
sulphate. ••«,,«,
xaxuase ff« fff.^^^
Magneuum. . •••••••..
chloride
iodide. • . ,
Manganese. ..
acetate. ..
benzoate .
carbonate,
chlorate.,
chloride..
citrate. ••«.
deutozide •
oiulate.
peroxide .
phoaphate
protoxide,
iuocinate •
sulphate
Meicury. ••• D •.•••«•. •
bisulphuret .t**,^
perchloride •••••..
periodide
pcmitratt •••.••• •
Formttlc.
HMNnl
meamm
. . . .
...
. . ...
Mg.N«
. . ...
MgP
. . •••
Mg
MgM«
« • . *
MgP
Mn
MnA3
MnB«
• • • •
MnC*
• • ••
• • •• ••
MnM«
MnM«
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...
Mn
MnCP
Mn
J^n»ps
Mn
Mn 89
... .••
MnS*
Mat*
%
. . . .
HgM>
• . . a
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HgN«
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• ••••• • • •
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**t
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Hg
Mo
Mo
Ni
.. :.:
NiAi
• • • •
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•••
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• ■ •••
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N
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o
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— ■mniiKia It
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ozide ..
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perdilMKfe ; « . ; . . J^ M *
pciramvt • •
pTotoxide,.
Potash
acetate ....
arseniate. •
■nenite • ••
bensoate...
Hcarbonate.
» • • •
Pt
• •
K
k A«
• • • •
KAs
• • •••
KM*
IwnoTalate
upioiphalt* ••••^
biwJphate
bitartnte
borate
eaibfiiiiite.
dilorate
chromate
ckrate
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looatt ..'••.••••••.
molybdate •••••••.
mtrite •...••.••••
• •
Pa
P
Pt
■ a •
PtM
. :.:
KA8«
ko*
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K P«
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k T*
• • • .
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K C«
•t *•
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••■
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k C«
k + 3Aq
. • •* •^
KP
KMo'
ko«
.. :.:
KP
piuM|uuite ..••••
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r
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1179-88
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Potash) quadioxalate..
succinate, .......
sulphate
sulphite
tartrate
tungstste
Potassium
chloride
iodide
peroxide
phosphuret ......
protoxide
sulphuret. .......
Rhodium
peroxide
protoxide •
Selenium
Silica
Silicium
Silver
acetate
arseniate
arsenite
benzoate.
borate •••••.....
carbonate
chlorate
chloride
chramate
Formula.
k s«
• ...
K S*
. > * •
K S*
k T»
. ...
K
■ • • •
K P
..■
...
K
KP*
KS«
R
•••
R
R
Se
Si
Si
Ag^
AgA«
m •
• • •••
AgAs
• • •••
AgAs«
AgB«
Agif*
. . • •
AgC«
• •••
• • ••••
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AgAP
...
• • •••
AgCh
Wfighi^
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(Wolframiat kaWuu.y
(KaliumJ)
/(Berzelius gives another oxide of po-
tateimu) visE. Subopeidmn tfoOcumy
\
K » I079-8S.)
\Oxidnm rhodieum, AoMtditig to
Beras^us there is a deutoxide,
Oa^umRhodeum^U^nOO-lO,)
>^ ■■ ' Jl. .
ItMli
i\
Atedrlilng'ia BMailhk,
\ ''
i^i
Sflver, citnte.
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iodide
molybdate
nitrate
oxalate.
phospihalfi • « • 4 • i • .
sulphate
flolphite
sulpliuret.
'' ti^rtrate ....*.....
tungstate
Soda
FonnuIaB.
,''»
arseniate.
anenite
benzoate. .
bicarbonate
borate. ...
carbonate,
chlorate.,
chromate.
citrate* . .
hydrate . . ,
iodate....
nudybdate
nitrate. ..
ottlatc •
fncdnate
AgC«
• • ••••
AgP
• • . .
AgP
. • ...
A«M^
• •a
• > ••.
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. a ..a
AgP
. . ...
AgS«
• . • •
Ag8«
AgS«
AgT»
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AgW>
. •
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NaA«
. . s.s
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• * •••
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NaB«
Na Ca«
■ a • .
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• a.a
. . ....
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• ••
• • •••
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NaC»
Na + 2 Aq
• . ....
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m • ...
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. ••
• • ...
NaN»
NaO»
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W%ipte.1
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58S(Mri
40»M1
2903*21
3795'5l
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3705-53
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2667-14
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1006-71
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1685*38
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2(3%
{Oxidum noMetm,)
4Sft AlphabeticaiToMv/mWeighH of Atoms, [?d«tf,
Soda, sulphate,
sulphite..
tartiBte. ..
godinin
chloiide
iodide**
peroxide.
protoxide*
sulphuret
Stxontia.*.**..
acetate...
borate.. ••
carbonate*
atrmte. . , .
hydrate ..
oxalate* . •
phosphate
sulphate.,
tartrate ..
Strontiuin •
chloride
iodide,
Sulphur
carburet.
Sulphuretted hydrogen.
TeUurinm
0
'chloiide
oxide
Tin.
bisulpbuiet
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NaS»
. . .
NaS«
NaT«
Na
• • • •
NaM«
• . • •
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...
Na
Na
NaS«
Sr
SrA«
• • . .
SrB«
• « • .
SrC«
SrC
Sr + 8 Aq
SrO«
• . .«.
SrP
• • ...
Sr S«
8rT«
Sr
• • • •
SrM«
• • •
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S
cs«
H«S
Tc
. . • •
TeM*
. .
Te
Sn
SnS4
rrM-16
1584-16
2450-80
68I*8«
145T-14
S715E4
881-84
781-84
984;1«
1294*60
2576-8
1833-91
1845-26
2760-3
I52MS
219814
2186*90
2296*92
2963-58
1094*60
1979*91
4228-0
201*16
477-65
213-60
806*45
1691-75
1006*45
1470-58
227^22
iNatrimn,y ... , .•';j'.oI < it«|
o U\Jli^luK
\Superoxidum matrieunu
' bus also gtTQia^iM^MUHmliK-
. , , ■■;ir»n«i".'J
A » •
i$ulphtiretum carbonki,^
(JStaumtttu)
■t . .. '
4(88651
taoc^iiiingi&^fa^^
, ,<
^m
Formuls.
Tin, iodide ..Snl«
peroxide
protoxide
pochknide •
protochloiide......
solldnuet.
Tnng«teiL.i.;..i^.*..W
Tnngsdc add W
Unaium U
oxide U
peroxide U
Water Aq
Yttria Y
Yttrium.... Y
Zinc Zn
acetate. i ZnA*
aiaeniate ZnAs
benzoate. ^
borate. . . ,
carbonate.
chlorate
chloride
atrate. • . .
iodate ....
iodide . . . .
nitrate...,
oxalate. ..
oxide ....
phofphate
Sn
• •
Sn
• • • •
• . • •
SnM«
SnS*
ZnB«
. • . •
ZnB«
• • • •
ZnC
• ••a
ZnM'^
• • . •
ZnM"*
Zn C«
• •a.
Zn P
• . • >
ZnP
ZnN«
ZnO«
Zn
ZnP
WeiglrtB^
884M8
2855*88
187S-90
?.
1207-69
1507-6d
3146*86
3346-86
3446-86
112-4354
100514
805-14
806-45
2288-7
«
2447-22
4025-55
1545-76
1557-11
2891 -75
1691*75
2462-15
5139-85
3939-86
2360-97
1909-99
1006-45
I898-T5
1 •
(lodatrtanHoiUi, Theperiodide^or
( lodas Hannicuty Sn P«7737-38.)
(Murioi $UmMcui,)
iMurku ftonnoffw.)
iWolframium.)
iAcidum Wolframicum.)
iOxidui^ urunotum*)
iOxidum uranicum.)
;d
i ■ - J
J -• » >* 4
t p \ r^ *■
^,^
* I ^-fi
4«
^M^WMOf AnA*.
t^.9»%*
P<MnniiUB*
Wwyitifc'
1809-77
|Mffi-4S
?
f
I
«l..4i- Mt |9KnCS9*«VW*l*9>
I ;
It.
Article IX.
Analyses op Books.
' .If
J;
On the Safety Lamp, Jbr preventing Explosions in MineSf HphIi^
lighted by Gds, Spirit Warehouses, or Magazines in Skips^ Sff.
With some Mmemehes m Fhfne. By Sir liiiiaphry C%?y> Boct.
President of the Royal Society , &c.
*
It is an extraordinary f^ct^ and one that does little credit
either to the cultivators of science in general, or those persons
who are interested in mining qperations in particular, that whilst
. pseudo-scientific catechisms and dialogues, and such tfasK, find
purchasers in every class of society, and enrich their empiricikl
, compilers, spite of the mass of error and ahsurdity with which
nine times in ten they abound — it is extraordinary, we say, that
whilst such abject things as those are read with avidity, a single
,. edition of a work like this has not been wholly disposed of in
• seven years! To what this is owing, it is qot our business to
inquire ; but we know that books of sterling merit often pass
, ^qnoticed by the multitude^ who at the s^rne time eag;erly catch
, a); every flimsy production which promises (what,* by the bye,
ijb pever performs) to reduce the most abstruse philosophic^Ll
reasoning to the level and comprehension of the meanest capa-
cities.* Thus we have astronomy, optics, and mechanics
., diverted of the mathematics, chemistry illustrated by drawings
. witiiQut the necessity of apparatus or experiment, and crystallo-
. grfipby and even the mathematical sciences themselves taught
. j^y dissected models and diagrams ; and what is the consetittence?
^Ignorance usurps the seats of wisdom — the unassuming diffidence
;.0?.rea^ knowledge is silenced and abashed before the clamorbus
. di3j£ertations of pretending quacks — and instead of the sublitae
. .truths Qf genuine philosophy, the. minds of our youth are fiD^d
* We nf^st exclude, however, tt^m this diws, Mrs. MfM^cet's adwinll4^ )t'<^«m«
V I9m Sir H. f^mi^^kt JMl^ I^^P^ tt»
pow^m mid wqntrwietttof * . . , ^, .. ., ^^^
Th94e reioarks ar^ but too . applicable to tbe case before us.
AU the world has heard of Sir Humphry Davy's Safetjr I^mp,
but how many of its members are acquainted with the uriaciple^
po which it is founded ? Uere the ignorance is not merely ^bsurdy
but daugerottSsZ for a want of that knowledge has led i^ mai^y
eases, and probably will lead in mauy more, to consequence^
disastrous aud deplorable in the extreme. We have ourselves
l^pticed in our walks about this great to wn^ round wire cages, ii|
Itiaay ortbe^ shop windows, miscalled iiafety lanthorn9*B t|^e
meshes of which are so lar^e that a candle in a wire mouse-trap
WQuld be as good a security against accidait in an explosive
atmosphere as one of those precious safeguards ; and yet real
safety lamps may be purchased both at Newman% in Lisle-^streeti
and of many other pqilospphical instrument makers ; and even
the fabricators themselves of the culpable substitutes we have
laentionedy might learn to make them properlv>, if they W9^i
tmly take the trouble to read the invaluable little vplum^^ bf^fore
te. Perhaps they are not aware of its^ existenoe^-iit shal^ not
be our fault, at cdl eventSi if they continue in their igcKMrwci^*
• f ^e work begins by some general views of the author's pror
gre9£| }n bis researches on the safety lamp, and of the princ^ee
. 9p whiph its security depends ; and this section we most eape*r
cially recommend to the careful perusal of the wire^worker^
afpreaaid^ The principles are so clearly explained, that'th^y
oanpot mjisunaerstand them, and if they wilmlly hereafter ne^
lect them, they are answerable for all the dreadful consequeDctf
their inattention and folly may give rise tp, We trust th^t the
niianufacturers pf the lamps for the coal mines are not liable to
the preceding censure ^ but even in the cellars of this gasr
^ghted. metropolis, some serious accidents have happened^ and
their frequency may be much augmented if persons enter tbeqn
in unguarded confidence in the false security of one of the lafii-
thc^iis we have mentioned. That the said wire- workers nH|.y
have still less ground to plead ignorance of the principle oFthe
real safety lamp, we shall quote the most important passages en
t|ie subject in our author's oy^n words.
Sir Uumphry Davy began his experiments by a chemfekl
. examinatipn of the substance with wnich he had to contend-^-^
the fire-damp of the coal mines. He found th^t it require^ vety
l^rge quantities of atmospheric air to produce an explosive liiix-
tur^.i namely, about seven or eight times its volume Pf air^ In
wjikiph, proportipn it explodes with most energy — with betwejen
, %f^ ^na six volMmes it explodef^ feebly; and it retain^ His' ^^k>«
sive power, when the proportions are one volume of gas tb foiir^
i^PiVC^r. , ... ...
. lie foupd the fire-damp much leas coi;nbu8tible.,th|^ Pt^
bat fi^k ilMte-bdt, i&nd in brffliimt eoolMsfiM^ inAaoMi^i^'Tft nhii
Otip^ia qf fcsirbcmic acid, teix^ With 6eiF«n |>ftf<^«(^ri€J2Cph>-.'3Hi
mvetiiixi^ure. ot one pait of ititragen ii^kh sit p^rfisii •teB(raVfir>feipBo
explosive powier. ' ' ••;'..:• , • 'M^'.tt*,i b<jbivib
"In exploding a mixture in a glass tube of 0i%4bttltBoo^illiim
iDcfi iti-dfahieter; cthd a foot long, knore tbkn t^^^ewddylida^
reqatrkf b^fbt^' tb^ flasie readh^ trom^mi^ end tolillt^'crtfPMriiaiMfsil
I ^li'nd. that in tubes of otieHsetetith of ah Hicli'm'diiflMieisi^otatii/d
ploiiive iiiixtures cohld not be fired when ^eyWt^i^pmmdqwBb
the atmosphere'; and that metallic tub^s prefven4%d i#3t[dQ«fi^xo
betteir than glass tubes/' ^ti-.s -^ni i/jvleuo
Reasoning on these tdiribus and important 'phteBbflllftoMyt!fiif£w
Huidphty Davy t^s not long hi p^rceiting tbe* pfStfdj^Uilhvf £
guided him in his subsequent investigations. He saw thatv^iwdda
a c&hsiderdhte heat was required for the infteliniAation iii^^e^iU^
damp, and 'as it profdaced in burning comparatively -lU^siMlf^rfe
degree of heat, the effect of carbonic acid and atote, ^tmdtil^th^u
surfaces' of smaH tubes in {Preventing its explosion, depisnd^dsil
upon their cpo/ii/g powers; upoh-Aeirhtteririg'tketiempifaittf^^^'^
tMrexploding fhixtuf'e 'so much, that k was no loptger ttf^fet^nf J^y^
its continuous inflamfnation ;^^ and this idea, so abiy and ^iMtdvfy^^
sprasp^ by the powerful mind of our author, '^ led to aniiMtt^tf^d
oiate result-^th^ possibility of constructing a Mtnp, itt which "dfelo
codlltig pow^rd of azote or carbonic acid formed by combuitiMfi
or Hhi cooling powers cf the apertures through which th^<«m>B
entered' or made its exit, should prevent the commumcatiM^ofio
bur litilits i^iU not idlow us to detail at length all the stBfMfipd
wMeh 'Sfr tfumphry Davy brought hifillamp to the petfectbii< *>
it iiltimately possessed ; we can only briefly mention ^xatltlir'^
first trials were on the eflbct of lamps supfdied with a tsefyjv/
liitited cii^culation of air; then oh lamps fbmished with syst^ttts'io
of tubeii at the top and bottom, and of silich diameteris Ihati''
explosions 6ould not pass through them; but he foiind ]iitW^^
unless ttie tubes were very short and numerout(> the flame ccruUfio
ndt be W6B supported ;" and in trying tubes of tiie dtHnfietifoi
of one-seventh or one-eighth of an inch, T^etet'nrftoed "thi^i
they mfyj safe only to small quantities of explosivii mixtulr^,
aha'^Wh^h'Jf a'grven length; and that tubes, even of a iMldl^l
sBoaller diameter, commtihicated explosion ftom a dosd'vesa^v^i^f
TursdjhgTits fexperimehts, Sir Humphty discovered thift'' *k
/e^'jf/erh/W^'eiren of veiy small diameter were not daftl'^ntett^ii
their sidesi Were very deep ; that k single tube of one 'twetotf^it
ei^'h^U; of ah 'inch 'in diameter, and two kich^i^ l6hg> ^ntfEblitd^s
th|'^6^^q$l0n to pass tfarodghit; and that a ^fMff^YiifMAlluotc'
smalt tdbes^ or of apertures, irtopped^xplosiott^^^t^^tt^^^MiMcm^
depth'bf th^ir sid^ i^ma Miy a)ttal td tkiri^^dMM^^i^ti^
:jI} Sir H. Itey.liw*«.SgftEH,^fflp. ^di^
thin s.nds-fuktvrM which, (be aptrtiire;; $lled more: ^fiw JpWjuif
tHe-odoffiiiDg- '»«iv6)ee, so aa to i>e permeable to qlr aDfTl'^PJfO
offarti*\»ipBi8fept,baiwr to explosion, jfrom the foice.^l^iljg;,,;^
diyided between, and the heat communicated to, ap ImmeEise
nuaibdtiofl«wftoiK."> ■ , , ! u
•fejiMyf^iwtfliftfctj! lamp constructed on these prinoipki,Wve;.,_,,
li^1ttiiit-i'eihpl9i(itv{e:QHXtuEea co.iitainiQ^ a gceat excess of ajr^'
but.btcjiani«Ktte0«iBhed in explosive mixtures ia which ibe fire- \ ,
danipBiiMqWiwffieiaM ^juantity to absorb the whole of the -
ox]ngaK^)4h^«W, w> that such mixtureB never burnt coatinu-'.j
ouslyat tne air-feeders, which in lamps of this coDBtruQtioa,.\:
waK&njMKtant&'Mth^incieafieof beat,;wheie there was onTy' '
a' smMheA^Juig fUEf«ce> would haye altered th^ conditions of .jj
aeowHyt",?.- .-■.,■ ■: ,'' ' ■" ' -j'-i'ua
JMtdroit|t^;Other atteippt^ to oonstruct a safetylainp wlucli ^
shdtdd'aBsw<er jp all. mixtures of fire-daiu|i, Sir: H. Dav^ Mt^^L
np«rit4te^ a»u[4e and effectual expedient of Surroimdme , t^^ . i^
ligbbten^T^y with- wire ^ gauze " and in,akiDg the sa^ u^sd^'
feMl)»«,*a»e with air and emit hght." ''.'■, mi
<fi;i«' pillaging a hght surrounded by a cylinder of fiae -wire".
gavti^.initi> an explosive ini^fture, I saw the whole" cylinder'.
pecWBWi rqwetly altd gradually tilled with 0ame,; the upper part'
of ^B<lon ap|»eared red hot, yet no exploaon wasproduced. , ,"|j,
^^HpOtpOFy pavy next proceeded to.puttbe effioacy pf tbi?'^
achrtijn^e taventioo, which, whilst it "excluded the iiece&^il^..
of tnaw^ giMBi. or. any -fosible or brittle substance ib the lacnp,^^
not only deprived the fire-damp of its explosive powers, '
biit(^na.er«titan useful light;:" to thg most sftrere trials he
couUr ^cyjsei ip order, to be absolutely certain of its safety
undftT'ikft possible, ciFctimstauces ; and. ne found 'f that iron
win^^gat^et flomposed of wixes from ooe-fortieth to One-sixtieth |
ofc'iHt I ipch in diameter, attd coptaicing twenty-eight wires, '
or:784 vpe^iom to the-inch, was safe " iq the . most explosive . '
atmdqpliwes composed of the gas Moduced by the distillation
oAdoal (whi^ always contains olenant gls, an explosive raixi- '
tuTt'Ofi w^ich with atmospheric air inflames by contact willi
red.hptiir«|B«F charcoal) and c
.Thiv- ojtode of structure wu* conseq^ently adopted ; ftD^'.inj^
JafaMffy, 1816, ibe safefy lamps 'were introduced^, »p.tti|_jjpgjj^^
mh)bBi<and have ^ver since. bsen \a general use. .. .' ^ -[jjj^,
ffs' l$l7,iin oonsequeocfi of his ressai^hea 911 ^^n^XViX^w
■iwwJiiS'P.HHmphry Davy made an important, prac^"^ ?iw7-it
tiofiii^-thelaqipi- founded entirely on a new prinfiipl^/Wej:
»i»ywid(al ^HMIc^ cage of fiae platiiia wire witiim f^h^J^nU^j^
b^omMMifff fflhwh, th^,lamp yields a Ikht in a^^ioSfW^ioaj,
M«l*brfWTUaWgWti4. »jtiv fflfedawp to. be, s^xpf^si™ ;_'^^^to*'
^eni0iit4 of <bd. gav M^ oxygea^ whUsh pipdnoet 8«iS<W>^^'bMt
to keep the Hietals of low cooducting powers and low capacity
l^r ke£|t permaB^ntly krnited whenever there is air enough Dq
awport hfe without auffering.''
Sir Hqinpliry Bayy, to wnoBfi we are indebted for the- fii^
correct notions on the nature of flame, defines it t(^ h^
^ aierifom or gaseous fnatter, heated to such a degisee ub to^4ie
Uitninous ; flames are conical, because the greatest heat ia< in
the centre of the mass, and because heated air rapidly aac^^da
IbrfHlgh cooler air.'' The heat of flame is proportional ta 'tha
rapidity of combination, and the density of the gaaea coo^
Uning ; thus it diminishes by rarefaction and increases by oM^
densation. If a gaseous mixture require a high temporatfittfe
ftnr its Qomb«|8tion, it will be easily extinguished by rare^KSttOtta
or by cooling agencies ; if it require a very low tempeiatin%
Qidy, it will burn in highly rarified air, or under considerable
peeling agencies, * - «
Gases that burn with difficulty, are easily kept in a state of
<lontinued inflaiomation if they be strongly heated ; and (^
makers of safety lamps cannot be too sensibly impressed with
tbe consequences which flow from this property, for ^^ if
fixtures of fire*damp are burnt from systems of tubes or
canals, pr metallic plates, which have small radiating^ and
cooling surfaces, though these systems are safe at Jirst, thegf
he^^e dangerous as they are heated,* where currents are ooea^
aiened which concentrate explosive mixtures, by the aiv feedeia
ift knaps- being below * and made in thick metallic idates or
canals, there being an increment of heat within, ana a very
amall radiating surface without, as the heat increases, the tom^
hmtion of the eccplosivei mixture will gradually/ extend fuftfier,
0»(i at lasit communicate with the external air, for exfUosion will
b^ eommiumeated by any aperture, however small, provided it be
atiSciently heated."
^ Wire gau^e, as it ofiers a greater extent of radiating suf-
fiiioe than perforated metallic plates, is the best material for
the guard of lamps ; and by bemg made of the proper degree
of fineness, it will form a barrier lor every species of explosievi
l^uiring temperatures higher than those of our atmosphere ;
but the apertures must be smaller, and the radiating sui^ces
greater, in proportion to the inflammability c^ the gas ; and
Currents of explosive mixture% acting even for a length of tisne^
may be' stopped by reduplications of wire gauze. Wiie^ gauze
jfor 'lamps must not be made of, nor covered with, any easily*
Qombustible metal ; fine brass wire is improper, on account ^
fhaa-iine it contains, and the iron wire should not be>tinne(}*
.1 ' • • . ...».»
' T: ^^ Ji, W^ tl|e coal |niner/* says Sir Humpliiy '^ a^rainst any ^tended 8a(etJ
lampfa made ia this manner, and wbich, to superficial observers, may appear to be eMi«
ilnioted upon pifaiciplM of lecuiitgr, but in which tluM|^tiiwip(iw ONUiotvwBjrtttdlU''
wBielMidjiJiftiMi l^mp »bimJd be of cop^: nwt^i ^^(g0li^w}m
oof maaay oast bras9> or cast iron ; the screws should fit i^§\^
jHQ upeitoiOf i<memr smail, should b^^ufiK^rod ti9 Q^isiia ^e
body of the l&mp> and the trimmiog wire should moi^e th9(M^
tdf ^Rg ti|^ lube* The tempecature of metoli even wbm white
^ttis fir b^lfiw that of flame; and hence red-hot ^av^e^lp
jHiSj^Wti^tuaAtity, and of the proper deeree pf finemoAi wiU^V^
iM^ifiie^iiil£)i^|QAt heat from the flame iOf the fire^dampj to.^«^
p^yij^mh, it/'
-^lim/s ibftvodwislt 90 copiously aa the first spctioii of thui in^
4iif^tmii book> from its great practical im]^orta^c«, tb%t?(V«
jg^ sp^re vory little space for the others, wmch occupy by. #r
jdM IfMTg^f .pQrti<«i of the volume, and copsist of estraots^ nogi
jfVP^^ p^btisbed by the author in the Philoaophieal TrmaMh
cmm. aa4 the Journal of Science, . on the Fire Dampi tb9
SM^y. iamf>f A&d on. Flame ; a deacriplj|iQa of the plate ^1 4h#
be^nning of the work — and some extracts from coiMB^mir
catioos, on the . application of the safety lamp^ firoo) Mr.
^^^ddhp and .other gentlemen practically connected with the
fifiMl s»ioea> aU giving the most .satis£BLCtory testimony of (bf
(iaeriti|. ^nd efiScacy of this important disi90very«
^ W*p shall quote one more important practical remark &Qm
ih^ (^^(^lusim. The increaaed heat produced by ai^ explpl^ift^
^stttce in rapid motion, requires that the radiating or eopU^g
.<wr&ce of the lamp should be increaiied^ or the circulation la^
^r diiniDishfid. For this purpose '^ twilled gau2;e, ora dftttbt^
#r,tfiplQ fold of wire^auze on one side of the lamp^ or.a.MyieAfi
of metal opposite to the direction of the current^ ar a «#m^
jOyliAdor ot g:lasa or mica within^ answers perfectly the obj^
^preventing the heat from rising to redness." ^ t
-. < A short Appendix is added in tne present publication, owtaiiir
ing five articles. The first statea that the author hasi«(&eived(|L
paper from M, Gay^Lussac, written some years ago by.M» da
Mumboldt and himself, the results of which are oonfirmcitory of
^.Humphry Davy's principles on the causes of combustipn^l^
i^i^^losion, and show that mixtures of oxygen and bydfiQgf Q^itH
l^opartions noJ; inflammable by the electric spark, aia^ «tUl if
made to combine and form water by artificially raising' t^if
temperature.
;. The second article relates to the aphlogistic lamp, and tbe
' ffMVit experiments of Dbbereiner and others on the ethfip^ 9(
spongy platina to promote the union of oxygen and -bydrogw^
^ses, respecting which Sir Humphry Davy offers the, follQ9¥WIE
obftevvdtions :
.; ^f Aprob^bk explanation of the phsBnomenon may, I tbiok^ibf
founded upon the electrochemical hypothesis, which I laid befojre
iht Koyal Society in 1806, and which has been since edo|)fed
.i «- »
4M JUfliMKt^iiodb. tf^MkL
^ ^ 8ii|P|Nmag «E^gew wad liydn^ene to be in the iditfiottiaf
ibgfltive add poflrtive^ it is neceatarjr to cffiect their ooadiintiflB
tliel dieir electiiciliee Aookl be fanni^t iato nqnilihiiwii jii
discharged. This is dooe by Ihe dectrical spsdk or Amm^ wkkk
otfba a eondactiiijg medium for this purpose, or bjr viisiQgitfaem
to« temfitfstfe in which thcar become themsekeflteoMhdm
Mom plsoDomy pslladiiun, and iridiom, are bodies werj nlifihfly
poittire with respect to oxygene; and though goodcawidnptaia
4lf slsctneity» the^ are bad condoctois and OMUatonof h^iasMi
snpposing them in exceedingly small masses, they offer %9f4m
sjaMs thecondacting mediom necessaiy for canyia^' €(fl( and
JMsging into equilibrium their dectricity without WMf mterfemig
imeffgjTy ttid accumulate the heat produced by tins rnniljliTi^sw
49thar meiais do not possess the same union of quahtiefl^ yit
nsost af them assist combination at lower temperslitrss thaii
ighm, which is a non-oondnctor of electricity." : 1
,..ff That spongy pkrinum, eren when moistoied, as MvDoiiA-
remer has very lately shown, should facilitate the oombilialiaii
^ oxygene and hydrogenei mat/ depend upon this peculiar elec-
tvieal property ; and, why foil of platinum should have its ^wa
ncKfr'ttusiag oxygene and hjrdrogene to combine, increased' 4^
'beineptaeecL for a short time, in nitric acid, as MM. Daloi^
.and Tneaaoa haTe shown, may be owin^ to this, thai the ^^t
rVOsitsre charge it acquires may, in being brought into ^e^piilt-
Mum, :be a mst step m the operation ; and there are andiogovis
instances/' ,
.*i ^^ Fine wire of platinum^ I find, when conveying eurrenti^ of
^'Ulsottici^, as in a cirentt with zinc and sulphuric acid, or-c4uM^
r^isMl^'snd nitro^nuirktio acid, has not its power of acting updi
i^^Jl&Bf&Qmk' mixtores sensibljT increased/' i
irii< No. 3'Velates an explosion of inflammable gas, which in gen^-
-ml is only disengaged in coal mines, that toolt place in ldl^,at
othe^GUdt Works at Aussee, by ^n^ch several persons were kiUed,
c» jki'conae^uenoe of which the safety lamp has been introduoed'in
-ciUe mines of Styria, Salzburg, and Upper Austria. The iafliMBa-
r^j|luft>te gas ttppeared to be derived firom bituminous schist.
We copy the Articles No. 4 and 5 verbatim.
** No. 4. I have had some correspondence with Mr. Buddie
respecting the accidents which have happened in coal mines
since the discovery of the safety lamp. He refers them in all
cases to the carelessness of workmen.
** I should strongly reet^mend double laoips in cases where
miners are obliged to work for any time in explosive mixtures,
or wherever currents are expected ;'^or lamps with mica, or
'^^niBJi^latfe «7tMsit.the wire gauze to prevent top gireafra: drculation
.10 0-'. •'';^" r'.* ^ / . I • V*'-- >r< <*W*
IS8&); Pfvceedif^of^PIUiKc^ikihilSoci^ies. Mt
€i&^i-: itiftV^ da^ to eietmg^iMk i lotfapniariji^
damp is burning, by sliding a tm-plate cylinder over it, '6i^^a
"kiKdetbliiyife^fliize ikting the' interior in'^rim ^toefffit^ ttna
flixitad<by'tfae tenmnation of the trinuning wii»;>^^biitiy; tSim^oli
isetlevj'ih' all eases of danger, to use ladnos ^bich uuckr^jnoia^i
6oaistat6Sii»^we%flkAe, Sooh astbose aefecvibedin p.i>97,/ '.-ib
ai^ilfyjimg cfSken^ trosted my life to the safety laattp unden ^
jDOtf^idiN^vooB eircatnstflmces; I -eannot but BoaietinAa*emile
l{ftitoNiie'.'pTkblic papers endeavour to invialidi^iJteitsseoiintjf upcMI
4to:iy{imiDiii^ oir evidenee of certain persons wlio have/theiro^
bottrtaftd for pfeVeatmg the accumulation of inflanimable. atria
baif StbaT« aonetimes* to read letters on the imptoremeiM; oi^4jU
jptnitidfliby'plte^; most of whtdi are discasBedin the foi6(|obg^
Mfg^d^-itp^ tai9 wim^ glass or mjtoa as a jtart of thei^ii^cdipr
Inuuasiittiii^ Ught, using double lampa, or double laimMi.«o^^^
4fl#a tefleieting surface to prevent explosions from' cmneilB | ^9mi
I have actually seen a lamp upon the rudest model ofvAi^ose* |[
firt^^imade, having thick glass above; and ware gauzef below,
i«Q^dt^^ the newly invented -safety lamp!' ' ' ; . t 'r,..^
'-ru>^<) Tfo^ S; For gas manufactories or nouses wQilBie ^t is jestte-
m^i^ used, I should recommend the safety lamp witb<ifottAwiiB
"^litse^ but for the use of the navy, those with cojppervrive gaitea
:^a^ieils fiuble to rust. As the latest instance ot aiahki loaibifdr
>^^l of a safety lamp, I may mention the KentEasit todtailiu,
trh^ «was burnt, as I am informed by>the Sbippiiig Gomnutttte,
'ill' consequence of the inflammation of rum, by meaA&iof .nsooiih
mon lantern/* - . .. i.^.ii
• We c^mnot' conclude our remarkis on thi^isubjieotfi^iAout
Mffrebsing our sui^rise and regret; diatitiiaa not loleiBD tdteoAip
%y Pafiiament in the manner it deserves* If ianatioo/^ mn^idaAe
be due to her heroes and defenders^ itisnot less Botortboftitw^o
promote her internal resources and wel&re ; andiu^fliorall^oiht
' iOf view, the philosopher whose happy application of sctiuiiQe pm*
^siH^es the lives of his f<^low creatmres, is even -otore/enttilledf to
it than the warrior who destroys them* We faope.^fm'jHRko
hai^thewpowerto confer tbe'veward wiQ not^ late as4ttMr>i alftp*
gether neglect what we ^ cannot but feel ss as iaBpflrknus -iiftdtttgrf
as we trust they wilLfind it a.gratefol one. r - ^ /y
'■■''■■ ■ Article X.- ^ -ft «om«
w;w. , Proeeedingiof Phile^iikiiSmeiieiir^ r 1 *
lO ,i:r.\u Ij '/ •. ;••■ :• aO^A;!, SOCIETY. ..... . •,-. ,c,^jj.^, .jo
noiioimiij 2&h^dffU B: Hoiae^t ILN; wss admitted* a ihdlpllirtof
the Society ; and the reading of Dr. Granville's Monograph on
489 Pfociedingi tf PMkfftpMcBl S^ieii^ [Jt^Mj
Sgfl^tiiti' IVKanileB witb eoUdliided ; .we -ftre. ^nabUd'^tty.i/ilibttt
s&ortly thfeprinoipal object of t^ig iateresting eomimmpcatioif^
andf to aUode to «ome or the curiotts facts it details pfi'di&*i»d^'
J6ot of embalming. • . > ^.. * '
it ikppearS) that in the year 1821, Sir A^ Edmonstone^^e*^
sented Dr. GranTiUe with a mummv he h^d brought (r^m-XJfj^-i
Bgypt^ whkliy after the removal of imiumerable ^ boadc^Wty^^
pi^Yed to be tbatofafemale, and a more perfect q^ecitteajof Iw'^
Uad than any that htd heretofore been examined^ Dr«r Gran^iltei t
deemed thk an exeellent opportunity of investigating the(j^H
uiiirettled questiOQ of. the mode ofembalDsiag by the |LneieM'<r'
Egyptians ; and proceeded to dissect the mummy for that'-|^uvUJ.
poire in the presence of several medical and seientifio fdeknAKf^'^
nifitituting, at a more reoe&t period, sev^al esperanepAiP'AVc
its varioos part6 and envelopes, tending to discover thepreoefpf)
of inmnmancatioti, in whi^ object he appears oertatiifyi |0Ki
birve succeeded. ^ u^fm
. This discovery he endeavoured to prove to the satis&atmf''^
of the jrarsona present at the reading of his comqiaEUoatiei^ji
synthetically as well ad analytically; for after the meetin^,^ flUii^
exhibitida of the dissected mummy took place in the library' of n
At BoGiety> where every assertion contained la the paper iftte^
ittostrated hj preparations, including several specimens of imi^i
ti^ve nlummiesi prepared by the author, some of whicli beM^
the closest resemblance to the Egyptian, and had withsleod-
pirlreflictiDn ibr upwards of three years^ though expeeed to iU
tiuB' vicissitudes of a variable cUmate witliout any oovering.ov
other precautionary measure. -*;''
Independently of this^ which is endedtly the- main objei^ of
lit J Ghranviliels researchen, the author has been able to aavflMe
many very curious facts connected with the mummy in qtief tida^ -
H« has, ft>r instance, given the dimensions of its various ptrte>
wllfeb, by a singular coincidetee, happen to be precisely those
aiitgned by Camper and Winkelmann to the celebrated etatae
of the Medicean Venus, the prototype Of ideal beauty* These '
dik^nsions, moreover, prove, that this Egyptian ^rnale did
net'bdoAg to the Ethiopian race, thereby contradipttilg the
assertion of some writers, who consider the ancient Egyptiana
to have been Etfaiopians* He has also fairly mftde out the
age at which the individual died ; and the disease of which she
died ; and he has rendered it evident, from anatomical demon-
stration, that she had borne children.
All tiiese circumstances may be considered by some as
possessing no inlereftt ; but when it is confiddered that they are
deduced from a minute and accurate examination of the body
of a female, who, according to the best authorities of the pre^
bent diPf with r^pect to Egyptian antiqiiities, dnd jedgtM of'
^ exc&Vatfon out of which the musmiy yfuh taken, iMit^nMl '
Irfi$dbtbmt90d0 yearn ietgo^; il ^vriU be ^dmiti^dr tk«k^ fii6 |ite^
semog piywer of tht mummifying' ipfoces^ employed by^th^ .
atiiSi^^t SgjFpiiand) and now discovered by Ik. Gttnnlle^ must
be great indeed.
Tbis musumfylng ^roees^ consiets in the thotongb impt^-
noli^' 'of ^every pi^rt, soft ot bard^ with bees'-^wax. ' The^e ar6
b^i^es^' myrrh^ gum> r^in> bitumen> and even tannin (ai^.
i^Wttr 0Bm iibot brought to 'light by the author of this paper) i^
tlM[:eQmpositibn of the mummy ; but nonei of these) either
flii^^.or ooi^ointiy, appear to be sufficient without thebees'^
wtiE^ lo>pt«fi6rv6 tii^ body, or convert it into a perfect mutntny.
Dftifi^^^^^^^'^ ^^ proved this by succeseive steps^ and c6ii«>
vifiiG!^ those who saw the e:]thibiti<Dn after the meeting of iii
ammcacy^ by showing one of the nate$ of the mtimmjr whoUy
dff nvea of the wax by ebullition and macetation^i Which wai
bi^niiitig to. putrefy, and which now looked no longer like iti^
mummified fellow^ but more like the preparation i6f a
reoeiit specimen of that part.
The dtseade of which the female died was ovarian droiMiy ^
and the uterine system, with the sa^^ that had eontaine?tL^
n^dirbid fluid during Ufe, forming tb^ oldest piith^^logical pre-
jbaifttion of its kind in existence, was exhibited to the society.
The heart, lungs, diaphragm, one of the kidneys with ^i
ureief, the gall bladder, and part of the intestineSji M^ere also
shown.
.May 5. — Dr. H. H. Southey was admitted a Fellow of the
Society ; and a paper was communiefeited by Peter Barlow, Bsqu
FRS., in a letter to Mr. Herschel, On the Alagnetism imj^rtM
tt^ Iron fiodies by Rotation.
Jifey 12.— -John Taylor, Esd. was admitted a Felk)W of tli0 .
Soeie^; and a paper was read. On the Magnetism producejd.
ill mi Iron Plate, by Rotation ; by S. H. Ghristie,Esq. AM. FRS. .
Jila^ 19. Mr. George Harvey, Jehn Smirnove^ Esq., and tto
Re^« Dr. Morrison, DD. were respectively admitted Fellows of
the Societjj ; and the following papers were read : —
A Description of the Transit Instrument by DoUond, eieoted
at the Observatory at Cambridge; by Robert Woodhousf.
AM; FRS.
^n the Fossil Elk of Ireland ; by Thomas Weaver, MRIA.,
tec, : communicated by Professor Buckland.
During his recent avocations in the North of Ireland, Mr^
Weaver had enjoyed, he stated, an opportuiiity of determining
some facts showing that the Elk. whose fossil remains so fre*
qlteptly occur in Ireland, lived and died in the countries where
it is now found ; and similar facts had been ascertained about
the same time, in the West of Ireland, by the Very Rev. Arch*-
d^con of Limerick ; partic\:|lars of which had been communi-
eiAfcii^^to the Royal Dumin Society , and would form, Mr. W^aayer
v^
464 Proceedif^^^PkUo^opkkal Sodeties^ ^ -^^^'
jioped, a cli6tin<;t publication pii^the ^subject : but h^^gjj^j^^fm^
•; >atecpiit: of thesv in the present paper, astbey 4iteci£(^,^(^n!»
^ (ficmed rliis own . deduction^. Mr. Wleaver's re8earcb<q8.«ij(ere
made in the county of Down, which presents hills of^^
-'MO feet in height, conisisting of alternate beds' pf Qlar^;
^ and fine grained grey wacke, traversed by many cpftter **
. jMOus veins of calcareous' spar and quarts, and iSsp iniet
^ by some true, metalliferous rake veiAs. ; Between twd of
•lulk. at about four miles distance from the towhfpf Iftiiif
jras. the bog of Kilmegan, in whicji the fadbs ;w'e.r3 'ob^<
. ,It appears to have been a lake, which has b^en gfadtffij|j'
• w py the growth and decay of successive races 6'f^"
pl^iBlip, and the consequent formation , of pea(;|b$ft
count of ihe water still remaining^ it had never been Vo%^
a peat-bog until the present. Marquis of Ciownsbire, drained, it by
^QUeans of a level. The peat was found to rest . upqn a bed of
^9^}» h9^ P^^ to five feet in thickness, consfstingl^o/'^^cal-
^careous base mingled with comminuted fragments or fredilHM^r
«^Is, ^ whi^li it likewise contained in an entire isni^ pht
slightly altered state, all referable to three still existing sj^ids^
,vi9;» Melix jmtris,^ L. Turbo fontiruilis, and TelUna tkfnea.
JAany bones and horns of the Elk had been found from titxi^^^o
iiofie iQ jtl^is bog,- all of which, Mr. Weaver ascertained,, frdbi
i^; concurrent testimony of ihe- tenantry, were found eitll^r
between ike peat and the mai4, or slightly impressed, in Me
latter. * 4-**
>^l!^eji^mr^hies of the Arphdeacon of Limerick had been m^ade in
1^ bog. in tbajt county: the bones were found nnder circ'dtiTr
stances precisely similar, and upon marl of the saqie kind. Vtj^
Ijbfoi, the. Archdeacon had been enabled, with the assistance ^
Mr. Hart, MRCS. to frame a nearty complete and gi^a;^ila
^^4t(xpi, wfa^ch. he had; given to the Museum of the %d|yal
j^jfl;>iia- Society.,, Some of thebones presented . indicationkoT
d^asa9 oiM^ feg lll^l evidently been broken and healed ag^ltf;
9« rib had a. perforation about one-eighth of an inch wide;, t)U;
edg^i-cf which were depressed. on the outside, and raised 6n
tHe idside; .it .was such aa could only have be^'made by"&
t^im sha^p instrument, which did not penetrate far enougn ^to
^fff^.a mortal, wound; for, as the edges of the* peHbra^OfT
^fjie quite smooth, the animal most have survived the iniurv at
lgf^(..f^;;twelveBK>nth. The bones seemed to retain all tnen'
P^pp)^>,. with the addition of a portion of carbonate of Iit#?
^i^d.from the conti^ous marl. Some of them still retamed
glf.^pax^w, which had the appearance of, fresh suet^ s^
d(,w]»e» applied to the flame of a candle. Wijl^'| t^i^^
fop^d A pdTvis, apparent^ belonging to a Ked4)^if ^ifiiK;
^\j)f alJog, of about the size of a Wat6<^i#l(*''^^
tt n^ .thieae dEoumflrtanceB, wUeh '9L0&f(A i^m^wmi^^jKS^
^^^W^«lt'&e rtttiams of -t&e iEIk, ocQor in tlie :ettiTtt^»>«^tIie
^^^Jpftfe^of Man^ as desoribed by A^r* HensldW) Mr.blKeiMr
^ip|m tbat tbe^e Elks must Jbftve livad and died kk -^^tbe
►vltitnes wkere tbey ^re now foaDd;. thM tiie/T{»aBnd wiiei^
liyed must be consideTed as. modera itilihe.phg^tal 1rs-»
j[>ftbe globo ; and that their destruction is. to be attiibsted
^(jfji^tantperaecutioa of theic eneaaes^ aiidia'S0a»&ca«e9
fVop^ratioa of local causes; aod not to^a catestroEpbe
l^l^gg^ ,01^, the entire »irface jof .the.^iobe:.tbuSy tbattbarve*
hJifk^^.^^V^^^^^^^^^^^f hut.ot posi'dtluvial ovigin^ Mr.Weai^ec
oiSfffPf^^^^ tbat they fled to the lakesi wfaieh bave since become
-dI^q^ ^s a refuge from their enemies^, and so of|ea found. a
I^^gjpjl^.^iy^ere diey bad sought pr^^
As'j ii^^ IS.-^A papefr by Professor Bucklafnd was Read oii tile
islsX^ of Kingsclere near Newbury, and the evidence it afibiife
SiM <|^i^iurbances aifecting the green sand, chalk, and plastic
^ggb* fpi^mations.
^^,ji^i,13^0 object of this paper is to describe the pheanomena df u
0j(n|ali valiey near Kingselere, in which the green sand strata
iilli« protruded to the surface 4;hrougb Ae chalk and pit^c day,
M:% spot situated within the area of tbe chalk bam Of -New*
5>§^» ^nd -affording a remarkable -exception to the general
v^^arity of that basin.
..T Tins irregularity of structure has apparetitly originated Ihim
^a f^ndden elevation of the chaU^, accompanied by ftaotUf«( amd
^|i inrerted dip ; ifs position is r^emarkabte as being near Inkpen
iiH, a point where the chalk nses to 1011 feet; die highi^
f^vation it attains in England.
i In Uie T«B«y sufajaeent to the Infcpen ridge, atid near ity
^rth baa^,^ the dialk dtps rapidly in two opposite cfiret^olHi
iif(&rly N and S on each side of a central aixisor aaitidiaal ^ti&i
i^ a little further east ike gveen 'sand aiao emerges with tf
(lifnilar double, dip, ^od forms ike^ small vafley 'df'Kingselai^/
Hurrounded on all sides with an enclosinff escarpment of 4iMIk.'
The N frontier of this valley is in cfose contact with t^If
cJiaractarized deposits of plastic day dipping like itself ra^MIJr
towards the north. Four similar valleys are adduced in tS#^
ooupties of Wilts and Dorset ; and the author eotidudeslrtt^^
apecting them aU, that it is utteiiy impossible to esplaih/i thrift
^gin/by denudation akme, nor mdeed withont referritig^thi^^
w^sent nosijtion of their co«Bponent statta to a foroi^ i9ictfi^
^^ipit b^pw and idevatin^ the strata along the hne'^of ttt^^
<|fH[^tnd'^a of. the vaUeys m aues^ton. To virileys of 'Ihi^'kft^^
we a^fhlN^ifll^U^ ^a app^hition of vallevs of elevattoii^^td^
4M9i^l#J^^^ jloip ;thoao wbiah oiin^ tneir?oi%t» 4iidj^y
to mmal denudation. He then . proceeds to lihow, that the
New SerieSf mtn^ iTg^ 2 h
m$ Proeeeditigt^ Umat^mti Sodetim. i|«N|^
VfiUty»«f JhmmBj o«a9 Deviats, nd of tlie "^^ft^ ikiih'HiMm
^^yi^SdH^ntrff liave also, to a ceitiin deghWi beeii.aii^t^
l^ra^iirce aeiing from beneath, and el^rating tine «l9it|k i«kit
ftcflied aateeedetit to their being submitted to denndatiniiiHiiiA
concludes, that not only these enclosed valleys similar to Itol
9S Kingsolei^, bat many open valleys also (thoilgb iii.alliA|iea
modified by subsequent denadation), had a jxrioR origin, a(id)(f^
from the fraotare and elevation of their Gompo»ent^rat»:^tlt^
must have happened in the case of the Weald -of K^«ifc.f|nd
Sussex, enclosed as it is with an escarpment of <baf}&'4yf^i^9t
every where outwards in opposite direotiocM9,.eiid.soniatviiM
very rapidly> along the North and South Downs* • -v f ic^
The author proceeds to illustrate, by the position of the fttftia
of plastic clay in this same district, the important Geok^csl
question whether the chalk was disposed m its present* t^iitrtl
tf trougba <n basins, before or after thf» deposition) of ifhe
teiiiary formations now eiielf^ed in ikem, and t<^^pb§wllM
the prf sent, indination of this strata along the S froQtifr pC;t^
basins of London and Hants took place since tbe d#{lQsiliMi
fvf the plastic, and piobably aloo of tba i^Ondon fili^^i .«»^
that these two basins were once connected jbpgQth^P ac^^i. tte
pfiw intermediate chalky atrata of tb^ dQwns of H%^f W^ifg
mi Dorset; ainoe it appears, that tbq plastiq play f^matioA it
fft far fn^m bsing Umi^d to^ the lowejr leveia^ of :th^ pr^tsii
basins, that large residuary fragments of it still QOCm^riM 1^
aftoiinttsr oif the moat elevated pQrtiQns of phalk in, tJieiP:«iMn-
tiasi f « g«.on the au^amit of Inkpen 9ear Newbucy, a^d i^ittoft
af^Jaakdown near Abhotsbury,: as wall i« on the top pf Cbids
bnry aad-JBe^cw bills in . the bigbest part pf Sialisbuiy BlaMta
The strata that covered the inter(nedi[atei spa(Sas. ka^a. pitobabljg
hfim^ removed by diluvial denudation^ and tba dpf4f tictibia
Mtnre of their oo.mpoaont n^ateiials would .render tbft«^ p<9Mi
ii^y liablft to be swept awav by tJba transit f£ vicdant QumNki
nf iwates. Tba wmsk of tba h«icda9 portiwa «f tbn^iit^p
ttttirta ^uadestf(i.}9ed, forms the aandatcma bb&ka ia;dlad ge^
woatbars that li@ loosely aeattered on tht naked aurfaw tf Im
4bftlk in all. these counties, and of which Slonebange ia Mtb-
simetad. In lower levels, within the existing hs^ina, \k%f»
aanne stirata have been, less destroyed, in cQnae<|ueiioe of: thar
gf eater :prqte6tion fiK)m the ra^vages of diluvial denudatioavabiab
their 'low. ^position has afforded theme .w^^.
. Tb^ittnthoc Qonolttd^s byi referi^tng (o the oocffuromn ;ittf
iilailar te;rtsary strata aa well as . of .^Btalk imd green suisl ta
tktt summit, of the Savoy Alps, nearly IQ,000 feet aboa^e nibt
tetNdf.of the aaa, whens they aesm to l^ar. JbheiAoiea^stmt'Ak
the. l*rtiar]Bi.atrata of tbe.vaUeya.of JtaJyv fisM^e, :aad.2^ii»
many, that our tridiog elevations of Inlspen, filackdoim^MU
bear An d^b* bMiM^ liQBdfttMd ^Hknla^tittd iMMM«iA«t
iNbli iU# dflp^tton <«F tiiete teds, eitbtr byr^ii'i 'tflevtifM
H^w^ rmotintaina, or tbo depreasioii of-tlte imlteyS) ot tbi
•iliifid elfeot of bath difife euusta, tho relative Iqtri of tbb/om
itr^lhe other has been changed to the amount of many thounaiMl
9om»mk 4.-^A notioe vaa cead on soipa ailioified wood ftottT
^'d#ai^l^ bet««?een Cairo and Suei, in a letter by Oeoi^
Amlieit'fibrey) Bsq. to the Rer. W« Buckland, Pi^ea. OS.
i>^l»l^{mii88ea of ^ilicified W0Qd> resembling in form the
^i^Ol^^|Milm lrees> tie scattered^ the author obaerves, over i
MHi^df )g<rav^l in the desert about fifteen miles from Cairo/ and
for two days' journey all the way from that plaee to Suez^
f^ll%dtief wae also read on the bone^ of several animals found
nk^peat hear Romsey, in Hampshire, extracted from a letter
iMiy! CM^riee Daman, Bsq. to the Rev. W. Buckfland, Pres* OS.
t^^MiL Banian iMottons thai the sku)ls of aeveral beavere, ai
i^li aa>vtbe bones of oxen> swine» stags and roebucks^ hh^m
b^en' dug out of the peat nes^r Romsey, and out of the shell
MHA' pAnrmmally termed ^^ malm/^ which occinrs in the same
4lliiiri^4»afit. In one place several human skeletons have bee*
Mhsft^ttatef th^marL ^ ' 'i-
^iJkf9ifKefc entitled ^^ Observations on Ae beds* of ctay^ saniii
mil iaraSidsl beksdgingf totha red mad fmmatien ef the midlanii'
|(i^mieS|:and^on the roeks from which they are derived^p hf
til^ Bev« James ¥ates> MGS.'' was read in part.
^i^MmrA 18,<*r*Tbe ps^per entitled ^ Observations oii the l|edi
tifoflayy eattd, ^nd gravel belonging to the red mart formntieit
dlf the midland eountiee, and on the rooks from which Ihey^itt
ibiiived^ by the Rev. JFames Yates, MQ8.'' was eoneluded.
\ 'faiihisfiOfmmumcation Mr. Yates enters into some descriptida
tf thfi'Smsks which are found i'» diu on the confines of Watei
aittd Shsopshire, in order te show, that fpom the disintegratieft
4B^bes0 rodcs, the day, sand, and gravel of tiie red i«iari 4mn*
iliittti^tkave for the most ^pairt;beM derived; The firsts line ttf
l^lio^ i^ch is particularly considei^d it tiear the me^940
mid ^Vflile CEueis ; the second, a tine drawn trom OM^lry
liestward to Uansiien, which crosses within the spates ^fi^e
ittitos the besset edges of all the etmta from the new red sanrd'^
Btimetadie slate. The author then takes a view of the roeks
Meaning m the direction of the road from WdlGhpool^t{»
Ludlow. The fourth district then noticed is the viomity of
(Bhifrdi. fitteteon. Mr« Yates then mentions seme psfftieulars
«f th«> roek iiear Bewdley, and in the Olent hiUs^ and' ebe
ncifghbodrhood of Dudley, and adds some remarks ott tdM
{MttliifiiCiverlickey, aaanpplementary toBrofessor Boeklattd^
pwg^^iii^tbe-vAftti volume o^tbe Oe^ogieal Society^ Tlransi
UlftmMum:^ Mikim^m AeeMbUvdhiek extendi ffo«i NW
3h3
46# Proc^Biiff^&f Philmp1i(td^^ [^y#il/
Aiiket ; «tid kstly^ > a cliflfrict * in L^icestetisbire^ a^few iliSiiPl^
firoitt Hinekley^ consisting of a eoarse grait^d' ciystdfibcfgntteu
' Tlie atlthdr then proceeds to sbow^ how the ati^lsa t>^Mg^A#
tCytlie older formations^ which he has described; ciis^ bi^'^^IIAiv^
in eonliexion with the genera! physieal stnlcttire ^^f <Wi»^as!^
and then points out from what various sonrces tih^ b<^9^<5Aindf
day^ and gravel of the red marl formation^ as^^B'fifi^ ^iN^^4i]^r-
ftcial debris which i«( strewed over the midlMd'^ii^tlillfl^asS
Endand.may have oris^inated. Mr. Yates cimeltKleiE^'tt^&sOAff
remarks on the excavation of valleys^ atid on somie^^^ipftA^n
tbat sublet now generally received among Engiidh ^^d^Maif
from which he is mclined to difier. .-jb -Jdoidw
Afnl 15i — A paper was read entided *^ On &NeW'dpeyiM>^
Gyrogonite from the lower freshwater formation at Wiritfas^tjff
Wfy m the Isle of Wight^ with some accomsiof tke «trttiL'in
^hioh it occurs." By Charles Lyeil, Esq. 8ec« 0&^ '^ i 'io
* Mr. Lyell describes this species of gyrogonite as v)0ry ^Miii<tt
from the three species which have been foond in Fnaiicev ^ TM
spiral vsdves form nine rings, each of which are ohiiMMaatMit
With a row of tubercles, from which he hiacs^veii it tbt ittUM
of chara tuberculata. An account is given of the stmta of the
lower freshwater formation at Whitecliff bay in the Isle .of
Wight, in which this gyrogonite occurs very abundantly.
They consist of beds of very compact limestone, alternating
wiUi whitish calcareous mads, and in most of them the casts
or shells of various freshwater Univalves are common.
Gyrogonites appear not to have been noticed before in the
freshwater strata on the east side of the Isle of Wight. Those
which have been noticed as abounding in the limestone of the
foMrer freshwater strata at Garnet Bay are chi^y referidl»le t6 the
^stra medioaginula of the French authors. In that locali^, foiuifl
items accompany them whose structure is identical iwritii tltt^
*<tf some recent char®, as for example C. Hispida. • •*
^ The author concludes by observing, that from the retnat&i
"abte t<!mghness of the integument of their seedvessel, vxA -fitM
the'lar^e proportion of carbdnate of lime which they etmlaiiik
id alivth!g state, most of the oharae are peculiarly adapt^'l^
%ec6tQitig fossil> and that they are accordingly preservcri'-^lll
%be recent marls in Scotland, both in a vegetable and aHiiin^
taiized ifitate^ when the other aquatic ^ants which Jived and died
%i' the lakes with them are entirely decomposed, or ei^ l|ii
^IWiger be recognized. > » ' * •' i'..im4\
-An^estrclct of a letter was read fi^om^ Jet.'V^'fteiasllli^^
E^q. oh the Discovery of the'Skeieton ofa Mtait5d^1il^lf«#
York; and of the Tertiary Formation ita New^ieftliiyv^^ X^ >«^
Ifi this letter Mr, Rensselaer mentions^ that in a late expe^
^Qjl0^^ol;#9 sMie of JSew lert»ey» lli9y had' cUs!CQK«red> 4ii^
i>v|dfin84>.llifldA&erWa(d8^brougjbt to New York» the skel^toa oC
a mastbdoQ very nearly perfect. They also satisfied theniselv^^
^t»lM^ 9f the re^ioa wbieh lies between the Atlantic Bond
wifiPMg9f of primitive moantains was referable to thetertiarj^
^HfMairifrit, ana that the secooxlaTy do not -make theur appear-*
^M/Qi:^aflm$h«pidredB of miles. f
^isAr^pAfi^ fKaa i^ead entitled ** Account of a . Fossil Crocodile
ft^^%)#sc0v(eted an the Alum Shale near Whitby.^ By thef
noRfir«'<i¥^0Ki9Og describes the osteology of this fossil anioial*
Y^bii^MW* been • deposited in the museum at Whitby, and of
which a drawing accompanied this communication. Its length.
taQ«A^:ft>urteen feet/ and when perfect must have reached
ntTEfaftiJltiyjhor mentions thai th^e are not the only remits
of the croeodile which have been discovered ik&u .Whitb]%
llthiriCh thry bad been generally confounded with those of.
thk plsfijoBaiiru0 ; of .^hich anim^ however, as well a^-of
ihimii^Tfir .four speciea of the icthyosaurus, undoi:d>ted remains
tfMiHr iii.thie Akuaa Shale.of Whitby. ; ,v
arii *'' K i* • -: . .. . f , *. . t.i
'io 5.../ :• .• ••
■vw^
"' SCIENTIFIC NOTICES. " " "
®^-- '\ ■• ' ^ Ml«C1St£AMEOtJS.' ^ • •■•'■'
I. View oaentinc Journal,
Q i Jnepitj^ pf the ^Id adage, that two of a trade can i^eve£ ^gffifip
(jl^ijpl^.by'the.bye^ for Uie sake of humaiz natur^^ we. b^fl^s
iM4^>9i^o true thai^ it is liberal,) we have mu^h plea^|ir/p ip?^
nouncing the af^arance of the first number of die .P^^bu
^hiloaophioal Journal and Scientific Review, and iu; b^apng
^ur testimony to its merits, tf it be carried on in future* wijtp
na^much ability as is shown at its outset, it will prove a yf^
ItfUblei addition to the scientific journals of the day, andTefiect
0e|^i 'Credit on the zeal of its editors and the tsdent^oif-pvar
^tto^ l^bOAirers in the sister kingdom. . The present ^^vo^ar
{(9ilt^.3 many, original aud valuable articles;^ p^artipularl^x^na
IV 1^^ Brinkl^y, whii^h cipens the work, On^ the Metif^)^
finding the Longitude from the Culmina/ion, of the^ Mpq;^.,^9^
^«lif«fa*jJf*P^;by.Mr.i liojrd.ou the Composition of^ JR(f fees;
f»Hl|W^n^%<tl|^;t>j|i^Aa/Z^^ oJ\Pr€aipit£Ues, by Mr. Stokes;
one by ur.^^i^h^fqifi tf^e Generic {CAaraeters Mnd Ji^atofkic^l
4^ Pmudii^i 0f HilUitf^t9^6^ Hmm
Structure (^thtMhtieft^ii^M!^^ \fi$^^\^m ^ff^
TflUs J^n dieting 0Mf qf Cpnfmcf. with the ulfasw#p*e«?i bf^f^»
"^ongiyap) wd s^veml otbers* . la the Ji^vi^ d^gf^rti^^^ '-''^
ive parueul^rly to Qptip^ «^ excellent aoioount ots/Ui tism^
^JeteoroiogiGal EssavBi ia whichi thgugb the priUc. do^ J
111 ways- s^ree with nis jauthor, muoh w<^U merited i^^i^c
Wtowed on. that y^ryifiteresttne. volume. The re.vie^^^i ^
book called The Young Brewefs MQnitQr, i^ pretty »j^YfiX^ ^Vk\
UiyuBtly S0| howeveti as it should seem). and very j^n^ijcto^ir'^
an4 a good apeci^men of the ridkuluifi qcfi, aa well iU^lh^ ,
sequent one on Brown's Principles of the Dijferpitial Cdliil^
In our next number we intend to make our - readers, .|E)^,
intimately acquainted with some of the (urticles iaihi^fpro^^^|mg
jpurnal. / . ^^^
2. New Magnetic Phenomenon^ ,/^ ^^
At the sitting of the Royal Academy of Sciences 4if.i^l||ni^
0A die 7lh of March, M. Aragd exhibited an appamfti^A^
sbbwin^y in a new foriti> the aetiofi which magtteltffbd and 'fe^^
ttiaffAetned bodies mutuaHy exert ot}i each other. ,< • -',id^
In his first experiments^ M. Arago ^proved^ that ^^^i^if
4Mpper^ or any other solid or liquid sub8tance> nla;eed biHi9Mb$A
magnetic needle, affects the extent of its oscillaiiofks,<>wiiibttllt
sensibly altering their duration. The phenomenon in questjii^a
may be considered as the converse of the preceding. Si^o^
a needle in motion is stopped by a disc at rest, M. Ara^
imagined that a needle at rest would • be moved by a disc 91
motion* In fact, if a plate, of copper for instance, be made -ilo
turn with any determmate velocity under a magnetized needle
contained in a perfectly closed vessel, the needle will no longer
assume its usual position ; it stops without the magnetic me-
ridian, and so much the fkrther from th^t plane as the revolu-*
tion of the disc is more rapid. If the rotatory Motion b^ baffi-
<li|Kktly rapid, the needle itself, at whatever distance from th^
4\%0f turns contintlaUy round the wire ^n whieh it is suspendedl.
t^Annales de Chitnie.)
3. Hj/ana Caves in Devonshir^^ . .:>.
l^rofessor Buckland has lately examined two caves in De^
.vonshire, in both of which he found, in a bed of mod ben^^tlk
a crust of calosinter, gnawed fragments and spIint^s of bbms,
!Wi|Ji,jteqth of byeenas and bears. There were no entire bones,
except the solid ones of the toes, heels, &c., as at Kirkdale>
whicA were too hard for the teeth of the hysenft. They appear
simply to have been dens, but less abundantly i]^habited than.
that at Kirkdale. In the same cave, Professaf Bucklaod foniid
p^e tooth of the rhinocetos,^ and two'dr tHrM^^onte*^ Urn
Wrae.M^din* PhiL Joam.) .:? f»i.»i« ..
' /ThOflewlio hate not consiSered the subji^ce, tia\jyBt %e ilfli
li^ecl at tb^ quantify of blood wBich pasaes tibrough lli%
peart or any moderately sized animal in the eour&ebf S4
«ittr£ ' In man, the quantity of blood existing in the body at
IW ^reti momebt ih probalny firbm 90 to 40 pints. Onbesei
an ^unce and a half, or about three table spoonfuls, are senliMj8t
llt''kfhif s^itfke ;' which tnuhiplied into 75 (the threrage raVe of
liig^puli^e^, give 1123 ounces, or seven pints/ in a minute'} i. 4.
izt? pifat§, or 23*6 gallons, in an hour^ and 1260 gbllons^ k e.
^(ijitly 24 hogsheads, in a day. Now, if we recollect that .Ihfe
Thjlle IQ said to send out from its heart at each stipk^ If
fatlons/ the imagination is oterwhelmed With the ag^B^^t^
he quantity that must pass through the heart of that animliill)
34 hours. It is a general law, that the pulse of the largfr
.iltlftnats is slower than that of the smaller; but even if we put
^e^^^Ise of the-whale so low as 20 in the minute, the quantity
'^roulated through the heart, calculated at 16 gallons ior ea<^
pulsation, will be 432,000 gaUons, e^|uU to 8000 hogsheads ia
^24 hours. The consideration of this aqiazing quantity is, how-
-^er^ b subject of mere empty wonder, if not accompani^
^MA' the reflselion, thst^ in orders to produce Uie Aggr^ale
'Wtttint, the heart is kept in constant motion; and that, in mft,
^ is incessantly beating, as it is termed, or throwing dut thfe
"IHood into the arteries, from the first period of our existence Ho
'the ixioment of our de^th, without any sensation of fatiguj^,
er even without our consciousness, excepting undet occasional
eoipOreal or mental agitation.^Dr. Kidd» Bain. PhiL Jourii»X
'.
Article XII. *
NEW SCIBNTIFiC BOOKS. , .h
PRSPARIira FOR FOBUCATION.
Msthsmatical Tables. ' By W. Galbraitb.
Fkira FosBilisy or aDescriptionof the Fosiil Vegetable ;Re«)ain8
'^ Ibtind in the Coal Districts of Durham and Northumberland, \^ith a
- Mrltcalar Account of the concomitant Stratification. By J. B. Tay-
for, FSA.
Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan, with some Aetoujit df ithe
: North-east of Perda. By J. B. Frater. . : » ♦..,
A Complete History of the Cistus or Rock Rose. By Mt. Swe^,
.i . / ... JIJST PUBLISHED- , ,
^iU RanAralog^ Prit^ani^a^. or Trees a^d Shiubs diajt wiU U^e jothe
opc^nrAir of Britain throughout the Year. By r. W» ^/V^atsb^^,FX.S.
2 Tola, royal 8yo.; 1 72 coloured Plates/ 61, Bs,'
m -'•• 'fkm:^Jfm0An. ''^ . ia dam
The Study of Medicine. By J. M. Good, T4p* Seeond Editiofit
enlarged and remodelled. 5 vols. 8vo. S/. 15f .
Excursions to Madeira and Porto Santo, during the Autumn of
182S. By the late Edward Bowdich, with an Appendix, containing;
Zoologiciu and Botanical Descriptions. Plates, 4to.
A Series ojLT|tbles, in which the Weights and Mearares of Fiance
are reduced4P#«fte English Standard. By the iate Chfiitopher Knight
Sanders. 8vo. 7s. 6^. boards, or Ss. 6a. half-bound*
A Treatise on Mineralogy, translated fk'om the German of Frederic
.Mjrfis. By W. Haidinger, FRSE. 3 vols, post Svo. 1/. 16*.
Narrative o^a^qyra^, across the Cordilleras of t^e Andes7 and of a
.mYmi tge-flf JRiscoy^ry in the Interior of Africa; from its Wefte
Coast othe Niger. By Brevet Major Gray. 8vo.! Piatei^^||[]Jl!|^.
J 8*. ^^ • : ^ '■ ' ''w ''' ';i V5'' UiqA
The Siurgiciil Anatomy i)f the Arteries of; tiie lifyimof^^paji By
Rober HaErisOn,'^^ ^ VoLII. 5k. - .^ ^^y Jp
— i ••; : ". ■^ ■ . "■ I :.: '- \ Vi \l
— ; 'i. I ^RTIO&B X1I£>! '. k JT
U. MobertSyf Mancliesfei^, divil'jeiigin^r$'ibE imiprovekaems in the
mule, pilly; j4nnf i* stiretcbing friBBiei^ of other«tDa^lilbe8i4Ued in spin-
ning cpiMn, wk>o]^^r jothal' fioroUirftUbstfind^,tand in "^iclS: either the
spiiMil^s reeedf ff^a apdAppi!oadt!tlie rdlleca or jptber^&liveKrs of the
said fiprotia sUbsMihce^, er in widoh suiph fillers or deliverers recede
from and appr^ach<'thespiiidleB.<-^March^ ; >-^ M
J. H. Bsker^ AMigiia^ ik0w re^ic&igin St. Martln'^^nef'fbk^improye-
menUpn dyeing iM talicd-printing by-the nif^e otMettaAtt vegetaUe
materikl*.&-Mar<*»29: i ' . •'
Mauricr-de!joQgh/>^i%rringtO!i, eottbn ^itfner, foi(. impfovements
in 8piniing-m$chi&s |nd mules/ jenniesislabbdts^ &c.«^Matt:h 29.
SI£. Sheppard, cddth^r.iimd A.^l9t; \^ey^ Glduce8ier8hire;«ngineer,
fUr improTem€ints>k) ijiadiinery Ibrtaisijig the * wool 'er pile'xai woolhn
ftf oth^r rioths by^o^ts^^^lsp a^f^bl^ to b».iB5t!m|[f, sniioediing, and
Mbs8iiigch)thf.--tMaik;h«i&9. . i - > [ '' .St
£0T. raririn, Badlfe^s^rowV' City^baO^ nier^^^t, foi^ a mides^ pavbg
erts df public rtiRds^ ^4ibr^y4h\» drajft cSr^i^g6n8,^:carttv coaches,
d ottiercar^ag^, i^ fafc5llitatedj^^Mal|ch^29lr . r \-
SOR. (pabmeli INMinai-plaoe, WMminstbr-Mid^ ei^ineftr, fte improvi^
dffi^nj^n^i^or ^nachineryJifbf .raifingiw^r,| pM of^lrhich ma-
r4tf1ipp|liciiMefo other u8^kpurt>os^S;a*Marcll 30. .c
eathuuftfi- Tit<^rten, "laee^pianuwoturcr, lor improved methods
ments
chinei
— J- — y — _. __ ^ _ , , _ — y ___^ — _j — - -_ — ,_ _,
ftMguril^^r 'oniatneptititf variolic gooqs miMrfbctured from silk, cot-
ton, flax, &c. — March 31.
«niKM(hiA.I^i0r)oSafa^« Mi^esflaiiJ fiw aonev ai^li«at»Miva€<iailfvayib
*«4iftfM AsfeUtoeiyRtd'ttt'eaiployM'stlw^^ ^* }« ^niaav^fid
S. Broadmeadow, Abei^^)^ eM'^il^eft,'^^
exhausting, condensing, or propelling air, smoke, gas^ drc»<— Aprils. *
,flO£li!>,4 one y.'\ \L
Article XIV.
ahsbdi'^i to fi'.ti
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bIq fins ^aftiyr./ .
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4>*>a 4M*flA'
• " J^dftfM jWTMtgi.'— l-*-^. l%ie. 9. Toggjr moning; Toy fine 4ii^«>.-.9— -1T4.£^
13. Alijdegeiililer«i&tUtiiiRBmg. 14— 91; FIm. H. A gcb(ic rain Aii mnming t
Atirtij idy>"^ 88* -itofc. ' 9^ ftidwqy irflemodn. gtfi Finiet <toe
ittn808L''im TBtUIde? fti fiiOlrfiU diinnf IS} Ji^i w5E lEdwoii ST:
ST, Sboiltnr. S6U3Q. Fi4c . . . . , ;^
1 . . » ■
1 . J • • , ■
.A
3^ .1 ''fotthdlunttp^Ekid, ending thftlOth^., «•.».». M)^14- .
^ ^-Fflfr UAayi, eddlngthe IftCmooanotlh) ,..•30-315
For 15 days^ enTIlng die 14th (modb aottth) ... * 30'S8T
t'.« o
• ♦ ♦.
> .Forl4di7f(eodliiglfaeS8th<nioonii0itfi) .......... '(t'9fl
^^!||||^oil|ie^r 1. Mean height
A» I • •»••
-f; T : ""Fot the month..; « .4*-J3»
:t'>«v --F(irihtflimttp«i*d, ending like 11th; i.. ^'40
Far si dayfy theeon in Axieft .•••••.4...««. 45*4tfT
» . * ■ * • ■ '
iglipiiliUuTir. k.........i ; 3«in.
■ • •
Biin^ i\ •;...;..#.<•••• ...• 1*65
^>!J[.t.»#«>f«aage ^......,:.,..... 1-61
• . *• .«<««.
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i^
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» r-
INDEX
» •
aod diluvial fonnationt, on thttr
Almanac, Nautical^ S87.
Alum, its action on vegetable blueSt 159.
NAwMBiSf aolttbilky of Mddc of coMtte,
MtXy^ ^ a eombinalioa of nttnrte if
WOT and q^anuiet of mwt€mf% 1S3—
of tottimalinei, 149~ofboleteaw]lihtt-
img, 150-^^hitt pradpitotey lAl—
of foirflite, Si7» 281^^ ^ilnidci of
tManiam, 80u-mf gunats, 10— of bpry-
lio hann9tomi, ^9-H>f common )iar»
inolome, ^ 3 1 ^ ct cadmlfboui ' Vlende,
83 1 **;of lulphntet of lead and antimonf ,
ilSI-:-of potaah-sulphate of uranium,
869^-^ pota^.4nttrxate of unnittm,
^, ilO.<^ oxalate of ttiaaittm, S11*r-of
iiimnite« 816-^88 1 -«of the animal earth
Of K)lblbdi^ 884--of ehrematea of lead,
80^1^ aodaUte, SlU^ tartarixQd
antimony, 378-^of gaseoin mixtures,
416.
i^ngletea^, selenium from, 59*
Anni^ doiChhnie, onipn 9^94.
Animaiflnarcoal, on its use as a flux,
earth of Kii^loeh, S^.
» ■ *
'Animals, quantity of blood in, 47 1 •
Antediluvian worid, climate of, 97| SOT*
Antimony, iiev eompoimd of, 15 V.
■■ sulpho-iodide of^ 158*^ •
»■ tartarized, 378.
' .'p apd lead sulphuret pf, 831.
Aimiio, M. on a nev phenomenon, 470.
Astrononai^, its pretfent state, 65.
AstxonomiciBl observations, 31, 131, 800,
308,9&&430.
Addmoba Mr . H. notice of hia p*por <m
re^tion, 149.
.Atomie caindties finr hasft of tttioot In-
dies, 117.
■ diameters of varioui bpdieii 111.
■ ■■',• espaaaionsby heat of varioua bo-
dies, 180.
theoiy^ Mr. Childrw's sumoiltfy
'-»
«fair ii4'«}Q0|tdii|g^to the h^npothi^
BeKke&i%l$l^»3a^ .
Atomic weight o^ titanium* f 6^ . .
4^.
). r. .;tr
> *t -» ••
B»
*•* r
m\*'
JPobi»W» G» JSIf. s«lieoof jibmw^a
a new zenith micr8|iifiei;«.4^94;.. • 1
Badams, J. Esq. on scarlet iikbehraaMtt
of laid, 303. . .
Baltic, level of the, 74.
Barometer, eonstrueilon of^ 144*
theory of, 436.
Barometrical meMUTOBoeat pf .Wyta^
.. explan«tl|9iof«faotho9toi;434» »J
Beaufoy,C6I. meteorological mo>f«j 09
. ^Mtronon^ oINipmtisiiB^ 9I» Itl,
800,308,358, 430. *, »
BorthpUet, M^ tnemisiifsof km.m&m/i
writings by Colqu&oun, li-Sli Hfi
,' f' 'i.-'«iu '■ ilifci i\lm^mf €t .thi.40iiu
position of ammonia, 11*
. .^ti.n ■. > ••hii-rHflwAaiott chloi^
^ lilt of his im^ Wi
' Ti ti I oi^dyvmi) 81* „ . . >
Oli chemioil mdm >^'f«
* «
Boryki Irish* ttt*
BeneUus* M. on ftooiie aoid^ 184*-*oli bo-
. yon,l58-T<mUtida»U8H!$#»Hi!S;*
view of his hypoditeit of oH timk
theory, l$5,i 386^-^00 unmiittif 866^
bistable of the weightaof Momo, 489^
Beudant, M. strictorMOKiliii apfiliSMioii
of the aHMkite theory to nihisiiM^y
350.
Blaok^Hid tnine, 31 & .. . ;
Bleaching by chlorine, diaeoY«8i 8|hftP*
thollet, 88. '*
.Bktode«eadmiferous,831« .niaJt*
Blood, quantity of, in animals, 4tl«
Blowpipe, on its use, ftl* 78*, - ...7 s,nx'
Blaes, iflgeiahle, aeflon of tSnti vfitti
158.
.fioOiiig pofaiti of oAoif ond WaM^ I96i» /
Boletus stUphnrens, 150.
Books, new scientific, 17, 157| SST^ 91%
898^471. _:,.__'
815,454,469.
iiMHputiMgriM.
Bortod^ Ur. on tht boiUBgpQiBi o£<llieK»
mSKH^fe^^. modw of Ills j^aper
MlbtiilfibaadmMaddt*, M9:
BflfftwilfPr, on ifee-paper,3l<;
Badn, salines effloreacence on, 8$.
BriDkk|r, Xh^ 1^ merita at an uacnamer^ .
63-^9fiGp of his paper on Sir T. Bris*
*%inc^^ti!ononiicaI obseryations at Pa«
nmattat.986.
WMiii^, ^b'tiimuyiatktcthk astzo-
•'iDoinfca! observatidhs, 145, 386. '
BiMft HnMnun, ^Sf»
a. new mimral, d^poiption o^
id^ Prof, on the cave' of KUliloch,
OTI Jioilce <tf Ills ^fiper on the valley
<W)Ql^pKiele, ^M5—oti1iyiBna caret in
^Bwonihire, 470.
,cr t"'-'t»f"» v- ^
CHtA#'Jbn«SM, atotoic, of tittious W
dici,ll7. -
-OariiuBf 18 not dontalDe^ln iomUte; ^i^
Cette, ftfihwater ftnnatlbn's it, 38tJ ' ~
Okmical attmction, te Ibice in vaiions
Iwtfea, 118.
«s»U. «/ Too iftii ^
opieB OKy luVf jioi.
— alalica, BeryioU«ts«n,.l^. , -
CUldxen, J. O. sumfi^aiy view of ib»
atomic thooiy aoeording to BeneBna*
. I86i aS«— on tonelite, SSI— <m sale.
ninmftom Anc^esen, AS-hhi tttaniam
in mica, S90-Hm silica in ipongei, 43 1.
ts of oo^pihr-^tftbed
anteitlitavian world, 97,
Cobalt, mide of, aoliibOity in ammonia,
Cobakicadd, 69*
MftpodMMdtlbiti fc iinmliiialinM aimm^
ta]a,889. / ;
5M1P"itffrrffr-rtintf Hf-
Coloor, red, of^^ar, ariMl of «B>eaitli]r
craipMMd^^ifSlfiii . '
1,81, 161w^f!> »>.'t'- V « : n. v->; • ^ u
(kimfidi^lbtib notfoaofiriscpi^iri^Mi
the iiccnltaH^'^#tilimniw hf^ ^^"^
Oonponad.^l 04MlMf(
nt of nmcniy, iSi. v!?. ,Z'iz'z'.\ ^
GondMlogy, impofft«B|.w«fe4i9rJiioz5ira
Copper^ ii^Qls of, obtained vi& htumdi^
SS8.
Copper aheadiing of liiipa, Sir H. Dm
on its preservation, 897— other Oftn-
mentsJOB.t^anVMffi^SM/'^/: .x^tbg^li
GiBitoi c4intaiA^ilioa,,4a^iU ^x^ «uqsb'I
Cnchton, Sir A. on the climate of tfafeW-
tediluvian wo^ te»9lriiOSK»^fi9! ^esii't
Cl|»nui«t of ine>oii>f.iHid fii|wt«i^ fflniQL
•eompoiuidtffylftl./'.rio' -.fi* rf>9w»d-
the oonstmction of the banafc«tqt»tM4.
Davy, Sir H. Mli» fl«liftM|diNll^ii|[iM
Royal 8tfi3a|V'NkyMiQ^Ml)l'9
ditional esperhnents, 9fiK |)n£
the copper sheathing. »f tir)tq^
analysis of the second 6llMl?olrM[
work on the SiftlyJ«onp9>4Mer7<INM[
aotibii ofeiydi^ryhKinMtt, j(|j|»iMiI
mixtures, 459.
Density of dry air, and its vaiiationa from
pressure and temperature, 437.
Dictionary, Ezplanatlinr, of the appamtns
and instruments empfoiyed in the vaiiona
operations of philoeopm^aiidbniftBlg^
mental jtiMajflTyv«nnl|«»ii^^5Q*T:r-i;^
origiiH84l. ,-''^:j
DiitiSalian, on the arnripiiHiMi ofH ^d
Doebereiner, H. on the action of phUlitm
pewte 'Att'iliaeotts ^nuM^resf ^aUk^itt
cold prodttoed %y teoonbiHMW'iOf
. tteiida»'989---tegfiWca4idttidriailMii>
390— his eudiometer, 416i
D^ ak, ite denflBtyv'4S7.
i/orpttt^ ouMrwueiy otf* 9iivi
Djatogl-PiiiMlH OB, «I.
■•»: .T..* *
■•» 1 - . n « »
1 '.:-■?->
«• " n • 1
^
Ideicnurti, Banan, bioyaplar ofc 38Iy» . i>
SgyptiaB mnmmiea, Dtf.^OrahliiiU»^.iB,
•^•- ?,
Eiectiical oondutii^pttWit^tf^MlllANfo*
sinS) 234, • • 1'^ i» --^tD
Biftnksiiig; ^fcocenr«i^jmiai»llirf<»trnt
Egyptians, 46^. . • ' ' lA r t\'vIh»0
&B£e^'fi^[i^.ii& «n.tie iJinkiBiiiiifl
piM^ of chemi8i%iila«4ifaf^«M9,
981— on the solar wpf^^WSi^mt^ift^
fjliaiTl
m¥
^«0 .H •y'.'d ,ej IP. V
-haqx? I3*^w-- ■ ' ,1 . ' .
Faraday, Mr. JfL'aitJiaiMlitti, ^S98.
Felspar, crystallMly on itt fsd ooiMffy
BrM,8afe^Qdctfi»i^2»l; - -
Fishei, on dianmj; their r^Miiifliytg^* *
< between the chalk ^aitdJPkMMM
stone, by Mr. Webster, 33.
Flame, 401, 458«
Fluids, pressure of, 4^* •
Fboiic add, 9anidins on, 1S4.
Fhionlkates^ 129. .
HMH|a4f sJBeiBiHv'ilttrielioii'^ o£
hi I i> > J(&«aiiialer, Jia, aW«- -
]iMBinN|A^390^ r--
TIP? eftiffi,:3>e. ■
Mdl<dkv'MS.
in'-'»t r.,' :
9^}tf.^ -: •
a.
CMvMid, 990.
tenet, OQOipQntisii «£^ TOi SM»
martiiraiy' actlea 'of -plathHUtt-
upon, 410.
Gggatmnbiwid> bjr mesas eC|iiatiB«mt
ihlTf^Laisse^ >M* en tiie Bmttal aetei of
'tfimmmtiti particies, 454. . . ^
OHUg)^ 8St U, OV 1^ 88^841, JOT,
' 403, 405, 4Ta '
Omdin, Prof, on oKldanftCobak, OCM^
the oomporilftni of topnnafiMS^ 14S^ '
Ooodwyn, H. Siq. Vm rhabfrlu|;iq|l.i^i»^
cos, 14T — MS. mathematical tables,
832.
Gtanite, fimnation o^ 97, 207.
Qrsnville, Dr. A. B. notice of his paper
- on Egyptian mummies, 402.
Gnqrf X Jk. fBsQ. eadidlaiitte,BOtiaBA»bf»
. of pearls, 27-- on the chemical-enoa-
Green sand, 30. ^^■ . ^
Ornrory, Dr. notice of hii j^apeB;dh,lha
loiMRUopnL abiois,. rlii2t«N0M. Mil
Ooodwjn's MSS. 282. ; t , ^ <:. , r^ . J
OiiJainHi^ .M.Maartdto.topedtiiig dnNJH
Qyi!oymite|f<> 1 !*■♦•"} r n^ • . .? ^ .->_ * ..:,- .- ; ;• t.
Hannotome, new Twiety i% ^. .... f., .,««
Kept and li^t, 201. ^^ig^^q^M
tf ehnel, >f r. on cy^i^ML^Cim^M-
dpitate, 151. ' '^' ' :7^^^"^
' vided platinum ph gftsi^cm^i. i_
and its application ift ^j4r>.^
416. ' ' - • y*«^i
Home, Sir E^^noti^pf bis.
lure on naves mAfifl^jw^
of bis paper oa'^e ip^vum 4}!r
.'*n.-« ''?'
!ipi)V.r«4. ;
iiiF^iMiii »aB^^^w^
^Vi^_
HoEsfiOl,. C. Bsq. on i&e .
the cornier ahealhlng in aah^ 301.
Hortus Malabaricns, 227* ^
Howard,. Mr. metecMpgleil taUcs, 71,
159,239,319, 397, 473«
Hyena cBje^ mJksrv^ui^jn^^
tmum, 313. -.« eaij^
,ih^p^(^np,St
. ■ . .-. : •-v^.oU*. ,c*JI
.■ ^& . ■.: ^ <i\^<i tnula
\ of, 284. ^^^g
> >' ., ..- ;*i..r. ,'^o »l»ixo ,lUdo3
/^ .«d
Iamiai)cb»'faiBiwni aO ii|iIi»»loi«iM
by him, 134, 407. ^^^^ rR^^
Lamp, Safety, Si»'ii. IS^o^-tSUBfi^Q
]|iead,oatl^ .1M. . ^^nJ^ io ^b^r fiuoloO
subcfaromate of, BtiMli^^aOtqcaod
I^ectures on meteorites, 284e. I O^f J^^t
Mr, M. hia deieriptieiir^f ImuirfKI i>W
IiigfaMiiid JiiaW20lip8241^394 4|ibaaio:>
IdtUi^ipbqiMtiivisjd^ 9<Ii
lioeaUties oif lata numnnb,' 15i« e^^ii
mttl, Ac ft 10— notice of 1119 Mpor on a
»#sSrJ»*>.* .'
Niagara, Ml ft4lrtt|q|ji mil, »<fc ^^Mfl^
Nitrate of silTet and cymose^ ilfmiiiiiny
oompoond of, ISJ; - .- -6«^\
ffe«r At
X^ d«9frr(9» M, })otic9 pf hi9 naM
'ijMllf' ft?»^5^^ fwwatiw* tf )Jctp|
Uathematigal nnniMfi \
tftfeihrj, cyanui^t of. coin^9tkm ^'
HeteoiitM^ lactam 00, S34«'
!<• li'm III
atHdston,264.
— " New Malton, l»4.
:^ fitiatftitd, 79; 159,
'f99, S19,999,4T9.
Miea, on the presence of titannimpi {n« .999.
BfiU,^N. Em. on chan^g me retddehiDe
I, S79.
M;_dM*<
'tis lUies,
Mineral, a new, 140.
Minerals, doUeetionaelJ 73.
apecifie gravity of, 991.
_ opphcalioii qfJflSf .aioji^
«liecir|r to, 3&Q,
^^^1^ M- ?* fe '^•tWOlPg^
Munmiiefl, Egrptian, Dr. OraiiTille' on,
KurfiUe ortitaninQ], zD*
Ify^us polymcophiu found in the
r*** ' « J J
N,
I^ve kid, ]«4.
M«m in tie jatfMi^tO^ fli^
: j:vi£
Obienrations, astnmomicaI,lS1,'t^l»''
SOa. 358, 480. ' • * v.... •->
Ob«ervaimy«fBoipat,Se9. "£->H
Oo^taiiong, 147, I49i - »t»^^^
Oevflad, Prof, on acgdgrateaaiin<iii|>
157. " *^
Opticd deception, explanation 0^. €7^ M
Organic remains in allui^lam, l24Jlb' ' *^d
-«:^-:^ dilMom/^^fil. ^ .>-t«
Oxalate of uranium, S7 1.' ' *>v.«}
Oidtie of eolMdt, iti ieluUBf Jn««MM
69. • • : .?s^'i
■ gas, oonvmon of 1
nlmin by, 890.
P.
Paratonnerres, on, S2» •■'
Patents, new^ 76^^ )59, 9iS,^ tM, fUB
P^ris, )ir. 6mf mi thifar tIriteiaM,- Hi^
87. " * '•
Fdpys, lifr. prWftyKfc fna <wjilfayliiiinP
ments \>j cases lined with nnc, 89tL' ^
l^havmaeopetii^ liOi»ion,5iL' " ^-••^•'^
Wilips, Mr.R. reply to liv. Wl^|aatt:
'*iht JLondon Pnarmacopceia, w$i''M^
tartarized antimony^ 878; '- .
Pliotcnneter, ^ new, is. • ^ii
Plao^uta, ftm^ in, 5d, 8tl.' * -^
Planari«j 806. ' ' ' ' * '^^* :
Slatinum, finely divided, ita acMr dTfi*-
seous mixtures, 818, 416, 459. ' ^
Potash, sul])hate of, its jlK^MMlSdQy'ilir '"^
Po^h-rauriate of uranittm, 9^0. ' * '^
— 7- — snl^te <)f ditto, *W; '
Bowdl, Rev. B. on eioiar Ikjlit and' Mt^^
!^OI-.o!i &sbtapdiieatm>m'tiiAeirfeilaI
' source^ 859~notioe of his pi^»er Hn'tn-
diant heat from terrestrlid sOuveea, Kl.
r-his additional experimenU tAA"^
livurks on ]gdit and heat, 401. ^ ^ *
PredpftatcSfiit*', 151. * '- ■*' 7-^
Pria^ dis^otatioR of the Me^tU4.CM^i^
-^^^ns of ibk:Aj0i^^i^
9S^ .
Pnunin Uae, iqppUed to dTeing liy Bcr-
tlionet,89.
^^|iinthf»t Awa tcncttzua loninit 888.
B^ mar], 467.
Refraction, 149.
BoBwick, Prof, on toO^fce, 217.
H/BJiHiUPffltrfli their electxieal oondncting
power, 234t,
VlmhMimaii ■Minii U7i
luce BMME^ '3 In*
Bitdue, A. notice of his paper on a new
photometer, 68.
TliilifH T ^iftfe^ fireJiood, $81.
Rflget, Dr. notice or his paper on an opti*
^4ii:iptioo,6T.
Boea, Gapt. notice of Ida paper on the oc«
^Bil^^tjon of Jupiter by the moon, 1 47 —
on the occoltation of Heischd hy the
S.
SalbtyJiood and mootfa-pieee in entering
baming honses, 28U
SiAgr lamj^yiakni* Dayy on the, 454.
S^ine efilorescence on bricks, 68.
JS(i4gviek, Prof, on the origin of alluvial
and dikiTial formations, Ml.
Sglanium from the pyrites of Anglesea,
Messrs. Thomson and Children on, 59.
Sete, freshwater formations at, 387.
Sbi^ not noticed by Iiamarck, 184, 407.
a^ppard. Rev. R. notice of his paper on
motacilla hippolais, 297.
fifaqw, copper uieatfahig of. Sir H. Davj
on its preservation, 897— other expen-
ments on the subject, 899.
Silica^ contained in sponges and corals,
SHieatedfluates, 184.
Silver, nitrate of, combination of it wldi
eyanuret of mercury, 181.
Snowdon, its geology, 74.
Sodete d*Arcueil, origin of, 177.
Society, Astronomiod, proceedings of,
14a, 228,307,385,
- '■ ■ ■ ■ Geologicsl, proceedings of, 310,
$87 465.
Linnean, prooeediBigs of, 226,^
885.
—-. Medical, 312.
828, 806, 885, 4fti;
^ 10, 143,.
Solar spots, w* .^^^iji^'^
South; Mv» mtMttuM nM mmillm
'4f 87 pnii^ start df ^•W^mmMT
catalogue, 21,858. • • -
SMrtrliyi Ucsbis. thsv SpMiarCoiHhfli^'^
. wajp^ 888.
Specific gravity of uriB*, imlnniiQai.Ar
.mta^maif, 88i^«|ji)lwids, 88ft^«lf
Sponges, Mr. Gray ri thtrfr' ntiimiW
jsmpoHOon, 4*iic ' .. {■»
Stars, right ascension d^ 87^ ri(|riiiiiiikiii|
>ia,.8l9.288* • • •-•; r7#
Stockton, Mr. his nftowiingkil MU
k^atlfcvAlalfaB^a84. <^
Snb-afa|BQ9aabi of lead, acaclet, aOJL'v S^
Sulphate iof potariu its praptaiknn, 84^ ^
uranium and potash, 289.
Sulpho-iodide of antimony, 15^2.
Sulphuret of lead and antnnony, 881.
Sun, qiots on the, 381.
fVblas, i&etecnDlogical, i9 M MV.—-I09L
194, 264, 307.
Tartaiised antimcmy, 37|.
TeUgraph, JBddcrants^s, S85.
Telescope, notice of FraMenhofer*t IsMBy
309.
Thomson, E. P. Esq. on adenium ftom
Anglesea, 52,
Titanium, . M. Vauqaelin an ila fresoiM
in mica, 229.
— — — atomic weight o^ 20*
■ chlorides of, 18.
« muriate of, 20.
Torrelite, does not containoidde of ceduixi^
221. . f
Tourmalines, oompodtion of, 149.
Tndll, Dr. communication from, oq |^
copper sheathing of shipSf 800. _
Tumuli near the fiUs of Nii^^ara, 128% v
U. and V.
UH
Vauquelin, M. on titanium In mica, 888.
Vigors, N. A. Esq. notice (^ hia,ps»er oi^
British birds, aiee. . ..
Ulmin,S90.
Uranite, 276.
Uranium, M. BerseHus on^ 266.
-— — ores of, 274.
Urine, hydrometer for, 834.
t t ^^oi IT.
w.
Wariitmristtt^Dnthg ooomiitkm of gi|b
♦ f8^^w *»^^^^w^y wy^^mw^^^gy y*
J af\\ ^*'
ft
f
'lit' -. . ' Mnr. -'
ten too. oinkibiMlaML I3i;
V<HH«t » aoliee of fai» paptr «b 4lM
|kMia«lk«fIidiii<,4eS. Y.
INtjiir, T; Mt^. hu f«plf to Ih. Fhimi
on 4m Mi belWfen tiie daHc «i4 1«»-
YalM, Eev« J. nuiace of lik popor ob tlift
WhiiHoht W; H. Jtoq[* oft Bufadttli wAty fed avrl, 497.
WACtMiBir JCif* POBCO Of BB^ JMpOt m Mm*
' BMltifag th» ongtoa of cryoitht, 61.:
WlifaMb, Mr. on iho liOBWRiiuniMO- Z.
wm» piuejatioto, ^wnpoMtion of» 151..
WBBmim, W^ ao6oo of hii pnor on 2oallliink»nwlty> Ife^ MilMgi^
tf>e imiiiin Hjiiil qwhtion, 3tti 310.
>
1
]|19 6r TOL. IX.
*^ '
5'i£>
M>««Hh.H*M«Wii*4MHi«ii^Mi.*<
TtiniJA'fti C. BimrtiL Tffttir IMdm ■tioot. tmnflmi. .> ^
J
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