OF THE
NATORAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETT
FOR THK
S E S S I O IT lSQS-99.
BELFAST :
FEINTED BY ALEXR. MAYNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STREET
(printers to queen's college.)
1899.
G12447
CONTENTS.
Annual Eeport . . . . . . . .
Balance Sheet
Donations to Museum
Books Received . . . . . . . .
President's Inaugural Address — T. Workman
Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification — W. Chambers
The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria — A. J. Martin
The Viagraph— J. Brown .. ..
Tlie Boyne VaUey_S. F. Milligan
Pathogenic Bacteria — J. Lorrain Smith, M.A., M.D.
Electric Discharges in Rarified Gases — J. Finnegan, B.Sc.
liist of Ofiice-BearerB , . . . . . . .
List of Shareholders and Subscribers . .
1
6
7
8
17
22
32
41
53
64
68
72
73
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
:o:-
EST.A.BL1 SI3:E33D 1821.
' — :o :
SHAREHOLDERS.
1 Share in the Society costs £7.
2 Shares ,, cost £14.
3 Shares „ oost £21.
The Proprietor of 1 Share pays lOa. per annum ; the proprietor of 2 Shares
pays 5s. per annum ; the proprietor of 3 or more Shares stands exempt from
further payment.
Shareholders are only eligible for election on the Council of Management.
MEMBERS.
There are two classes — Ordinary Members, who are expected to read Papers,
and Visiting Members who, by joining under the latter title, are understood to
intimate that they do not wish to read Papers. The Session for Lectures extends
from November in one year till May in the succeeding one. Members, Ordinary
or Visiting, pay £1 Is. per annum, due 1st November in each year.
Each Shareholder and Member has the right of personal attendance at all
meetings of the Society, and of admitting a friend thereto ; also of access to the
Museum and Library for himself and family, with the privilege of granting
admission orders for inspecting the collections for any friend not residing in
Belfast.
Any further informatiou can be obtained by application to the Secretary.
It is requested that all accounts due by the Society be sent to the Treasurer.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily from 10 till 4 o'clock.
Admission for Strangers, 6d. each. The Curator is in constant attendance, and
■will take charge of any Donation kindly left for the Museum or Library.
Belfast Batural Ibistor^ aiiv) pbilosopbical
■:o:-
ANNUAL REPORT, 1898.
:o:-
The Annual Meeting of the Shareholders of this Society was
held on i8th July, at three o'clock, in the Belfast Museum,
College Square North. Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P., President,
occupied the chair, and the attendance included Drs. MacCormac
and Leathern, Messrs. Geoge Kidd, J.P.; Robert Young, J.P.;
Edward Allworthy, W. H. Patterson, J. H. Davies, Joseph
Wright, John M'Knight, W. M. F. Patterson, Isaac Ward,
Seaton F. Milligan, John Brown, W. Faren, G. F. Patterson,
and Robert M. Young, B.A., M.R.I.A., Hon. Secretary. Letters
of apology for non-attendance were received from the Lord
Mayor (Mr. Otto Jaffe, J.P.) and Sir James Henderson.
The notice convening the Meeting having been read,
Mr. Robert Young, Hon. Secretary, submitted the annual
report, which stated : — " The Council desire to submit to the
shareholders their report of the working of the Society during
the past year. The winter session was opened on 8th November,
1 898, when the President of the Society, Mr. Thomas Workman,
J.P., delivered an inaugural address on the subject " Incentives
to the Study of Natural History," illustrated by limelight views,
&c. The second meeting was held on 6th December, 1898,
when a paper was read by Mr. Walter Chambers, C.E., on
" Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification," illustrated by
diagrams, &c., followed by an interesting discussion. The third
meeting was held on 13th December, 1898, when a paper was
read by Mr. Arthur J. Martin, A.M.LC.E., Exeter, on " The
Purification of Sewage by Bacteria," illustrated by limelight
2 Annual Meeting.
views. The fourth meeting took place on loth January, 1899,
when Mr. John Brown read a paper on " The Viagraph, a new
Instrument for Testing Road Surfaces," illustrated by diagrams
and exhibition of the viagraph. A discussion followed at its
close. The fifth meeting, on 7th February, 1899, was devoted
to a popular lecture in the Y.M.C.A. Hall, at which the Lord
Mayor (Mr. Otto JafFe, J.P.) presided. Mr. Seaton F. Milligan
delivered an interesting lecture upon '' The Boyne Valley, its
History, Scenery, and Antiquities." which was illustrated by
over one hundred lantern slides. The proceeds were in aid of
the Giant's Causeway Defence Fund, and there was a large
attendance of members and the general public. The sixth
meeting was arranged for the 14th March, when Dr. J. Lorrain
Smith, M.A., kindly lectured on " Pathogenic Bacteria, with
Special Reference to the Typhoid Bacillus," illustrated by
actual specimens and lantern views. The closing meeting took
place on nth April, 1899, when Mr. John N. Finnegan, B.A.,
B.Sc, gave a lecture on " Luminous Discharges in Rarefied
Gases," illustrated by experiments and photograph slides. All
these meetings were well attended, both by the members and
the general public, the two on sanitary subjects attracting
special audiences. Largely through the good offices of Mr.
John Horner, your Council have secured that the Gilchrist
lectures for a second time be given in Belfast, commencing in
September next. A public meeting will be summoned at an
early date to make detailed arrangements in connection with
their delivery. It will be observed from the Hon. Treasurer's
statement of accounts that the usual satisfactory balance in
favour of the Society is fully maintained. The number of
societies meeting in the Museum shows no falling off, and its
accommodation was sometimes taxed to provide for two
meetings on the same evening. Mr. Stewart, our Curator,
reports that during the year further additions have been made
to the herbarium of local plants, and many specimens have
been mounted and placed in their order in the cabinet. The
local collection is now almost complete, but the type set of
Annual Meeting. 3
British plants is still far from being so. At the Easter holidays
the Museum was less crowded than it has been on some former
occasions. Nevertheless the attendance was very large, and at
times the building was taxed to its utmost capacity. On
ordinary days the admissions continue much as in recent years.
Since the last annual meeting the Society has to deplore the
loss of one of its most valued members — the late Mr. Lavens M.
Ewart, J. P. He was a most useful and active member of the
Council since 1894, and took the greatest interest in the well-
fare of the Society in every way. A vote of condolence with
his widow and family was passed at the first public meeting
after his lamented decease. Your Council have co-opted the
Lord Mayor of Belfast (Mr. Otto JaflFe, J.P.) to fill the vacancy
caused by his untimely death. They have received with much
regret Mr. John H. Greenhill's resignation from the Council
owing to change of residence. A list of donations to the
Musem and of publications received in exchange from home and
foreign scientific societies will be printed with the present
report. The Council desire to tender their best thanks to the
local Press for their admirable reports of the Society's meetings.
This meeting will be asked to elect five members of Council in
place of the following gentlemen, who retire by rotation, the
first three of whom are eligible and ofifer themselves for re-
election : — Messrs. John Brown, William Swanston, W. H. F.
Patterson, Professor FitzGerald, and John H. Greenhill."
Mr. Wm. H. F. Patterson, Assistant Treasurer, read the
Treasurer's report, which showed a balance in hands of
^76 is. 2^d. The donations had increased during the year,
but there was a slight decrease in subscriptions.
Dr. MacCormac, in moving the adoption of the report and
statement of accounts, said it afforded him much pleasure to do
so on account of their financial condition, and also because of
the growing interest taken by the general public of Belfast and
the surrounding districts in the working of that Society. It
could not be otherwise when they remembered the valuable
scientific information brought before the meetings held there.
4 Annual Meeting.
Those scientific investigations, he thought, must be of incalcul-
able value to the general community.
Mr. EnwARD Allworthy seconded the motion. He was of
opinion that the general public did not take that interest in
the proceedings of that Society as its worth demanded, and he
urged that some special effort should be made to create a fresh
interest from the citizens, which, he felt sure, would be a boon
to the people themselves and a blessing to the community
where they lived. It was remarkable how few out of the three
hundred thousand in Belfast and the numerous visitors to the
city who came into the Museum. Speaking of the late Mr.
Ewart, he referred to him as a very able, excellent, and good
friend to that Society, and had done more than had ever been
made public. He was always doing a little towards gathering
in articles and information, and, now he was gone, they felt his
loss. In conclusion, he expressed the hope that the Council
and President would endeavour to make next year still more
attractive than the past.
Mr. John Horner supported the resolution, and, in doing
so, said on account of the immense success of the Gilchrist
lectures the last time they were held in Belfast, the trustees
had decided to allow a series to be given in the five towns, as
before, on the understanding that a certain amount of money
will be subscribed to the trustees for the purpose of helping on
educational work in Ireland. Another condition was that there
should be some educational movement or scheme brought out
from the lectures. In that matter it was suggested that repre-
sentatives from the other towns should meet at a meeting in
Belfast, under the auspices of the Lord Mayor, to discuss some
feasible scheme for university extension or some other form of
education. At that meeting resolutions could be passed on the
subject. He (Mr. Horner) had spoken to the Lord Mayor, and
he had kindly consented to co-operate and do all in his power
on behalf of the scheme.
The Chairman referred to the great loss which the Society
had sustained by the death of Mr. Lavens M. Ewart. He had
Annual Meeting. 5
for a long time taken a very great interest in that Society, as
well as in kindred societies. At the same time, he (the Chair-
man) thought they had good reason to congratulate themselves
in co-opting the Lord Mayor to fill the vacancy created by Mr.
Ewart's death. Already his Lordship had shown a great deal
of interest since his appointment on the Council.
The motion was passed by acclamation.
Messrs. John Brown, W. Swanston, -W. H. Patterson
Andrew Gibson, and Seaton F. Milligan were unanimously
elected members of the Council of Management for 1899- 1900,
in place of the retiring members.
Mr. John Brown moved, Mr. Robert Young, J. P., seconded,
and it was passed, that the meeting approves of the Council's
decision to appoint delegates to confer] with other kindred
societies to invite the British Association to Belfast. In mak-
ing the proposition, Mr. Brown said the Association had not
met in Belfast since 1874, and the meeting prior to that was
1852. On both occasions the initiative was taken by their
Society, and consequently he felt they should strengthen the
Council's hands in every possible way.
On the motion of Mr. George Kidd, J. P., seconded by Dr.
Leathem, a cordial vote of thanks was passed to the Chairman
and Hon. Secretary for the amount of attention they bestowed
upon the working of the 1 Society during the year. Each of
these gentlemen having returned thanks, the meeting
terminated.
The members of the Council then proceeded to elect office-
bearers for the ensuing year as follows : — President, Mr.
Thomas Workman, J. P. ; Vice-Presidents, Messrs. John
Brown, W. Swanston, F.G.S. ; and Robert Young, J.P. ; Hon.
Librarian, Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P. ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr.
William H. F. Patterson ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. R. M. Young, J.P.
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DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, 1898-99.
From Dr. W. S. Young.
Lignite and clay concretions from a well sinking in County
Donegal.
From Miss Montgomery.
A birch rod used at school in the North of Ireland over 100
years ago.
From Mr. W. Swanston, F.G.S.
Five wooden food dishes, three wooden spoons, eight vessels of
pottery used as cooking utensils, one cane basket-work
dish, from South Africa, and three war knives, from
India. Also a collection of Eocene fossil plants from
County Antrim.
From Mr. Lavens M. Ewart, J.P., M.R.I.A.
A pair of pampooties, or cowhide shoes, from the Arran
Islands.
From Mr. George Donaldson.
A mounted collection of North American Lepidoptera, in-
cluding Vanessa Milbertii and Colias ccesonia.
From Mr. R. J. Welch.
A number of the rarer land and freshwater shells.
Fj'om Mr. Wm. J. King.
Ancient sword and scabbard, found eight feet below the
surface in White Mountain Quarry, Co, Antrim.
From Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, M.R.I.A., and Mr. S. A.
Stewart, F.B.S.Edin.
A large number of native plants of the North of Ireland.
From Egypt Exploration Fund.
A collection of various objects excavated at Oxyrhynchus.
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, ist MAY, 1898 till
1ST MAY, 1899.
Adelaide. — Transactions of the Royal Society of South Aus-
tralia. Vol. 22, parts I and 2, 1898.
Albany. — Forty-ninth Annual Report of the Regents of the
New York State Museum, 1897.
The University of New York.
Belfast. — Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club.
Ser. 2, vol. 4, part 5, 1898. The Club.
Bergen. — Bergens Museums Aarbog, for 1898 ; also Account
of the Crustacea of Norway. Vol. 2, Isopoda,
parts 9-12, 1898. Bergen Museum.
Berlin. — Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Vol.
25, nos. 4-10, 1898 ; and vol. 26, nos. 1-4, 1899.
The Society.
Boston. — Memoirs of Boston Society of Natural History. Vol.
5, no. 3, 1898 ; and Proceedings, Vol. 28,
no. 6, 1897 ; and nos. 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12,
1898. The Society.
Bremen. — Abhandlungen herausgegeben vom Naturwissen-
schaftlichen Vereine zu Bremen. Vol. 14,
part 3 ; and vol. 15, part 2, 1897 > *iso vol. 16,
part I, 1898. The Society.
Breslau. — Zeitschrift fiir Entomologie herausgegeben vom
Verein fiir Schlessiche Insektenkunde zu
Breslau. 2he Society
Brighton. — Annual Report of Brighton and Sussex Natural
History and Philosophical Society, 1898.
2he Society.
Brussels. — Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique.
Vol. 42, 1898. The Society.
Books Received. 9
Annales de la Societe Malacologique de Belgique.
Vol. 28, 1893 ; vol. 29, 1894 ; vol. 30, 1895 ;
and vol. 31, fasc. i, 1896 ; also Proces- Verbal,
June, 1895, till July, 1898. The Society.
BuFNos Ayres. — Comunicaciones del Museo Nacional de
Buenos Aires. Vol. i, nos. i and 2, 1898.
The Director.
Buffalo.' — Bulletin of Buffalo Society of Natural Science.
Vol. 5, nos. 2-5, 1896-1897 ; and vol. 6, no. i^
1898. 2 he Society.
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India
(Palaeontologica Indica). Ser. 15, vol. i, part
3, No. I, 1898.
Manual of the Geology of India — Economic
Geology. Part i, Corundum, 1898 ; and
General Report of the Survey, 1898.
The Director of the Survey.
Cambridge. — Proceedings of Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Vol. 9, part 5, 1897 ; and parts 8 and 9, 1898 ;
also vol. 10, part i, 1899. The Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Anatomy. Vol. 28, nos. 4 and 6, 1898 ; vol.
31, no. 7, 1898 ; and vol. 32, nos. i-q, 1898-99.
Also Annual Report. 1898. The Curator.
Cardiff. — Transactions of Cardiff Naturalists' Society. Vol.
29, 1897. The Society.
Cassel. — Abhandlungen & Bericht des Vereins fiir Naturkunde
zu Kassel (43), 1898. The Society.
Colorado Springs. — Colorado College Studies. Vol. 7, 1898.
Colorado Coll. Scientific Society.
Christiania. — Forhandlinger i Videnskabs Selskabet i Chris-
tiania, for 1897 ; and nos. i-6, 1898 ; Oversigt,
1897 and 1898 ; and Royal University Program,
2nd semestre, 1895 ; and ist and 2nd semestre,
1897. '£he Royal Norske Frederiks University,
10 Books Received.
Dantzic. — Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Danzig, Vol. 9, parts 3 and 4, 1898.
The Society.
Dublin. — Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society.
Ser. 2, vol. 6, parts 14-16, 1898 ; and vol. 7,
part I, 1898 ; Proceedings, vol. 8, part 6, 1898.
The Society.
Edinburgh. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
Vol. 21, 1897. The Society.
Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society. Vol.
13, part 3, 1897. The Society.
Emden. — Jahresbericht der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Emden fiir 1896-97. The Society.
Genoa. — Giornale della Societa di Letture et Conversazione
Scientifiche di Genova. Anno 20, fasc. 3 and 4,
1898 ; and vol. 21, fasc. i, 1899. The Society.
Glasgow^. — Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glas-
gow. Vol. 29, 1898. The Society.
GoRLiTZ. — Abhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu
Gorlitz. Vol. 22, 1898. The Society.
Gothenburg. — Goteborg's Kungl. Vetenskaps och Vitterhets
Samhalles Handlingar, Fjarde folgden. Part
1, 1898. The Society.
Halle. — Leopoldina Amptliches Organ der Kaiserlichen
Leopoldine-Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie
der Naturforscher. Part 33, 1897.
The Academy.
Hamburg. — Verhandlungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen
Vereins. Ser. 3, parts 5, 1898, and 6, 1899.
The Society.
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen Karpathen Vereines. 25th
year, 1898. The Society.
Indianapolis. — Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science
for the year 1897. ^^^ Academy.
Books Received. 1 1
Jalapa. — Boletin Mensual Meteorologica del Observatorio
Central del Estado de Veracroz. Nov. and
Dec, 1897, and January, 1898. The Director.
KiEW. — Memoirs of the Kiew Naturalists' Society. Vol. 14,
part 2, 1 897 ; and vol. 1 5, part i , 189b; and part
2, 1898. The Society.
Lausanne. — Bulletin de la Societe Vandoise des Sciences,
Naturelles. Vol. 34, nos. 127-130, 1898.
The Society.
Lawrence, Kansas. — The Kansas University Quarterly. Ser.
A, vol. 7, nos. 1-4, 1898 ; and vol. 8, no. i,
1899 ; ser. B., vol. 7, nos. 1-3, 1898.
The University.
Leipsic. — Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig,
1897. The Society.
London. — Report of the Meeting of the British Association at
Bristol, 1898. The Association.
„ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London. Vol. 54, part 4, 1898 ; vol. 55, part
I, 1899 ; and List of Fellows, (898.
The Society.
,, Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. Parts
3-6, 1898, and part i, 1899. 7 he Society.
„ Transactions of the Zoological Society of London.
Vol. 14, parts 6-8, 1898, and vol. 15, part i,
1898. Proceedings, parts 1-4, 1898 ; also, List
of Fellows, 1898. The Society.
Madison. — Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts, and Letters. Vol. 11, 1898.
The Academy.
,, Bulletin of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural
History Society. Nos. i and 2, 1898.
The Society.
1 2 Books Received.
Madras. — Bulletin of Madras Government Museum. Vol. 2,
no. 2, 1898 ; also, Administration Report for
1897-98. 'J'he Superintendent.
Manchester. — Journal of Manchester Geographical Society.
Vol. II, nos. 10-12, 1895 ; vol. 13, nos. 7-12,
1897 ; and vol. 14, nos. 1-6, 1898. The Society.
„ Transactions of the Manchester Geological
Society. Vol. 25, parts 15. 16, 20, 21 ; vol. 26,
part I, 1898 ; and parts 2 and 3, 1899.
The Society.
Marseilles. — Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Vol. 8, fasc, 5-10, 1898. The Librarimi.
Melbourne. — Proceedings ot the Royal Society of Victoria.
New series, vol. 10, part 2 ; and vol. 11, part i,
1898. The Society.
Meriden, Conn. — Transactions of Meriden Scientific Associa-
tion. Vol. 8, i8q8. The Association.
Mexico. — Boletin Mensual del Observatorio Meteorologico
Central de Mexico. January to November,
1898. The Director.
, Boletin del Observatorio Astronomico Nacional de
Tacubaya. Nos. 3 and 4, 1898. The Director.
„ Boletin del Instituto Geologico de Mexico. No. 10,
1898. The Institute.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo.
Vol. 3., fasc. 9 and 10, 1898. The Director.
Moscow. — Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of
Moscow. Nos. 3 and 4, 1897 ; and nos. 1-3
1898. The Society.
Nantes. — Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
I'Ouest de France. Vol. 7, part 4, 1897 ; and
vol. 8, parts 1-4, 1898. The Society.
Books Received. 13
New York. — Transactions of the New York Academy of
Sciences. Vol. i6,nos. 1-12, 1898 ; and Annals,
vol. 10, 1898 ; and 11, parts i and 2, 1898.
The Academy.
,, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.
Vol. 30, no. 25, i8q8 ; and vol. 31, no. i, 1899.
The Society.
„ Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History. Vol. 10, 1898. The Museum.
Odessa. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of New Russia.
Vol. 18, part 2, 1897; vol. 21, part 2, 1897;
and vol. 22, part i, 1898. The Society.
Oporto. — Annaes de ScienciasNaturaes. Vol. 5, nos. 1-3, 1898.
The Editor.
OSNABRUCK. — Twelfth Jahresbericht des Naturwissenschaft-
lichen Vereins zu Osnabruck, 1897.
The Society.
Ottawa. — Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada.
New series, vol 9, 1898.
The Director of the Survey.
Padua. — Atti del la Societa Veneto-Trentina di Scienze Natu-
rali. Series 2, vol. 3, fasc. 3, 1899 ; also
BuUettino. Vol. 6, no. 3, 1898. The Society.
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences. Part 3, 1897 J ^"d parts 1-3, 1898.
The Academy.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.
No. 156, 1897 , and nos. 157 and 158, 1898.
The Society.
Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of
Science. Vol. 4, part 4, 1898 ; and vol. 5,
part I, 1898. The Institute.
PisA. — Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Natural! Process!
Verbali. January- July, 1898. Ihe Society.
14 Books Received.
Rio de Janeiro. — Revista do Museo Nacional do Rio de
Janeiro. Vol. i, 1896. The Director.
Rome. — Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Ser. 5, vol. 7,
semestre i, fasc. 8-12, 1898 ; semestre 2, nos.
1-12, 1898; vol. 8, semestre i, fasc. 1-6, 1809 ;
al?o Rendiconto del Adunanza Solenne, 1897.
The Academy.
Bollettino della Societa Romana per gli Studi Zoo-
logici. Vol. 6, fasc. 5 and 6, 1897 ; and vol. 7,
fasc. 1-6, 1898. The Society.
Journal of the British and American Archaeological
Society of Rome. Vol 2, no. 8, 1898. TheSociety.
San Francisco. — Proceedings of the California Academy of
Sciences. Ser. 3, vol. i., nos. 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
1898. The Academy.
Stay anger. — Stavanger Museums Aarsberetning for 1897.
The Miiseicm Trustees.
Stirling. — Transactions of Stirling Natural History and
Archaeological Society, 1898. The Society.
St. Louis. — Ninth Annual Report of the Missouri Botanical
Garden, 1898. The Director.
Stockholm. — Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens
Handlingar. New series, vol. 30, 1898 ;
Bihang, vol. 23, parts 1-4, 1898 ; and Ofver-
sigt ; no. 54, 1897. ^^^ Academy.
Sydney. — Science of Man. Vol. 2, no. i, 1899. The Editor.
Tokyo — Die Sprichworter. Two parts, 1898. The Author.
ToPEKA. — Transactions of Kansas Academy of Science. Vol.
15, 1898. The Academy.
Toronto. — Transactions of the Canadian Institute. Vol. 5,
parts, 1898 ; Proceedings, new series, vol. i,
parts 4-6, 1898. The Institute.
Books Receivea. 1 5
Upsala. — Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the Univer-
sity of Upsala. Vol. 3, part 2, 1897.
The University.
Vienna, — Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Koniglichen Zoolo-
gisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft. Vol. 48, 1898.
The Society.
Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Koniglichen Geolo-
gischen Reichsanstalt. Nos. 4-18, 1898; and
nos. 1-4, i8q9. The Society.
Washington. — United States Department of Agriculture,
Bulletin. Nos. Q, 10, 11, and 50, 1898 ; also,
Secretary's Report for 1898 ; and Year-book of
Agriculture for 1897.
The Secretary of Agriculture.
Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey.
No. 149, 1897 ; and nos. 88 and 89, 1898 ; also,
Monographs ; vol. 30, 1898. The Director.
Annual Report of the American Historical Asso-
ciation for the year 1896. Vols, i and 2, 1897.
The Association.
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, part
2, i8g6. The Director of the Bureau.
Annual Report of the United States National
Museum for the year 1895, and Report for
1896 ; also Proceedings of U.S. Museum, vol.
19, 1897 ; and Annual Report of Smithsonian
Institution, tc July, 1896 ; Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge, no. 1,126, 1898 ;
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, nos.
1,087, ^09C, 1,093, ^i^d 1,125, ^^98 ; also
vol. 39, no. 1,170, 1899.
The Smithsoniati Institution.
York. — Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society
for 1898, The Society,
1 6 Books Received.
Zurich. — Vierteljahrschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
in Zurich. 43rcl year, parts 1-4, 1898. Neu-
jahrsblatt ; no. loi, 1899. The Society.
From Egypt Exploration Fund. — The Oxyrhynchus Papyri.
Part I, 1898 ; also Archaeological Report for
1896-97.
From MoNS. Charles Janet. — Etudes sur les Fourmis, les
Guepes, et les Abeilles. 5 nos., 1897-98 ; also,
Notice sur les Travaux Scientifiques of M.
Janet.
From Mr. R. Lloyd-Patterson, J.P., F.L.S. —Journal of the
Linnean Society — Botany. Vol. 33, nos. 232
234, 1898 ; vol. 34, no. 23s, 1898 ; and 236,1899.
From Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P. — Exploration Scientifique
de la Tunisie. Illustrations, plates, 1-20,
Champignons and Phanerogames ; also. Cata-
logue Raisonne des Plantes Cellulaires de la
Tunisie, 1897.
From Miss Carruthers. — Belfast Almanac, 1809 ; and Belfast
News-Letter^ Dec. 8th and Dec. 15th, 18 18.
BELFAST
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSION 1898-99.
8//z November^ 1898.
INAUGURAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,
Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P.
{Abstract.)
It appears to me that of late years this Society has largely
drifted away from the study that was the life-work of our
illustrious founders. I refer to Natural History ; and seeing
that your Council has done me the honour of electing me
President for this Session, I think I cannot better occupy your
time than by addressing you on " Incentives to the Study of
Natural History." We must all feel that there is much going
on in Nature around us to which we shut our eyes, and to not
a few Nature has no more interest than it had to Wordsworth's
Hero —
" . . . Nature ne'er could find the way
Into the heart of Peter Bell.
In vain through every changeful year,
Did Nature lead him as before ;
A pimrose by a river's brim
A yellow primrose was to him,
And it was nothing more."
I had intended to take as incentives some of the interesting
facts that are known about the lives of plants and animals.
I found, however, that this would be too extensive, and
2
1 8 Inaugural Address hv the President.
therefore shall confine my remarks this evening to the
botanical part only.
Ordinary flowering plants may be divided into three pretty
well marked groups —
The single flower,
The grouped flower,
and The compressed flower.
We quite understand why a plant has a root, as it must
have a hold on the ground, from which it pumps up water and
mineral salts. Also the need to it of stalk and branches ; that
it may be raised from the ground and have its leaves spread
out to the sun and air ; and the use of the leaves are quite
apparent, as we know them to be the mouths and lungs of
plants. But have we grasped the need to it of the wonderfully
shaped and beadtifully coloured parts we call the flower.
All these curious shapes and bright colouring of flowers are
simply an advertisement to the wandering hordes orf" flying
insects that " good honey is kept here." The floral world no
more believes in the old adage, that " good wine requires no
bush," than do our modern houses of entertainment, as one
can see by our city hoardings.
Our modern advertisers do not off"er to give away their goods
for nothing, and, though flowers seem to do that, it is only in
appearance, for their little deceits are very wily. Before or
after they entertain their insect visitor they ask for no fee or
payment. They simply practically say, after having feasted
him, "Thanks, old fellow, for your visit — come soon back," and
then pat him on the head or back, or rub a little pollen on
his whiskers, so that he goes away quite satisfied, feeling that
he has got quite a lot for nothing, little thinking that he is
doing a good hard day's work for the flower for very little pay.
Just look at the work a humble bee does from early morning to
late at night, visiting hundreds and hundreds of flowers, and
carrying the pollen from the stamen of one flower to the pistil
of another, so that they may be fertilised.
Inaugural Address by the President. 19
It is to this insect industry that we owe the glorious masses
of colour in heaths and whins and buttercups, that make the
fields so beautiful in spring and summer.
Several of our native plants, are very curious and of great
interest, such as the Cuckoo Pint (Arum maculatum), so
conspicuous in the early spring with its curious heated chamber
or fly prison, and the spotted orchid {Ophrys macula ta) that has
its pollen in two club-like masses called pollinia which have a
viscid disk by which they are fastened to the proboscis of the
bumble bee when it comes to suck the honey from the flower.
The pollinia after being fastened on the proboscis in a vertical
position automatically turn to a horizontal position so as to
project forward and thus to strike the stigma when the bee
visits a fresh flower. Among the interesting foreign plants, is
the Marcgravia nepenthoides, described by Belt in his remarkable
book " The Naturalist in Nicaragua." The flowers of this lofty
climber are disposed in a circle, hanging downwards, like an
inverted candelabrum. From the centre of the circle of flowers
is suspended a number of pitcher-like vessels, which when the
flowers expand, in February and March, are filled with a
sweetish liquid. This liquid attracts insects, and the insects
numerous insectiverous birds, including many kinds of humming
birds.
The flowers are so disposed, with the stamens hanging
downwards, that the birds, to get at the pitchers, must brush
against them, and thus convey the pollen from one plant to
another.
This writer also describes the curious bull's horn thorn. It
is a species of acacia, belonging to the section Gummiferce^
growing to the height of fifteen or twenty feet. The branches
and trunk are covered with strong curved spines, set in pairs,
from which it receives the name of the bull's horn thorn, they
having a very strong resemblance to the horns of that quadruped.
These thorns are hollow, and are tenanted by ants, that make
a small hole for their entrance and exit near one end of the
thorn, and also burrow through the partition that separates the
two horns ; so that the one entrance serves for both.
20 Inaugural Addi'ess by the President.
Here they rear their young, and in the wet season every one
of the thorns is tenanted ; and hundreds of ants are to be seen
running about, especially over the young leaves. If one of them
be touched or a branch shaken, the little ants {Pseudomyrma
hicolor Guer.) swarm out from the hollow thorns, and attack
the aggressor with jaws and sting. These ants form a most
efficient standing army for the plant, which prevents not only
the mammalia from browsing on the leaves, but delivers it
from the attacks of a much more dangerous enemy — the leaf
cutting ants. For these services the ants are not only securely
housed by the plant, but are provided with a bountiful supply
of food ; and to secure their attendance at the right time and
place, this food is so arranged and distributed as to effect that
object with wonderful pertection. The leaves are bi-pinnate.
At the base of each pair of leaflets, on the mid-rib, is a
crater-formed gland, which, when the leaves are young, secrets
a honey-like liquid. Of this the ants are very fond ; and they
are constantly running about from one gland to another to sip
up the honey as it is secreted. But this is not all ; there is
a still more wonderful provision of more solid food. At the
end of each of the small divisions of the compound leaflet there
is, when the leaf first unfolds, a little yellow fruit-like body
united by a point at its base to the end of the pinnule.
Examined through a microscope, this little appendage looks a
golden pear. When the leaf first unfolds, the little pears are
not quite ripe, and the ants are continually employed going
from one to another, examining them.
When the ant finds one sufficiently advanced, it bites the
small point of attachment ; then, bending down the fruit-like
body, it breaks it off and bears it away in triumph to the nest.
All the fruit-hke bodies do not ripen at once, but successively,
so that the ants are kept about the young leaf for sometime
after it unfolds.
Thus the young leaf is always guarded by the ants ; and no
caterpillar or larger animal could attempt to injure them
without being attacked by the little warriors. These facts
Inaugural Address by the President. 21
seem to show that the ants are really kept by the acacia as a
standing army, to protect its leaves from the attacks of
herbiverous mammals and insects.
. hark ! how blythe the throstle sings !
He, too, is no mean preacher ;
Come forth into the light of things ;
Let Nature be your teacher.
She has a world of ready wealth,
Our minds and hearts to bless —
Spontaneous wisdom breathed by health,
Truth breathed by cheerfulness.
One impulse from a vernal wood
May teach you more of man,
Of moral evil and of good.
Than all the sages can.
Sweet is the lore which Nature brings j
Our meddling intellect
Misshapes the beauteous forms of things j —
We murder to dissect.
Enough of Science and of Art ;
Close up those barren leaves ;
Come forth, and bring with you a heart,
That watches and receives. — JVordsivortk, 1798.
22
iith December^ 1898.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P., President in the Chair.
REFUSE DISPOSAL AND SEWAGE PURIFICATION,
By W. Chambers.
{Abstract^)
From an economic standpoint, much of the rubbish of to-day
is quite unessential and due to habits of wastefulness, which
will doubtless be corrected as education advances and science
works out her destiny. It may be considered under four
divisions : —
1. Road scrapings, which are comparatively harmless
2. Stable manure, abattoir and fish offal, all containing good
manurial properties.
3. Refuse from household operations, constituting legitimate
sewer matters.
4. Dustbin and market refuse, of which our urban population
contributes, it is estimated, about six million tons per annum ;
that can only be disposed of in one way to satisfy the require-
ments of public health, viz. : destruction by burning. A
destructor furnace reduces all organic matter to its component
gases, and by a system (illustrated on the diagram) they are
rendered odourless and innoxious. The resultant heat is
utilised in boilers of large size, having supplementary fire grates
to augment the power, and so make it available for generating
current for tramway traction, at a cost of less than one penny
Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification. 23
per B.T.U. The Corporations of St. Helens and Llandudno
are arranging to use current from their destructor stations for
working the tramways, and at Bradford electric current is
supplied to the tramways at one penny per B.T.U. , and at that
price yields a profit of 25 per cent. This question has an
important bearing on the economic and efficient administration
of municipal matters. At St. Helens the Corporation are
laying and equiping a network of tramways, leasing them to
a private company, and supplying current at a nominal price,
to enable a large scattered industrial population to have rapid
communication at cheap fares. Professor Forbes estimates
ashbin refuse to contain 50 per cent, breeze and cinders, 25 per
cent, incombustible matter, and 25 per cent moisture. The
non-combustible elements, chiefly mineral, leave the furnace in
the form of hard clinker, which is perfectly innocuous and
serviceable for concrete, mortar, and — when mixed with a
proportion of fine dust from the flues together with cement —
can be formed into paving slabs, both they and the mortar
being produced at a cheap rate, and adding to the profit
bearing revenue derived from destructor stations. From an
economic standpoint water-carriage for sewage is a wasteful
system, as Sir William Crookes estimates this national loss to
the soil of nitrogen, phosphates, and potash at ^16,000,000 per
annum.
Sewage purification involves biological problems, and in a
great measure it is due to the researches of Mr. S. R. Lowcock,
Mr. W. E. Adeney, and Mr. Donald Cameron that general
acceptance is given to the idea that bacteria are the scavengers
of nature. Dead organic matter is perpetually undergoing
decomposition into the gaseous and saline compounds that, in
the economy of nature, go to sustain vegetable life, this
decomposition being brought about by the agency of micro-
organisms of various kinds, which may be either putrefactive
or by oxidation, the latter being the work of those healthy
micro-organismal scavengers that cover the whole surface of
the earth, and without whose beneficient work all terrestrial
life, vegetable and animal alike, would cease to be.
24 Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification.
In the system originated by Mr. Adeney the polluted liquid
sewage, after separation of solid matter, is reduced to simple
substances by micro-organisms, the process being facilitated by
the introduction of materials into a series of tanks for main-
taining a healthy condition of the microbes, the operations
being continued until the fluid is sufficiently purified to enable
it to be safely discharged into any ordinary outfall.
The septic system is of a different character, and is difi"erenti-
ated from the previous process by encouraging putrefaction of
the solid elements in sewage. It is an accepted dictum that
"the tendency of nature is to return to the status quo,'' and the
modern science of bacteriology teaches that if seriously pol-
luted water is given sufficient time and oxygen, it will be
changed back to a wholesome fluid. Mr. H. E. P. Cottrell
states that water bacteria consume all substances that are
eatable, including putrefying matter, the germs and spores of
other bacteria, and even each other. A lack of food produces a
curious phenomenon : the dead bodies of myriads of deceased
generations which preceded them exert a toxic effect, by
which the living are quickly exterminated, and the water
becomes sterilized.
Mr. Cameron proves that the disappearance of solids in
sewage is due to micro-organisms feeding on the organic matter
which they exude in a simpler and liquid form ; this action
taking place in a closed tank. The fluid is then subjected to
filtration and a clear effluent obtained.
Sewage farming offers three great advantages : — i. The
effluent is thoroughly purified, 2. A profitable agricultural
return is ensured. 3. Under proper management the public
health is not endangered. These essentials are not easily
realised owing to the difficulty of obtaining suitable land near
large cities, but farming may be used as an adjunct to any
sewage scheme for utilizing the resultant sludge. Chemical
precipitation has now been in constant operation for over thirty
years, and is a ready process for effecting a clear affluent. It
involves the use of collecting tanks, which, however, can be
Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification. 25
emptied at any time, so that the process is a continuous one.
In dealing with a large quanity of sewage there is necessarily a
considerable deposit of solid matter, commonly called sludge,
and its ultimate disposal involves careful consideration. Practical
science is at fault in not determining its utilization as manure.
It can be applied to raise the level of low-lying lands which can
be afterwards cultivated with advantage, or carried away and
dumped into the sea, or pressed, to remove the surplus water)
and then burnt in destructor furnaces. The mal-odorous
condition of the fore shore of Belfast Lough demands that the
sewage should be treated so as to produce a clear effluent. So
far back as 1866 Mr. Montgomery, the then Borough Surveyor,
considered it to be essential to his able and comprehensive
Main Drainage Scheme to prevent any pollution to the shores
of the Lough. Had that proposal been carried out as intended
22 years ago, there can be no reasonable doubt that the surface
soil of our city would have been free from the disease germs
that now render some portions of the city unhealthy.
The adoption of a clarification process requires that the
collecting tanks be fitted with a stirring apparatus to thoroughly
mix the chemicals used for precipitation of the solid matter.
The direct result of such mixture is that the solid particles are
thrown into a flocculent state, permeating the entire contents
of the tank, which gradually settle down, leaving the liquid
clear and innoxious. The chemical combinations necessary to
produce this hygienic effect are prepared chiefly from iron
oxide, alumina, and lime. All these exist in immense quanti-
ties in our own immediate neighbourhood, and under these
favourable local conditions it follows that the cost of precipitat-
ing materials should be cheaper here than in any other part of
the United Kingdom.
Refuse disposal and sewage purification are pregnant with
possibiUties for our material welfare. The destructor, while
absolutely destroying those germs of evil that are the accom-
paniments of disease, will furnish the power for locomotion,
lighting, or other useful purposes. A precipitation process
l6 /Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification.
furnishes plant nourishment from its residuals, and at the same
time confers the beneficent result of a comparatively pure
effluent from the sewer outfall, and so contribues to the public
weal by establishing a thorough sanitary system.
Mr. R. M. Young, B.A., M.R.I. A. (Hon. Secretary), an-
nounced that letters of apology for non-attendance had been
received from Professor Letts, Messrs. H. H. M-Neilt, D.L.,
Parkmount ; Thomas Andrews, J.P. ; and John Lanyon, C.E.
Mr. Young read the following letter from Prof. Letts : —
"Dear Mr. Young, — I very much regret that owing to
another engagement I shall not be able to have the pleasure
of attending the meeting on Tuesday evening and of listening
to what will, I am sure, prove a most interesting paper. It
comes at a very opportune time, for, as you are aware, we who
live on the shores of the lough suffer from a nuisance which at
times is well nigh intolerable, and which we are convinced is
caused almost entirely by the discharge of the untreated
sewage of the city of Belfast into the lough. I say almost
entirely, because we do not deny that small quantities of
sewage are discharged from the villages on the lough shores,
but it must be recollected that a large proportion of this
sewage is from cesspools, and is theretore free from solids — a
very important distinction between it and the Belfast sewage,
which runs bodily into the lough, solids and all.
" The deputation which waited upon the City Council last
Friday was gratified to learn from the Lord Mayor that some-
thing would have to be done in a comprehensive way as
regards the whole subject of the disposal of the Belfast sewage,
but it was by no means so satisfactory to hear that nothing
could attempted until the Royal Commission on Sewage
Disposal, which is now sitting, had furnished its report. This
may take a long time, and the questions arise — (i) Can we
afford to wait so long? and (2) Is there any necessity for the
delay ?
Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification, 27
"There are three, and only three, alternative methods for
the disposal of the Belfast sewage I believe, viz. : (i) irrigation ;
(2) the construction of a main sewer to Blackhead, or at all
events to some spot on the coast where the sewage would be
swept out to sea by the turn ocean tide ; and (3) chemical
treatment.
" Of these three the conditions for the first are so unsuitable
that there is no chance of its being adopted, while the cost of
the second would, I understand, place it out of the question.
This leaves the third as alone within the range of practical
politics. If that is the case can anything be gained by a delay
in executing the necessary works and in immediately starting
some precipitation process ?
"I do not think that the local conditions require any very
elaborate treatment of the sewage, because it is not a question
of running the effluent into a river or watercourse, but into a
shallow-sea lough, where a large aerating surface exists quite
sufficient, I believe, to cope with the dissolved organic matter
which would remain after the employment of any of the
present precipitation processes.
" One of the chief advantages of the immediate adoption of a
precipitation process would be that the effluent could be run off
at any time of the tide, and not as at present (under the Main
Drainage Act) during a restricted interval which I am told
is impossible frequently. — Yours, &c., E. A. Letts."
The Chairman then called for discussion, and said he would
ask Mr. John Macllwaine to open the discussion on Mr.
Chambers's able paper.
Mr. MacIlv^^aink said they were much obliged to Mr. Chambers
for the most interesting paper he had read. He (Mr.
Macllwaine) could offer nothing but friendly criticism on the
paper. He knew something about combustion, and, judging
the paper from that part of the subject with which he (Mr.
Macllwaine) was famihar, he would say that the other part wag
all right. They owed a debt of gratitude to their American
cousins for having, after twenty years' experience, brought
28 Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification.
electric lighting and electric traction to perfection, and he
thought the time had come when they in this country might
profit by that experience, and go in at once for electric tram-
ways and electric lighting.
Mr. Otto Jaffe, J.P., T.C., said that, speaking as a Town
Councillor, he was in the unfortunate position of not being a
member of either the Improvement Committee or the Public
Health Committee, but perhaps he had the advantage of being
able to speak more freely about the subject. He might say
that the Town Council had decided to adopt refuse destructors,
and the only question at issue was what was the best kind of
destructor to get ? The deputation that had visited various
centres in England in connection with the subject had not yet
made up their minds on that point, but he believed they were
gradually coming to a decision. He might say that the
destructors at first would not be put up at the electric station,
but would be erected at the outfall pumping station, where the
power could be used in the pumping. Mr. (Chambers had
estimated the amount of the refuse at 30,000 tons per year, but
he (Mr. Jaffe) understood that, with road scrapings, the refuse
amounted to loo.coo tons a year, and the plant which the
Corporation would put down would deal with the destruction
of one-fourth of that quantity. Some people condemned the
main drainage system, but, as the Lord Alayor had told the
deputation at the last meeting of the Corporation, there was no
doubt that when the present system was put down it was done
under the best technical advice of the time. If the citizens
agitated he was quite sure that the Corporation would see its
way very soon to chemically precipitate the sewage at the out-
fall station. There was no doubt that when the main drainage
scheme was designed it was assumed that the sewage would
run further into the tidal part of the lough than it did now.
In other words, the tide brought it back sooner and nearer
than was anticipated. He feared that Mr. Chambers's estimate
of ^'4,500 a year as the cost of precipitating the sewage was
one-half lower than the actual cost would be ; for he (Mr. Jaffe)
Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification. 29
believed that if an expenditure of ;^4,5oo a year would purify
the sewage of Belfast it would not be necessary to call on the
liberaHty of the Council at all — they would vote that sum with
the greatest of pleasure in two minutes. And when the proper
time came he believed the Council would not hesitate about
voting four or five or six times the amount mentioned for the
purpose referred to.
Professor Fitzgerald said he had listened to the paper with
great satisfaction, and admired the practical way in which Mr.
Chambers had attacked his subject, and treated it in general.
He (the Professor) took it they did not want particularly any
wonderful plan, with elaborate chemicals, much machinery, and
so-forth, which was to produce an affluent that could be put
into a small stream, the size, for instance, of the Dodder, near
Dublin. What they wanted was a simple precipitation plan,
which would render the sewage matter sufficiently innocuous to
be put safely into the lough, and unlikely to lead to the
accummulation of sludge banks, which seemed to be certainly
going on now in a way very much analogous to what began to
be noticeable in the Thames about the year 1872, and the
result of which was that the London sewage had to be precipi-
tated, and the sludge taken out to sea as it was now. With
regard to the use of the destructor, and the advantage of
utilising the heat, he thought the destructor which Mr.
Chambers had shown them was an extremely well-designed
one, but in spite of Edinburgh, he had not been converted to
the belief that there was really anything to be got out of the
utilisation of the heat in the way of raising steam.
Dr. St. George (Lisburn) favourably criticised the paper.
He said that in Lisburn they laboured under difficulties some-
what similar to those in Belfast with reference to the disposal
of sewage. They discharged the sewage into the River Lagan
— but they did not want to make it a gigantic cesspool arty
longer, and they had now a Bill before Parliament to get their
sewerage system into a better state.
Alderman James Dempsey spoke of the absolute necessity of
3© Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification.
destroying the sewage by either a burning process or taking
out to sea in barges, and the latter method was said to be
attended with danger, considering the state of the weather at
certain periods. The question of precipitating the sewage
matter was a much more serious one than that of erecting a
destructor. The erection of a destructor was within measurable
distance, and the precipitating business must come within
measurable distance also.
Mr. F. D Ward, J.P., said he had visited Paris ten or twelve
years ago, and a friend had brought him to see the wonderfully
complete system of sewerage that existed in that city. All the
sewage went into a river, and this river ran through a district
where there was a wonderful irrigation farm, and here the
water came out perfectly pure, as he (Mr. Ward) could testify
by having tasted it. He would like to hear from the lecturer
whether the system of Paris had been improved or not since
the time he referred to.
Mr. Conway Scott, Executive Sanitary Officer, disagreed
with Mr. Chambers's estimate of is. 6d. per ton for carting
rubbish to burn in the destructors. He did not believe the
work could be done for that. The sludge was comparatively
worthless — it was the liquid form of sewage that supplied plant
life — and the sludge of London sewage was so valueless that
they towed it out into the channel and dumped it into the sea.
He thought the real question was how to get rid of it in the
cheapest possible way. He also disagreed with Mr. Chambers
about the power to be obtained from the destructor. While
he admitted there was power to be gained, the citizens need
not imagine that the rates would be reduced immediately by
the introduction of electric lights and electric trams through
the power derived from destructors. There was no doubt that
sewage could be purified, but it was all a question of expense.
The reason the Corporation did not purify the sewage was
because it was a matter of ^ s d, and that appealed to the rate-
payers.
Mr. MuNCE, Assistant City Surveyor, said that Mr. Chambers
Refuse Disposal and Sewage FurificaHon. 3 1
spoke of 6,000,000 gallons of sewage having to be dealt with
every day in Belfast, but the usual amount was about 12,000,000
gallons daily, and very often it was much more, so that Mn
Chamber's estimate of the cost fell far short of the mark.
Mr. Chambers, in replying to the various speakers, said that
in estimating ;^4,5oo a year as the cost of precipitating the
sewage he only meant the cost of the materials to be employed,
without reference to labour, but the latter was a small item.
The cost of precipitation depended upon the quantity of
materials used and the degree of excellence of the resulting
effluent. As to the sludge, it could be used for reclaiming land,
or it could be used on sewage farms, or dumped into the sea.
Paris did not come within the scope of his paper, but, as they
all knew, it was a model sewage farm that was in the village
outside the French capital. With regard to the destructor, he
believed the mere work of burning could be done for the
amount he had stated, but the wages bill and other charges
would increase it. He was surprised at the figures given by
Mr. Munce as to the quantity of sewage matter daily. He (Mr.
Chambers) took the population of Belfast at 300,000, including
the added area, and, allowing 30 gallons per head, which was
the general estimate, that would give 9,000,000 gallons per day.
But, as the whole of the area was not included in the main
drainage scheme, he deducted one-third, and that gave his
figures 6,000,000 gallons.
32
I2)th December, 1898.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P., President, in the Chair.
THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE BY BACTERIA.
By Arthur J. Martin, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.
(Abstract.)
I CANNOT pass on to the special side of my subject without first
referring briefly to the nature and properties of sewage, as a
proper understanding of these is absolutely necessary for the
comprehension of a process of purification. There is often a
disposition to regard sewage as consisting, either wholly or in
great part, of excremental matter. This is very far from being
the case. There are, for instance, many towns in the North of
England where the excreta are dealt with on the dry-earth or
privy system, and do not find their way into the sewers ; but
in such cases, as the Rivers Pollution Commissioners have
shown, the sewage differs very slightly in composition and
strength from that of water-closeted towns, in which the whole
of the excrement is admitted to the sewers.
Fresh sewage is generally comparatively free from smell ; but
when it has lain about for any length of time, as it does in the
depressions of badly-laid sewers, it often becomes exceedingly
offensive. In other words, it begins to decompose. This
process of decomposition serves a definite purpose of supreme
importance in the economy of nature. The materials which
are suitable as food for the vegetable and animal world exist in
extremely limited quantities, and must therefore be used over
and over again. But the refuse of animal life has to be
The Piirificahon of Sewage by Bacteria. 33
prepared for the plants before they can feed upon it. This all-
important work is performed by myriads of unpaid scavenorers,
whose existence was not even suspected until late in the
seventeenth century. They are so tiny that it required the
powerful microscopes of the present day to make them, visible
at all ; they are known as " bacteria " or more familiarly as
" microbes." There are other low forms of life which bear a
part with them ; but it will simplify our task to-night if we
confine ourselves to bacteria and their work. It is they who
seize on the foul matter given off by the animal world, and
bring it into such a condition that it can support vegetable life.
This work is accomplished in at least two stages. The products
of animal life become first of all the prey of the decomposition
moulds and bacteria, whereby they are converted into the
various products of decomposition, such as ammonia and nitrites.
These, again, are seized upon by the other workers, which it is
convenient to classify as nitrifying bacteria, and converted by
them into nitrates, which I need hardly remind you, are among
the most valuable of our artificial fertilisers.
As I shall point out later, the decomposition moulds and
bacteria are made use of in the septic tank to break down the
polluting matter of sewage ; and the work of purification is
completed by the nitrifying bacteria in the filters.
When the sewage problem first began to make itself felt, the
eyes of sanitary authorities turned hopefully towards sewage
farms. They expected not only to get rid of their sewage, but
also to derive a profit from its utilisation on the land. 'I he
creed of many sanitarians was summed up in the phrase *• The
rainfall to the river, the sewage to the land." These hopes
were, in nearly every instance, doomed to be blasted. In all
but a very small minority of instances, where local circumstances
were exceptionally favourable, the sewage farm has turned out
a source of 1 ss instead of profit ; and in too many cases it has
completely failed to purify the sewage. Often enough it has
proved to be an unmitigated nuisance. The reason for this is
not far to seek. Land is undoubtedly the natural receptacle
3
34 The Purification of Sewage bv Bacteria.
for the refuse of the animal world ; and, if we were content to
live the life of the primitive man. we might safely throw upon
the soil the duty of dealing with our leavings. But it does not
follow that this is the natural \v2.y to deal with town sewage.
It is not a natural state of things to concentrate the excrement
of several thousand people upon a few acres of land. It is still
less a natural proceeding to swamp this land daily with several
thousands of tons of dirty water in addition. It is because we
do these things that nature rebels, and our sewage farms turn
out failures. The successful purification of sewage by means of
land, day in and day out throughout the year, demands far
larger areas than are generally available. And, what is not less
important, the task requires skilled management of a high
order, which it is hard to find, and still harder to induce a
sewage committee to pay for. We are therefore thrown back
on what are called " artificial '' processes of sewage purification.
For many years attempts have been made to solve the
diflBculty by means of strainers, followed by chemical precipita-
tion. This process, when properly carried out, does undoubtedly
remove from sewage the larger proportion of the suspended
impurities, that is to say, of the solid matter visible to the eye,
as well as part of the dissolved polluting matter. But the
suspended matters are not got rid of by precipitation : they are
merely thrown down as sludge. Great expectations were at
one time entertained of the manurial value of sewage sludge ;
but here again the hopes formed have been doomed to
disappointment ; and in most cases the cost of disposing of this
embarrassing substance adds very largely to the expense of
dealing with the sewage.
The capability of filters, when properly handled, to deal with
the liquid portion of sewage has long been recognised. It
remained to find an effective and inexpensive means of preparing
sewage for filtration by freeing it from its suspended solids, and
of grappling with the sludge difficulty. Among others whose
duties brought them face to face with this problem was the
City Surveyor of Exeter, Mr. Donald Cameron. After many
The Furificatioii of Seivage by Bacteria. 35
years of study and research Mr. Cameron came to the con-
clusion that the polluting matter of sewage might be so changed
as to be rendered harmless solely by the operation of natural
agencies, provided that these were properly directed and con-
trolled. The outcome of his work in this direction is the septic
tank, which is probably known by name, at least, to most of
those present.
The septic tank and filters at Belleisle have now been dealing
for more than two years with the sewage of St. Leonards, a
suburb of the city of Exeter, having a population of about 1,500.
The sewage is turned without any screening or preliminary
treatment into the septic tank, in which the solid matter is
retained, the clear water then being drawn off between the
scum on the surface and the heavy deposit which lies at the
bottom of the tank.
If we did nothing more than arrest the solid matter of the
sewage, we should still be confronted with the difficulty of
getting rid of the sludge. But, fortunately, sewage contains
within itself the seeds of its own destruction. Dr. Poore,
among others, has drawn attention to the fact that excrement
simply teems with bacteria. Under the conditions provided in
the septic tank, these tiny scavengers attack the impurities of
the sewage, and gradually resolve them into simpler and
simpler forms. The scum which covers the surface is full of
bacteria, and serves as the " barm " so to speak, which sets up
the fermentation or decomposition by which the solid matter
is eventually broken down.
As the outcome of these operations we get an effluent
practically free from solid matter, and showing a marked
purification even as regards the impurities in s(jlution.
Among the final products of the decomposition which takes
place in the septic tank, are marsh gas and free hydrogen, both
of which are highly inflammable gases. The flame from these
gases, though a very hot one, is not luminous ; but it becomes
so by the aid of an incandescent mantle. For some months
past the works at Exeter have been lighted at night with the
gases generated in the tank.
36 The Pzirification of Setvage by Bacteria.
During the preliminary decomposition in the septic tank, it
was important to exclude oxygen as far as possible ; but having
brought the solids into solution, it becomes necessary to oxidise
them ; and this process requires the free access of air.
Accordingly the effluent, after flowing through an aerator,
passes into the filters, in which the work of oxidation is chiefly
accomplished. This duty, like the preliminary liquefaction of
the solids in the tank, is the work of bacteria ; but the workers
in the filters, unlike those in the tank, which only thrive in the
absence of air, require a plentiful supply of oxygen to enable
them to perform their functions. Each filter therefore is
first filled, then allowed to rest full for a certain time, then
emptied, and finally left to drain and aerate. In this way the
nitrifying bacteria obtain the necessary supply of oxygen. The
need for constant attention is done away with by means of an
alternating gear, which automatically opens and closes the
valves in their proper order. The works are thus rendered
completely automatic, and one man, visiting ihem for a few
minutes on two or three days per week, is able to give all the
attention which the}' ordinarily require. The filtered effluent
from these works has been examined at various times by many
of ihe foremost chemists in the kingdom, and found to be of a
high quality and perfectly inoffensive ; and it remains so when
kept for any length of time.
A marked characteristic of works on this system is their entire
freedom from nuisance. At Exeter there is a good house with-
in seventy yards of the works, and three other high-class
residences within two or three hundred yards. At the Local
Government Board Inquiry held at Exeter with reference to
the scheme for laying down tanks and filters for the whole
city, there was not one word of opposition thereto, although
the new works will be some thirty times as large as the in-
stallation already laid down, and right under the windows of
these houses.
At Yeovil there is a factory within three paces of the works,
and the proprietors state that they have never experienced any
The Fiirification of Sewage by Bacteria. 37
nuisance therefrom. A doubt has often been expressed whether
the system would be as successful in dealing with sewage
strongly charged with manufacturing refuse as it is with an
ordinary domestic sewage ; but this has now been completely
demonstrated at Yeovil with a sewage which is pronounced by
competent judges to be one of the foulest in England.
There is one function of sewage works which must not be
overlooked. The bacteria which bring about the decomposition
of sewage matter are the sworn foes of disease germs ; and it is
by their means that the ravages of disease are kept within
bounds. In the septic tank, and again in the filters, any disease
germs which the sewage contams are systematically exposed to
the attack of their deadly enemies, first of one kind, then of
another. The works thus furnish an efficient safeguard against
the propagation of disease by the sewage with which they are
dealing.
Professor Redfkkn, in proposing a vote of thanks to the
lecturer, said Mr. Martin's discourse had been so lucid and able
on the new method of sewage treatment, that everyone who
had thought anything on the matter should be deeply interested.
The world seemed to have come to a general conclusion that
bacteria did nothing but mischief, but Mr. Martin had shown
that they were the great scavengers of eflfete matter, and played
an important part in the economy of nature. Belfast had been
recently visited by a typhoid epidemic, but so had other towns
and cities, and that ought to be remembered when the present
outcry was raised. The lecturer had shown — and he (Professor
Redtern) was prepared to believe it — that these bacteria
destroyed the solid matter in sewage. Exeter had already
shown in this matter of sewage purification what could be done
on a small scale, and they all looked forward with great zest to
its showing them the way in what could be done on a large
scale in this very important matter.
Mr. J. W. GiLLiLAND, C.E., seconded the vote of thanks. He
said that a sewage farm, which system seemed to find favour
with some, was quite impracticable for a large city like Belfast,
38 The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria.
as the area required would be about 3,000 acres , and chemical
precipitation he did not favour. because it left the sludge question
undealt with, which was the bete noir of sanitary engineers.
The question of the disposal of the sludge had practically
sounded the death knell of chemical precipitation as a means
of purifying sewage. '1 here was. then, only left the bacterial
method, which the septic tank treatment carried out. They in
Belfast therefore should not be any longer lax in this matter,
but should benefit by the able lecture they had heard from Mr.
Martin and see that the sewage of the city should not be any
longer discharged in a crude state into Belfast Lough. The
question of the purification of the sewage was, as has been said,
one of _^ s d ; but the septic tank treatment was merely one of
first cost, with practically a minimum of working expense after-
wards, the system being automatic.
Dr. St. Gkorge (Lisburn), after complimenting Mr. Mai tin
on the clearness of his lecture, said that dirt was only matter in
a wrong place, and that sewage only was a nuisance and
required to be grappled with on acccount of the aggregation ot
people in towns, therefore the disposal of it (sewage) by nature's
methods was at once the simplest, the cheapest, and the best.
The sooner the public could be made to understand that
Bacteria were not all raging lions ready to prey on the human
race the better, but that even bacteria had their part in the
cycle of nature, acting and reacting, each in its proper sphere.
There seemed no manner of doubt that the septic tank
system fulfilled this, and from personal observation during
August, 1897, ^s ^^'^s prepared to support all that had been
said by the lecturer. The other systems he had visited first'
screened their sewage, none admitting raw sewage in the true
sense of the word. The chemical precipitation left enormous
quantities of sludge to be disposed of, which was valueless as
manure, being deprived of nearly all its nitrogen. Then the
initial cost being the only expense was a very considerable
factor for the system, one labourer being sufficient to look after
the works. The effluent having no chemicals, solution could
The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria. 39
be freely discharged into any stream without fear of damage,
and the sample to be shown by Dr. Jefferson, M.O.H for
Lisburn, taken August, i''^97, showed no signs of change or
decomposition at that time.
Dr. Jkffflrson (Lisburn) said — Mr. Chairman, I can add very
little to what Dr. St. George has said, but shall, with your
permission, read a few notes I took when examining the
different schemes. Tn the universal system at Ilkeston there is
an Ives Settling Tank, the sludge is pumped out night and
morning with a gas engine, and during this operation gives off
a most offensive smell. The effluent is very cloudy, and gives
off a strong smell of sewage. The International at Hendon has
a Candy's Patent Sludge Removal Apparatus. There is an
enormous quantity of sludge, viz. — 1,300 tons for a population
of 14,500. The treatment and disposal of the sewage cost
_^979 17s. 7d. for years iy96-i8g7. In the above systems
chemicals are used. The solids are screened, raked out every
hour, carted away and buried. The Hendon authorities were
threatened with an action by the River Conservators for
pollution of the river Brent, on account of the reaction that
occurred when chemicals are used. The following are, in my
opinion, the advantages of the Exeter system, viz. — i, no
screening ; 2, no chemicals, and consequently no reaction in
rivers ; 3, no expensive machineiy, it is automatic ; 4, working
expenses very light, a man about an hour two days in the week
would be quite sufficient ; 5. very little sludge, which would
not require removal for several years ; 6, effluent very good, no
smell whatever, and may be discharged into a river without
further treatment of any sort.
Mr. Peddie (Belfast) was in favour of the system, and showed
that there would be a great saving in both the initial expense
and also in the upkeep of this system, as compared with the one,
that had been promoted for Armagh.
Mr. MuN'CE, Assistant City Surveyor, Belfast, said he had
from the first formed a good opinion of the septic tank system,
and he believed the precipitation idea was dead, because the
40 The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria.
cost of disposing of the sludge completely barred its adoption
in any large town.
Mr. J. Brown said he had listened to the paper with great
interest, an interest enhanced by his long acquaintance with
the inventor of the Septic Tank System, Mr. Donald Cameron,
for whom he had the highest regard. He believed that any-
thing recommended by Mr. Cameron would merit their most
careful consideration.
Mr. Martin then acknowltdged the vote of thanks, and
replied briefly to questions which had been asked during the
discussion. He concluded by thanking the Chairman for
presiding.
41
wth January^ 1899.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J. P., President, in the Chair.
THE VJAGRAPH, A NEW INSTRUMENT FOR
TESTING KOAD SURFACES.
By J. Bkown.
{Abstract.)
It is almost needless to refer to the importance to all classes
of the public highways, or to the necessity of good roads for the
purposes of that commerce which is the mainstay of our empire
and of our power as a nation, and which depends for its
existence on the interchange of commodities. In England the
need of good roads has been long recognised. In Ireland there
is still much room for improvement. Those who have become
acquainted with the highways in both countries, either by
cycling or driving over them, tell us there is a vast difference,
that the worst road in England, for instance, is better than the
best in Ireland, and so on ; and they endeavour to convey
some idea from their observations of the comparative qualities.
Till now, however, no means existed of making an accurate
comparison, of telling how much and in what way English or
foreign roads were better than ours. It was in the hope of
providing such means, and thereby attempting to convince our
local authorities of the great need of improvement, that the
viagraph has been designed.
The viagraph consists practically of a straight edge applied
continuously to to the road surface along which it may be
drawn, and conveying an apparatus for (ist) recording on paper
42 Ihe Viagraph.
a profile of the road-surface, and (2nd) indicating a numerical
index of the unevenness of the surface. These taken together
give a quite fair estimate of the qu:ility of the road at the pait
tested.
Fig. I gives a general view of the instrument, the frame of
which is in form like a sled, with straight runners. On this
are mounted the working parts shown in Fig. 2. The lever
T, pivoted to the main frame at H, carries on its free end a
serrated wheel, the upper part of which is seen at V. While
the main frame, in being drawn along the road, preserves a
sufficiently even line, the road wheel V rises and falls over all
the unevennesses of the surface, carrying with it the lever
T, and thereby transmitting its movements by means of the
link and lever S to the pencil P, which marks the full ampli-
tucle of these motions on the paper passing round the drum
A. (In the figure this pencil is raised above its usual position,
from the necessity of raismg the road-wheel V so as to bring
it into view.) While the motion of the pencil takts place in a
vertical direction, the paper on which it marks is carried under
it by the drum A, which is rotated by a worm and wheel below
it connected by a shaft and bevel gear with the road wheel V.
The paper is thus drawn from the stock-roll C, passed under
the pencil and wound up on the receiving-drum B. The
result is a profile of the road surface, of which the scale xi full
size vertically^ and ^in. to \ft. longitiidijially. A second pencil
seen below P draws a datum line corresponding to that which
the indicating pencil P would produce from a perfectly even
road. From this can be measured the depths of the '' ruts ' or
" cups," or other unevennesses indicated on the diagram. The
sum of the depths of all these unevennesses constitutes the
numerical index of unevenness, and is indicated on the decimal
counter W, which is worked as follows : — A cord attached to
the free end of the lever T is passed once round the double-
grooved pulley X, and connected to the stretched rubber band
at O. When the lever T descends, owing to the fall of the
road-wheel V, into a rut or cup in the surface, this cord rotates
^i
.^^P
i
^x
s
GUILDFORD AND LEATHERHEAD ROAD, SURREY
-i\ — ^ \y JVo^
LIVERPOOL AND PRESCOT ROAD
v/p^vv>i?^>d^f
BELFAST AND LISBURN ROAD
The Viagraph. 43
tlie pulley X by the amount of the drop, the rubber band O
stre'ching to allow the necessary movement of the cord.
When the road-wheel and lever rise again the cord slips back
on the pulley, the rubber taking up the slack while the puUty
is held fast by a brake, consisting of a quite similar rubber-
tightened cord attached to a rigid part of the frame instead of
the lever T, and passing round a separate groove on X. The
pulley X therefore rotates intermittently, in one direction only,
to an amount proportionate to the sum of all the unevennesses
passed over, which amount is indicated in inches on the decimal
counter, and constitutes the index of unevenness.
In order to compare the index of one road with another, it is
obviously necessary that the same length of each be taken as a
unit. For this purpose a length of 88 yards, being one-
twentieth of a mile, is convenient, and this is measured in
inches of paper, run off the roll C, proportionate to the scale
arranged. That is to say, when 88 yards of road have been
traversed 33in. of paper will have run off the roll. Each 33in.
length is measured off by the pulley at M in contact with the
stock roll of paper, and at the end of the length it rings the bell
above it, thus indicating that the unit length of road has been
traversed.
In a newer form of the instrument this alarm-bell has been
transferred to the interior of the drum A, thus making it more
simple and compact, and the working parts are protected from
passing showers by a suitable glass case.
A number of diagrams are on the table, showing profiles of
roads in Antrim, Down, Norfolk, Suffolk, Surrey, and
Lancashire taken by myself, also of roads near Exeter, for
which I am indebted to Mr. Donald Cameron, City Surveyor of
that town. Three examples of these profiles are given. Fig.
2. The first is a flint road, once a main coaching route
from London to Portsmouth, and still carrying considerable
heavy traffic. It was selected by the advice of Mr. Shipton,
Secretary Cyclists' Touring Club, as an example of a good bit
of a good English country road. The second is chosen for
44 "Ihe Viagraph.
the special reason that in point of amount and weight of traffic
it may compare with the one below it, our own awful example
of a main road. This last diagram was taken in December near
Lambeg, a part of the road which b.ad been thoroughly coated
with stone and steam-rolled in the previous August, The
Prescot road had also been repaired just about four or five
montlis before this test was taken last May, so that the com-
parison as regards lapse of time since each was repaired is fair.
The diagram of the Prescot road is an average specimen, and
was not taken from the best part of this road. Further
comment on the comparison between these roads is almost
superfluous, but it may be noted that, while the greatest depth
of ruts generally found on these English roads is usually a
fraction of an inch, those on the Lisburn and other Irish main
roads quite commonly exceed i inch in depth, and can easily
be found over 2 inches, as in the diagram above.
The index of unevenness, as measured in the manner described
above for each of the three roads, of which diagrams are here given ,
is as follows : — For the Gilford road the sum of the depths of
ruts is 12 to 14 feet per mile ; for the Prescott road, 42 feet
per mile (an average of all the indications taken) ; for the
Lisburn road in the part here taken, 134 feet per mile.
Besides the discomfort of travelling and the extra wer.r and
tear on vehicles entailed by such roads as this last, there is
another objection distinctly brought out by the viagraph. In
considering the passage over a rough road of a carriage whetl
we may probably assume that there is no impetus gained in
dropping into a rut which is available as a help to rise out c fit
at the other side. We may therefore conclude that the po\.'er
necessary to raise the wheel out of each and every rut mu.t be
supplied from the horse or other tractive force. We may
accordingly take the sum of unevenness as representing in
effect an artificial hill interposed by the badness of the road.
On our Lisburn road, for instance, taking the average sum of
unevenness as ico feet per mile, we have an artificial hill of
that amount in each mile \ consequently any vehicle making
The Viagraph. 45
a ^,0 mile journey on such a road has in effect to climb a hill
(over and above any recognised hills on the road), which is
greater in height than Slieve Donard, and is made up of ruts
alone. A simple calculation shows that if we consider a vehicle
weighing with its load one ton, and travelling at 7 miles per
hour, the extra power required to take it over these ruts is
just over | horse power ; or, if we take as an example of
heavy traffic a weight of 35 cwt., at 3i miles per hour, the extra
power required is just under | horse- power. The same
calculation, applied to the Liverpool and Prescot road gives
about \ horse-power in each case. A comparison therefore
shows that the ruts on the Lisburn road entail either the use
of about half as many more horses than are really needed on
a good road, or a loss to an equivalent amount in speed or in
weight carried.
The instrument here shown, was constructed to my design,
by Mr. Alexander Gass. of College Street South, and is a very
creditable example of finely-executed work. The name of the
workman chiefly employed on it, Alexander Cook, ought also
to be mentioned as having taken great pains in carrying out
the details.
The records of the instrument would be of use to those
criticising the state of the roads in any district, also to surveyors
wishing to test various methods of road maintenance or to
convince their county authorities of the need of improvement
or of the advantages already obtained by a given treatment.
They would also be valuable to cyclists and others desirous of
knowing the condition of the roads in any distant district in
which they proposed to travel.
Having shown that our Irish roads compare so unfavour-
ably with those across the Channel, it may be asked
why, and how can they be improved. Not being an expert in
road management, I feel diffident about saying much on this
question. T would point out, however, that Macadam, the
father of the modern English road, insisted chiefly on three
points — first, thorough drying of the road-bed by underground
46 The Viagrant.
drains or other means ; second, no stone in the road to exceed
60Z. in weight, or, as he sometimes put it, '' any stone you can
put in your mouth may go on the road ;" third, cleanness of
the metal. Now, none of these points appear to be sufficiently
recognised here, while they appear to be still accepted in
England, except of course that Pelford's system of paving the
bottom with large stones first may be use4, instead of the
macadam metalling only. In our neighbourhood the modern
practice seems to omit all subsoil drainage ; consequently all
the evils of wet roads are multiplied, though in our climate
drainage would seem doubly necessary. The grade of road
metal used here would seem to be excessively large. Samples
of stones from English roads are on the table, which weigh
between loz. and 2oz., and measure ifin greatest diameter.
While English engmeers with whom I have spoken seem
to be in doubt whether 2in. or 2|in. metal was best, on
the Lisburn road the stones (specimens of which are shown)
seem to average 3:|-in., and weigh looz. to 150Z., even 4in. to
5in. being not uncommon. A piece of road met^l from the
Malone Road, some distance within the city boundary, is on
the table, measuring siin. long and weighing ilb. 6oz. In
County Down, however, a more reasonable grade of metal is
now observable, and it will be generally admitted that the
roads in that county are at least somewhat smoother than those
in County Antrim This is apparent in the diagrams from the
Belfast and Saintfield Road exhibited. No excuse for bad roads
in the North of Ireland could be offered on account of the
inferiority of the material available. Basalt and eraniie are
both excellent if selected of a tough and wear-resisting quality
— a matter perhaps not always attended to. Basalt metalling
can be delivered in the neighbourhood of Belfast for little more
than 3s per ton, whereas in Cambridge, for example, the
granite metalling is said to cost 25s per ton, and in Lancashire
the broken syenite used on the Prescot Road costs los to 12s
per ton. Referring to the recognised smoothness of the flint
roads in England, such as that shown above, I hope that
The Via graph. aj
some of the road engineers, if present, will say why a similar
smooth and good road for moderate traffic has not been made
here from the abundance of flint now thrown aside as a waste
product in our limestone quarries.
As to cleanness of metal, it would appear from the descrip-
tion of the practice on the Prescot Road, given by its Sur-
veyor (Mr. Gcldsworth), and also from a very well-considered
opinion kindly given ly the Surveyor of County Down, that a
little road scrapings judiciously applied after the first rolling
may be requisite. Too much mud, Mr. Cowan remarks, is a
real fault. If, however, the local authorities do not consider that
the above are the causes of the defects, or if they doubt the
applicability of the English methods to this country, might I
suggest that these be at least tried. Let an experiment on the
most approved lines be earnestly and faithfully carried out,
say, upon loo yards of the Lisburn, the Malone, or any other
of our wretch-ii leading thoroughfares. Once it was understood
what a road might be, we should never permit the present
state of things to occur again.
The Phksid^nt said he was sure they were nil pleased highly
with Mr. Brown's exceedingly interesting lecture. It was
remarkably lucid and clear, and they owed a great deal to Mr.
Brown for the way in which he had brought the subject before
us.
Professor Dougan said he had been much impressed with
• the ingenuity and usefulness of Mr. Brown's invention. The
viagraph gave a very convincing test for any road which anyone
might wish to examine, and it came at a very opportune
moment and should be forced upon the attention of everyone
responsible for the care of our roads. Cyclists took a great
interest in the condition of the roads. It might be supposed
by non-cyclists, who were still a considerable body, that the
cyclist is fastidious ; his tendency to go to the footpath m'ight
blind non-cyclists as to his real character. When the history
of cycling comes to be written it will be seen that the cyclist
is not fastidious, and that the qualities which will be forced
48 The Viagraph.
upon the historian of that movement would be the patience
and moderation of the cvcHst.
The condition of the road, however, was not peculiarly a
matter for the cyclist only, it was a subject which engaged
the attention of every section of the community. The
roads of the country were a distinct portion of the national
wealth, and. moreover, they were not an unproductive portion,
and it was obvious that the more efficient the roads were, the
more valuable they were. They might be sure that visitors to
these parts, whtther British or foreign, when endeavouring to
form an opinion as to the stage in civilisation to which the
people in these districts had attained, would take the quality
of the roads into account. It would be an element in forming
their opinion. Good roads were cheaper to the taxpayer than
bad roads in the long run, and not in the very long run either.
The surface of the roads around Belfast turned to dust in dry,
and mud in wet weather, at a far too rapid rate. He believed
this was due to want of drainage, and if that w-ere so it would
pay the taxpayer to have the roads drained as a fresh start.
The work done by the steam roller did not seem to be as
effective as it ought to be. Many of the roads are dotted with
pools of water. The road from Belfast to Holy wood is a county
road, and it is in this state, though only six weeks ago the
steam-roller passed over it. He thought the new County
Councils should bonow a sufficient sum of money, to put the
roads into perfect order, draining them, and giving them a
proper convexity of surface. That amount the taxpayer would
not have to pay all at once, it would be spread over a few
years.
Mr. John Horner felt that Mr. brown had entered upon a
field of real philanthropy and was bringing before them a tiue
Irish grievance. '1 heir English friends did not suffer in the
same way as the people of Ireland. The apparatus which Mr.
Brown had produced w?s undoubtedly one of very gieat
ingenuity and it opened up a field for investigation as to their
roads in a way which was probably never done before. He
The Viagraph. 49
could not help remarking on the enormous *' ruts'* or indeed
chasms which appeared on the Lisburn road, but if Mr. Brown
were to take his apparatus to the Antrim road it might be
almost swamped in ;ome of the " ruts " there. They should
give Mr. Brown their heartiest thanks for his excellent lecture.
Mr. William Armstrong, speaking as a cyclist, believed the
viagraph would be most valuable in the future. The whole
success of tramway traction was entirely owing to the fact that
the cars had a beautiful level surface to go upon. Cyclists were
an increasing community and had a right to be considered.
In Ireland the roads were tremendously behind what they were
in England and on the Continent, and it would take a con-
siderable time to bring the Irish roads up to what they should
be. He believed that expenditure upon the proper maintenance
of roads was bound to be remunerative. A scientific appliance
like the viagraph would soon speak for itself. He hoped it
would be extensively adopted.
Mr. Stkwart C. Kklly thought the County Antrim roads
had been a glaring eye-sore to a great number of people for a
length of time past, and they seemed to be getting worse
instead of better. It used to be said they were better than
the County Down roads, but now it was the reverse. That he
believed was owing to the amount of scientific knowledge
brought to bear upon the roads in Down by Mr. Cowan,
County Surveyor. (The speaker here produced stones of large
size which he had picked up on some of the County Antrim
roads — the Crumlin, Antrim, and Lisburn Roads). It was
largely owing to the size of the metal used that the roa Is were
getting into such bad form. The County Down roads had
immensely improved during the last few years, and that was to
be attributed to the class of metal Mr. Cowan had been using.
In Antrim an inferior class of metal was used in the city as
well as in the county.
Mr. P. C. Cowan, M. Inst., C.E., Chief Engineering
Inspector to the Local Government Board, Ireland (lately
County Surveyor of Down), said the viagraph must be of great
4
£0 The Viagraph
use in settling the constantly occurring disputes with contractors
for road maintenance. Mr. Brown showed the usual Irish
modesty in attributing the indifferent quality of Irish roads to
want of knowledge, but the real want was money. Too little
was allowed for supervision in Ireland, for example, in County
Down, about _^6o,ooo per annum was spent on roads, bridges,
&c., and only about ^1,500 on the surveyor's staff, including
all travelling expenses. The deficiencies in the County Down
roads were serious on account of very imperfect construction
and long periods of insufficient maintenance, and he did not
see how the roads could be made much better without a very
large expenditure of money. He had lately reported to the
Grand Jury of County Down that to put the 2,500 miles of
roads in the county into really good order, to a not unieason-
able standard, would require an immediate outlay of about
^3,000,000, which, even if the money were borrowed on the
most favourable terms, would raise the county rate to four
times its present figure for a generation. However, such a
sweeping policy was not necessary, and the fact was that most
of the County Down farmers did not seem to want much bettei
roads, and considered any improvement, especially at increased
cost, unnecessary, 'i'imes had not been prosperous with the
farmers for many years, and he thought unless some of the
millions said to be due by England to Ireland could be obtained
for the expenditure on Irish roads, only a very slow rate of
improvement was possible. However, a liking for good roads
was apparently spreading in Ireland, and now that the burden
of road maintenance was partly taken off the landholders by
the new Local Government Act, more money might be granted
for road maintenance. The only way in which Irish roads
might be improved without a greater expenditure would be by
the use of v»'ider tyres on cart wheels, and by regular cutting
down of high hedges. At present the narrow farm cart wheels
cut the weak roads like knives, and it is most difficult to induce
the farmers to keep their hedges low.
Dr. Cecil Shaw spoke of the importance of the road question
The Viagraph. 51
in connection with tourist development. He believed that last
summer a great many more tourists came to Ireland than ever
came before. A great niany of them were cyclists and they
were somewh.-t disgusted with the condition of the roads.
Some declared they would never come back, the roads were in
such a bad state. The Irish roads should be improved so as to
induce the C3'clist to come to the country.
Professor Fitzgerald said Mr. Cowan had spoken of a good
many of the things to which he had intended to refer, concern
ing the condition of our roads, far better than he could have
done. Mr. Cowan mentioned the very heavy expense that
would be required to bring the roads into anything like decent
condition, and it was sufficient to look at Mr. Brown's diagrams
to see how much would have to be done. Those diagrams
were far more eloquent than any words descriptive of the state
of the roads. Mr. Cowan had mentioned ^^3. 000, 000 as the cost
of putting the County Down roads in good condition through-
out. He (Professor FitzGerald) believed that the value to the
county of good roads was so great that that sum of money, if it
were obtainable, would be well spent for the purpose. The
City of Belfast was certainly much to blame for permitting
stones of the size produced to be used ; he had often seen
similar stones on the roads and wondered how they had got
there. He thought Mr. Brown's machine most ingenious and
suggested that Mr. Brown should show, after the lecture, how
thfe machine could be folded up into a reasonable compass.
Twelve feet was, no doubt, an inconvenient length for carriage,
but Mr. Brown had so contrived that the machine would fold up
into half that length.
The Pkesident, while joining in the expressions of thanks to
Mr. Brown for this most interesting paper describing his very
ingenious appliance, said that in reference to the question 'of
road surfaces in Belfast, he thought they should not use square
setts so extensively. In some thoroughfares the noise was so
great that at times nothing else could be heard.
Mr. Brown, in replying, said he agreed very cordially with
$i The Viagraph.
the remarks of Professor Dougan, and desired to thank him, as
also Mr. Horner, Mr. Armstrong, Mr. Cowan, and Professor
FitzGerald, for the approval they had expressed of the subject
of the paper. He was pleased to hear Mr. Kelly confirming his
views regarding road metal, and he felt sure they were all
greatly indebted to Mr. Cowan for his very full and clear
reference to the road question generally. Mr. Cowan was, no
doubt, quite right in advising more effective supervision.
Since, in the paper, a rather pointed comparison had been made
between the Lisburn Road and the Prescot Road showing that
while alike in size, importance, amount of traffic, and subsoil,
they were very different in quality of surface, attention
should be drawn to another point of difference — viz., cost of
repairs. It was stated on the best authority that the Lisburn
Road (buying its metal at, say 4s per ton) cost ^220 per mile
per annum, while the Prescot Road (with metal at los to 12s
per ton) costs X'^° <^rily- Truly a bad road was dearer than
a good one. It might be suggested that the difference in these
items, if capitalized, would put the Lisburn Road in a good
condition to start with. In reference to the difference in
width of Irish cart wheel tyres as compared with English, it
should be pointed out that the loads commonly carted here are
much less than in England. The load per inch width of tyre
was therefore perhaps not very different. While agreeing with
the President as to the discomfort of the noise from our square
setts, Mr. Brown thought one must admit that the smallness
of the tractive force required on square setts is very advan-
tageous. He observed this markedly when driving a motor
car over them.
53
']th February, 1899.
Thk Lord Mayor (Mr. Otto Jaffe, J. P.) in the Chair.
THE BOYNE VALLEY: LPS HISTORY, SCENERY
AND ANTIQUITIES.
Bv S. F. Mii.LiGAN, M.R.I.A.
{Abstract.)
In Ireland the Boyne Valley was the first inhabited terrii< ly,
as well as the seat of central sovereignty for a period of two
thousand years. It has within its borders the richest and most
fertile soil ; its lands have always been eagerly sought after ai d
fought for by every race that landed on our shores. From iis
source in County Kildare to Drogheda, where it empties niio
the Irish Sea, it has a course of seventy miles. It flows through
a level country, beautifully wooded. Its banks are adorned
with memorials of every age — Pagan, Early Christian, Anglo-
Norman, Elizabethan, and modern. It may be necessary heie
to mention that the kingdom of Meath was formed in the first
century of the Christian Era by the King of Ireland, Tuathai
Teachtmar, who took from each of the existing four provinces
a portijn of territory which, put together, formed Meath. The
newly-formed kingdom henceforth was to belong to the Ard
Righ, or Head King, as his special patrimony. Tuathai Teacht-
mar, after a long and prosperous reign, fell in a battle in County
Antrim, and his grave is still pointed out (a Kistvaen), the King
of Ireland's gr.ive on a hill side lying between the village of
Ballynure and Ballyeaston in this county. Meath comprised
the greater part of the English Pale ; was the seat of Anglo-
54 'ihc Boync Valley.
Norman power, as it had previously been of Irish. This unique
and lovel}' vale, so dear to students of Irish history and archae-
ology, is now most accessible from evey part of the British
Isles. Travellers from Belfast or the North proceed to
Drogheda, from whence, in the summer months, there are
public conveyances provided by the Great Northern Railway
Company. The distance from Drogheda to Navan is seventeen
miles, Slane being about midwa}?-, and a convenient resting
place ; Navan to Trim is twelve miles, and from thence to
Clonard fourteen miles, which covers all the points of greatest
interest. The River Blackwater, the ancient Sele, joins the
Boyne at Navan, and in its course of twenty miles from Lough
Ramor, in County Cavan, passes several places of great historic
interest. In sylvan beauty, rare monuments of past ages, and
historic interest, the valley's of the Boyne and Blackwater stand
in the foremost rank of Irish river valleys. Scattered along the
Valley of the Boyne are relics of every age, from the Belgae
or Firbolgs, I, coo B.C., down to the present century — a period
of about 3,000 years. These consist of cairns, cromleachs,
chambered pyramids, pillar stones, kistvsens, souterraines, raths,
duns, lisses, and all classes of earthen forts. Of the early
Christian period, Celtic churches and hermitages, dating from
almost the time of Saint Patrick ; round towers, sculptured
crosses, and moasteries; Anglo-Norman castles in great numbers,
dating from the end of the twelfth century, and other relics of
early Norman power. The Boyne rises at Trinity Well, close
by the village of Carbury, in County Kildare, four miles from the
town of Edenderry. It flows through King's County for a few
miles, next becomes the boundary between Meath and Kildare,
then enters Meath, through which it flows until it empties into
the sea four miles east of Drogheda, as already stated, a total
distance of seventy miles. It receives several rivers in its
course, the principal one being the Blackwater, already
mentioned. Many remarkable events have occurred in the
Boyne Valley, not the least of which was the arrival of St.
Patrick to preach the; Gospel to the King and nobles and
The Boyne Valley. 55
others at the Royal residence of Tara, for he rightly judged if
he converted the chiefs the people would certainly follow. He
came up the Boyne in a coracle similar, I have no doubt, to
those still peculiar to that river. When he reached Slane,
being Easter Eve, he ascended the hill which is the highest
ground in Meath, and lighted his fire, which was distinctly
visible from Tara. The ruins of a monastery now stand on
that hill, and from the top of the church tower a view may be
obtained from the yellow steeple in Trim to the maiden tower
at Drogheda, a view of fully five-and- twenty miles as the crow
flies. Every spot in this extended view is historic ground,
trodden for centuries by kings, and lords, and saintly men, as
well as by all the race of invaders alread}' mentioned. In the
early ages of our era, Con, the hundred fighter, and his grand-
son, Cormac, the son of Art, that chivalrous and wise king and
law-giver, the greatest who reigned at Tara up to his time, and
to whom we shall again refer ; Nial, also of the hostages, the
conqueror of Alba and of Britain, trod this soil, and was finally
assassinated in Gaul, whilst invading that country. In review
ing this remote age, there arises before our mental vision
Leary, son of Niall, Ard Righ, or High King, when Patrick
came, and, though his chief druid and principal nobles embraced
the new faith, Leary, like a stout Pagan which he was, died as
he hid lived, and was buried in the rampart of his own fort on
Tara Hill, in a standing posture, with his great war spear irj
his hand and his face towards Leinster, the territory of his
hereditary enemies. A few centuries later bands of Northern
foreigners might be seen pillaging this same district. The
Annals relate that the caves of Knowth, Dowth, and New
Grange were pillaged by AmlafF, Imar, and Ansilie, three of the
leaders of the Danes or Dublin. We can contemplate another
and a more peaceful scene, one hundred years after King Leary
had been interred. Up the Valley of the Boyne, at Clonai*d,
in the year 520, St. Finnan established a school for the youth
of Erin, which became the most celebrated seat of learning in
the island. He had for pupils men such as St. Columba, St.
56 The Boyne Valley.
Kieran, of Clonmacnois.and St. Brendan, of Clonfert. Columba,
af"ter founding innumerable churches and monasteries, became
the apostle of the Northern Picts ; St. Brendan, it is believed,
preached the Gospel as far as Iceland, and St. Kieran founded
the famous school of Clonmacnois in tlie centre of the island,
near Athlone. From this period and several centuries latei
Ireland was known as the Island of Saint-. So famous was
the great school of Clonard, and so celebrated for its learning,
that pupils flocked to it from Britain, Alba, Gaul, and Germany,
until their numbers, it is said, reached 3,000. The village of
Clonard, the site of this ancient seat of learning, is the first
historic place of importance coming down the river from its
source. A Round Tower formerly stood here, but it is recorded
in the Annals that in the year lo^Q the steeple of Clonard fell.
A great loss, not alone to Clonard, but to the entire country,
was the destruction by fire in 1 143 of the library of the
monastery, in which a great number of manuscripts were con-
sumed. Clonard passed through many vicissitudes of fortune.
Dermot MacMorrough and his English allies plundered it in
the year 1170. When the Anglo-Normans took possession
they superseded the Irish monks by countrymen of their own.
Simon de Rochford assumed the title of Bishop of Meath, and
removed the Episcopal chair from Clonard to Newton, near
Trim, where he founded the great Augustinian abbey dedicated
to St. Peter and St. Paul, the ruins ot which form a notable
picture there to the present day. The great monasteries of
this period were so constructed that they could be used for
purposes of defence, and were loopholed for bowmen. The
Abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul, at Newton, is remarkable
in this respect. Ath Truim (Ford of the Alder Trees), now
called Trim, is the next great historical place down the river
from Clonard. It is one of the most interesting towns
in Ireland for the antiquarian, containing ruins of several
monasteries and castles. The view approaching b}^ the Dublin
road, seen under favourable circumstances, will never be for-
gotten. This view includes all the ruins of Newtown and
The Bovne Valley. 57
Trim, with the Boyne flowing beneath them ; the Priory of
Saint John, the old bridge and its protecting tower, and the
great Abbey of Peter and Paul are in the foreground. In the
distance rises up King John's Castle, a splendid ruin ; next the
Yellow Steeple, rising to a height of 125 feet, close by which is
one of the ancient gates of Trim, known as the Sheep Gate,
whilst still further off" stands the square and massive tower of
the Parish Church, built by Richard Duke of York, father of
Edward the Fourth, in the year 1449. In Anglo-Norman Trim
there was the Grey Friary of Observantines and the Black
Friary of the Dominicans, the latter founded by Geoffry de
Joinville, Lord of Meath, in a.d. 1263. There was also Saint
Mary's Abbey, of which the Yellow Steeple is the only surviving
relic. It is stated that Oliver Cromwell battered down this
abbey in consequence of a number of men holding it against
him. Henry the Second granted the entire Kingdom of Meath
to Hugh de Lacy for the service of fifty knights, and he fixed
on Trim as his residence, and built King John's Castle. It
covers an area of two acres or more on the sloping bank of the
Boyne. The river flows on one side, and on the other has a
broad and deep fosse, filled with water from the river, which
isolated it completely, and rendered it almost impregnable before
the invention of artillery. King John lodged in Trim in July,
1210 ; Parliaments were held in it, and there was a mint for
coining money ; in fact it was the capital in the early Anglo-
Norman period. Henry the Fith, the hero of Agincourt, was
left here when a youth, confined in one of the towers of the
castle, by Richard the Second. The Duke of Wellington
received his early education in Trim in a schoolhouse still
occupied, and he represented it when he was twenty-one years
of age in the Irish Parliament. A monument stands in the
town, erected to the Iron Duke, as the hero of Waterloo.
About six miles further down the river from Trim are the
ruins of Bective Abbey, situated on the northern bank of the
Boyne. It was founded in 1146 by O'Melaghlin, King of
Meath, for monks of the Cistercian Order. It was richly
58 The Boyne Valley.
endowed, the demesne consisting of 245 acres, with a mill and
fishing weir on the rivtr. The Abbott of Bective sat as a
Lord of Parliament, and it was the only house of the Order in
Meath. Bective Abbey being built before the arrival of the
Anglo Normans, possesses more interest for Irish archaeologists.
The cloisters are very fine and fairly well preserved. The
great tower above the porch is quite perfect, and was evidently
intended for defensive warfare, in fact, for the Church militant,
as its battlements and loopholes testify. We now reach Navan,
where the Blackwater forms a junction with the Boyne. The
ancient moat is the principal object of interest to the anti-
quarian at Navan. Tara can be readily reached, either from
Bective or Navan ; the distance from the former is about five
miles and the latter six to the ancient seat of the kings of
Ireland. The drive lies through a beautiful and well-wooded
country, with some very pretty views of the river. The Hill
of Tara was the seat of Irish sovereignty for ages ; it was there
the laws were promulgated and there the great assemblies of
the nobles and people were held. The hill, which is about
550 feet high, has a commanding view, extending over several
counties. It has always been kept in grass, and the outlines of
the ancient raths and forts have been well preserved ; also the
earthworks which outlive the great banqueting hall celebrated
in poems and story called Miodh-Chuarta, or the middle house
of the Palace of Tara. The buildings were constructed of
timber and protected by earth works ; the former have
perished years ago, whilst the latter have remained to the
present day. Standing on a mound in one of the raths is the
Lia Fail, or stone of destiny, on which it is recorded the kings
of Ireland were inaugurated. The glory of Tara was brought
to an untimely end. The annals of Clonmacnois relate that in
the year 563 the hill was deserted in consequence of a curse
pronounced against King DermoJ by Saint Ruadhan, because
of the king's determination to punish Hugh Guarry, his
relative, for killing one of the king's officers. Having examined
the raths and forts of Tara, as well as the very ancient church
The Boyne Valley. 59
on the hill, we may return to Navan ; and before proceeding
to Drogheda a visit should be made to Kells and the valley of
the Blackwater, where there are some most interesting places
well worthy of a visit. The ruins of Saint Kieran's Church
and the Holy Well, situated under a wide-spreading ash tree,
and the Termon Crosses should all be seen ; they are situated
three miles from Kells. One of the most celebrated places in
the ancient eccle^iastical history of Ireland is Kells. Amongst
the antiquities still leraaining is a round tower and a beautifully
sculptured cross close by it, a handsome shaft of another cross
in the churchyard, and the great Cross of Kells standing in the
Market Square. In addition to these, there is the ancient
house or church of Saint Columba, stone roofed, having stood
the battle and I he breeze for more than one thousand years.
The Book of Kells was kept '\l the monastery here for ages,
and, as everyone knows, is the most valued treasure in the
great library of Trinity College, Dublin. Kells was burned
and sacked many times by Danes and Normans, as well as by
Edward Bruce in the year 13 15, and it is wonderful that so
many remains of such extreme antiquity should have survived.
Telltown, the ancient Tailtean which, next to Tara, was one
of the greatest Royal residences in ancient times, is situated
midway between Kells and Navan on the banks of the Black-
water. There still may be seen the remains of three great
raths close by the river. Here the great National Assembly
or Aenach was held once a year, commencing on the first day
of August and lasting for a week. Games and athletic contests
somewhat similar to the Olympian games were held here. It
was established by King Lugh Lamhfhada about 600 years B.C.
in memory of his foster mother, and continued till the 12th
century a.d. ; the last fair being held in the reign of Roderic
O'Connor last Ard Righ of Ireland. Proceeding from Navan
towards Drogheda, the Boyne is much increased in volume by
the junctions of the Blackwater. The beauties of the river and
the most lovely scenery is situated between Navan and Slane.
A canal has been made from Navan to Drogheda, and the tow-
6o The Bovne Valley.
path of the canal is a very convenient way from which to view
the beauties of the river. About i^ miles from Navan stands
the round tower and ancient church of Donaghmore ; a little
further down the river we see the Castle of Dunmoe on our
left and the ancient church of Ardmulchan on our right.
We next reach Slane, to which we have already referred in
connection with the coming of Saint Patrick. The river is
very beautiful between Beauparc and Slane, and the hill on
which it stands commands the most extended view in the
county. Close by the monastery on the top of the hill is a
great tumulus or mound, probably the burial-place of King
Slanius, after whom the town was probably named. The
burial-place of King Cormac iVlac Art, who died in 266, and was
buried at Rossnaree, is about two miles from Slane, further
down the river. The burial mound is within a stone's throw
of the Boyne. On the opposite side, on a hill, is the great
tumultus of Knowth. King Cormac's burial has been made
famous by Sir Samuel Ferguson in his splendid poem, and the
exact place of interment has been handed down for over 1,600
years, and never lost sight of by b.i , countrymen. The lecturer
next described the three great sepulchral pyramids of Knowth,
Dowth, and Newgrange, the most ancient and most remarkable
monuments in Western Europe. The lecturer next referred to
the Abbey of iVIellifont, founded m 1142 by O'Carroll, Prince
of Oriel, at the suggestion of St. Malachy, Primale of Ireland,
for monks of the Cistercian Order. The monks were brought
from Clairvaux, and were principally French. It was here the
faithless Dearvorgail, wife of O'Rorke of Breffney, who had
eloped with M'Murrough, ended her days in penitence. It was
here also, towards the close of the sixteenth century, that Hugh
O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, submitted to Mountjoy, in the House
of Garrett Moore, ancestor to to the Marquis of Drogheda.
Monasterboice Rciund Tower and sculptured crosses were next
referred to. There was an Irish monastery founded here in the
year 522. The only ruins of this ancient foundation now
remaining are the round tower and sculptured crosses, the
The Boyne Valley. 6 1
monastic buildings and ancient church having disappeared.
The next and last place of interest on the river is the very
ancient town of Drogheda, which would be an ample text for
an entire lecture. The great tumulus now called Millmount is
similar in type to those already referred to, and is probably
chambered in the interior. From the time of Saint Patrick in
432 to it)49, when it was stormed by Cromwell, and in 1690,
when it was occupied b}- James II., its history can be traced all
through the ages. Turgesius, the Danish king, occupied and
fortified it early in the 9th century, and King John visited it in
year 1210 and gave it a charter. Parliaments were held in
Drogheda, and the law known as Poynings Law was passed
there. King Richard II. received the Irish chiefs in St. Mary's
Abbjy when they came to make their submission. The learned
primate, James Ussher, lived in Drogheda near to St. Lawrence's
gate. He it was who secured the Book of Kells for the
library of Trinity College. Phelim Roe O'Neill in 1641
besieged Drogheda, when it was successfully defended by Sir
Henry Tichbourn. Few towns in Ireland can boast of so
many famous men having visited it. St. Patrick first, next
Tingesius, the Danish King, King John, Hugh De Lacy,
Richard II. and the northern princes who came to pay their
respects to him, Red Hugh O'Donnell, and the great Earl of
Tyrone, Phelm Roe O'Neill, Oliver Cromwell, James II., and
William HI. St. Lawrence's gate still stands in a good state
of preservation, as well as some portions of the ancient walls-
The Magdalene steeple is the only remains of the Dominican
Monastery of Saint Mary Magdalene. In the cemetery
attached to the Parish Church of St. Peter's there are many
curious tombstones. Of modern buildings there are two
extremely fine Roman Catholic Churches just completed ; also
the great railway viaduct, the finest in Ireland. At the Inver
or mouth of the river stands the Maiden Tower, a Pharos or
lighthouse, erected in the time of Queen Elizabeth. This
brings us to the end of the river and the end of our subject
also. We have now surveyed the Boyne from its source to the
62 The Boyne Valley.
sea at Drogheda, attempted to picture and describe some of its
antiquities and scenery, and I must confess that I do nut know
any portion of Jreland that offers such attractions to the
student of Irish history, the archaeologist, the lover of the
beauties of nature, as well as the huntsman and the angler, as
this lovely Irish valley along the banks of the Boyne.
One hundred specially prepared lantern slides were shown of
the Boyne Valley, illustrating the scenery and antiquities.
Mr. Walter H. Wilson proposed a vote of thanks to Mr.
Milligan for his instructive lecture. Personally, he thought no
prettier bit of river scenery could be wished for than that from
Navan to Slane. There was no doubt that Irish scenery was
not properly known ; and if the result of the lecture, which
iMr. Milligan had delivered that night, was to encourage
people to visit that historic district, it would be a God-send to
that sadly-neglected part of the country.
The resolution was seconded by Mr. William Gray, and was
passed with acclamation.
The Lord Mayor, in conveying the vote, said that not only
as citizens, but as Irishmen — in which he took the liberty of
including himself — they felt obliged to Mr. Milligan for his
instructive and interesting lecture. He was pleased to hear
Mr. Milligan refer to technical instruction as having been in
force in Ireland at an early date. In the Queen's speech that
day reference was made to the Agriculture and Industries Bill
for Ireland, and he hoped that when that Bill was passed
Ireland would prosper more and more, and he further hoped
that Belfast would get a liberal slice of whatever grant Parha-
ment would give to Ireland.
Mr. Milligan suitably replied.
Professor Redfkrn proposed a vote of thanks to the Lord
Mayor for presiding.
Professor Fitzghrald seconded the motion, which was
enthusiastically passed.
The Boyne Valley. b3
The Lord Mayor, in acknowledging the compHment, said it
gave him great pleasure to be present there that night, and he
could assure them that he would not spare himself in attending
as far as he could to the many duties devolving upon him as
Lord Mayor, of which position he was proud.
64
\^th March, 1899.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P., President, in the Chair.
PATHOGENIC BACTERIA WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE TYPHOID BACILLUS.
By J. LoRRAiN Smith, M.A., M.D.
{Abstract.)
The natural processes for which bacteria are responsible are
very numerous, but a rough classification of these may be made
by dividing them into three groups — viz., fermentation, putre-
faction, and the production of disease.
In regard to fermentation, suggestive conclusions were
established in the first instance, showing that the ferment
producer is a living organism which has in suitable conditions
the power of indefinite self-multiplication, and that in unsuit-
able conditions it dies out and cannot be revived except by the
introduction anew of living organisms of the same kind.
Subsequent study revealed many characters whereby the
different organisms could be recognised, and also the condi-
tions, which were most favourable to their activity. The same
methods of study applied to disease have shown that many acute
infectious fevers and allied conditions are due to microbes, and
it is to this branch of the science of bacteriology that I wish now
to refer.
A short introduction in regard to general principles will be
of service.
We have, in the first place, to devise means for giving to the
microbes we wish to cultivate the most suitable conditions for
their growth, and for this purpose various ingenious methods
have been adopted. The food which the microbe requires is
Pathogenic Bacteria. 65
obtained by preparing a fluid or solid substance in which are
present the same constituents as exist in the fluids in which the
microbe naturally dwells. We have, accordingly, various extracts
of meat in common use as the so-called media. The extract is,
in the first place, in the form of a clear fluid broth, and this may
be solidified without losing its clearness by gelatine and other
substances.
If we take such a substance and inject it under the skin of an
animal in a moderate dose, it has no harmful effect. If, how-
ever, we allow a pathogenic or disease-causing microbe to
grow in it for some time before we make the inoculation, we
find that the harmless broth has become more or less poisonous.
The poisonous effect varies with the form of the microbe, and
this difference corresponds with the difference in the diseases
with which the microbe is associated. We can therefore pro-
duce disease in two ways. Either we can inject the microbe
which multiplies in the tissues of the bodv, and so causes the
disease, or we can obtain the poison outside the body by grow-
ing the microbe and cause the disease, or a condition closely
akin to it, by injecting the poison. The microbe flourishing in
the tissues of the body produces disease, because it manufactures
poisons as it grows, and from the action of these poisons the
eflfects arise. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, for the
understanding of the nature of disease to understand the nature
of the poisons which are produced in this way, and to ascertain
their effects on the animal body. The study of these poisons
or toxines, as they are often called, has given great definite-
ness to the study of infectious disease.
One aspect of disease in particular, to the explanation of
which this study has made important contributions, is that form
of resistance to attack which is known as immunity. A man is
said to be immune to a disease when he, after exposure to infec-
tion, fails to contract the disease. When this power of resistance
is an original attribute of the man it is called natural immunity.
If, however, by some artificial process, this power has been con-
tributed to the man, he is then said to have acquired immunity.
66 Pathogenic Bacteria.
In the study of the action of bacterial poisons it was found
that, when a dose is injected insufficient to cause death, and yet
such as to lead to more or less disturbance of the bodily
functions, there results finally an immunity to the disease on
the part of the animal so inoculated. In such investigations
the method is to inject a small dose in the first instance and to
increase the dose subsequently until a dose is reached which,
without the preliminary inoculations, would certainly have been
fatal. The nature of the change which this series of inoculat ions
induces so as to establish the state of immunity is very imper-
fectly understood. One result, however, of great practical
importance is, that the serum of the blood is charged with
immunising power, and that this power can be conveyed to a
second animal by injecting into that animal some of the serum
of the first. This is the principle on which the modern treat-
ment of diphtheria is based. A horse is made imnmne to the
poison of the diphtheria bacillus, and when this is successfully
carried out the immunity which the horse acquires enables it
to resist the effects of enormous doses of diphtheria poison. The
serum of its blood is then obtained and prepared for injection
into the tissues of children who have been attacked by the
disease. The child in this way gets at once the advantage of
the tedious process of acquiring the immunity to which the
horse has been submitted. Such a serum is called an antitoxic
serum.
In regard to the bacteriology of Typhoid Fever one or two
general points of interest may be noted. The avenue of infec-
tion by which the microbe reaches the body is the alimentary
canal. Here also occur some of the structural changes which
characterise the disease. The bacillus is discovered in the tissues
of various abdominal organs — viz., the lymph glands, the spleen,
and the liver.
The bacillus has no very clear character by which it can
be at once distinguished from all other bacilli. It is very closely
allied to the other groups of bacilli, and from these it is a
matter of no small difficulty to distinguish it. The obscurity
Pathogenic Bacteria. 67
which naturally results from this circumstance is increased by
the fact that it has been found impossible to produce the disease
in animals. It is possible to inoculate animals and to find that
they die, but such cases do not show the character'r- of the
disease as it occurs in the human subject.
Such difficulties, however, do not gainsay the evidence which
we otherwise possess of the connection of the typh-:id bacillus
with the disease. Since the place of the disease is in the intes-
tine, the rule which is observed in public health is to regard
any contamination of food or water used for drinking, with
intestinal excreta as a possible source of typhoid infection.
The lecture was illustrated by actual specimens and by lantern
views. Mr. Mayne manipulated the lantern, and the slides,
which were referred to by the Lecturer as in every way suitable
for his purpose and generally approved of, were specially pre-
pared by Mr. J. J. Andrew.
Professor Rkdfern moved, and Dr. Sheldon seconded, a
hearty vote of thanks to Professor Smith for his very instructive
lecture.
The Chairman, in putting the motion to the meeting, said
they owed a great deal to such men as Dr. Smith, who put
forth such praiseworthy efforts in order to alleviate suflFering.
The motion was warmly passed.
Subsequently an interesting exhibition of bacteria under the
microscope took place in the Library of the Museum.
68
Aprd 1 1///, 1H99.
iMr. T. Workman, J. P., President, in the Chair.
ELECTRIC DISCHARGES IN RAREFIED GASES,
WIIH EXPERIMENTS AND LANTERN SLIDES.
By J. FiNXEGAN, B.A., B.Sc.
The experiments on this subject have attracted the attention
of numerous observers, not onlj' because of their beauty and
and variety, but also from the widespread belief that this is the
most promising field in which to discover the relationships
between electricity and matter.
Consider the discharges in electrodeless tubes. Take a coil
of wire, of which one end is connected to the inside coating and
the other end through a spark gap to the outside coating of a
Leyden jar, charged by an induction coil. When the jar is
discharged enormous and very rapid alternating currents flow
through the coil, sufficient by their induction to produce
bright discharges in bulbs placed in the coil. If the bulb
is connected to pump and exhausted, when the piessure
is high no discharge appears, but when the pressure is
about imm. of mercury a thin red line runs round the bulb
in the plane of the coil ; continuing the exhaustion, the colour
changes to white, the ring gets thicker, and the brightness
becomes a maximum ; it then diminishes, and when we have a
very good vacuum the discharge no longer passes. If a metallic
diaphragm crosses the bulb there are produced two separate
bright rings, just as with a non-conducting diaphragm.
There is always considerable difficulty in producing the first;
Electric Discharges in Rarefied Gases. 69
discharge in rarefied gases. The gas first breaks down along
the line of maximum E.M.F. intensity, and a small discharge
takes place, producing a supply of dissociated molecules, along
which the succeeding discharges can more easily pass.
Observe discharge with electrodes. When the pressure is
about \ millimetre of mercury, we see that the cathode is
irregularly covered with a velvety light, its distribution depend-
ing on the pressure and quantity of current ; then comes
Crookes' dark space, after this a luminous column, the negative
glow, independent of the position of the electrode, its size
depends on the shape of the vessel near the cathode ; next, the
Farady dark space, of variable length ; lastly, the luminous
column extending to the anode, very regularly striated, and
beautiful. Attempts have been made to explain the striae on
the hypothesis that the discharge through an exhausted tube is
not continuous but intermittent.
Pliicher first investigated the fluorescence on the walls of the
tube near the cathode. Hittorf next discovered that the surface
of the electrode is the origin of a motion spreading uniformly
through the gas. Goldstein showed that a pointed cathode
produces a well-defined shadow on the walls of the tube of a
body in front of it, while a cathode of large surface produces a
clear but not very sharp shadow, thus proving that the cathode
rays, as he called them, came off" nearly normally from the
cathode, and not like light in all directions.
In 1879 Crookes wrote his first papers on this subject, and
his experiments became popular in this country. The most
striking property of cathode rays is their power of producing
fluorescence, not only in the gas through which they pass, but
also in many substances on which they fall. To show these
effects most strikingly we use " solid solutions," which are
formed when two salts are simultaneously precipitated from a
solution. They are then particularly sensitive to the rays
coming from an electric discharge.
Goldstein discovered that if there are two adjacent cathodes
the rays from one are deflected by the other.
70 Electric Discharges in Rarefied Gases.
Again, using a tube with the cathode in the centre, the anode
at one end, the cathode being pierced with one or more small
holes, Goldstein found that the front side of the cathode shows
the usual cathode light. From the back of the cathode rise
high columns of reddish-yellow light, the blue rays being
entirely absent. These were called " Canal Rays." It seems
to me proved that they are identical with the luminous glow
on the front of the cathode, and that both are produced by
positive ions travelling from the anode to the cathode, and, if
the cathode is pierced, some pass through and produce the
canal rays. Wien showed that they carried with them a posi-
tive charge. An object, placed in the dark space in front of
the cathode, throws a shadow on the cathode, as if it protected
the cathode frorn the impact of particles striking it normally.
If holes are pierced in the cathode in this shadow no canal rays
appear there. Metals placed in the path of the rays become
oxidised, so that if an object be placed in the dark space in
front of a cathode, consisting of wire gauze and a polished metal
plate placed behind it, we have on the plate an image produced
of the object placed in front of the cathode. If now a luminous
screen be placed in front of the cathode, Vi^e have a shadow of
the object again produced, which is larger than the object if
this latter is inside the cathode dark space, and about the same
size if outside, so that cathode rays only come from the parts
struck by these anode ions.
In the simple case of the discharge passing as a thin line of
reddibh light, we may describe the effect of a magnet by saying
that the displacement of the discharge is like that of a perfectly
flexible wire carrying a current. " If a magnet be applied to a
striated column, each striae is subjected to a rotation or deform-
ation, as if the striae marked the termination of flexible currents
radiating fiom the bright head of the striae behind it, and ter-
minating in the hazy inner surface of the striae in question."
The negative glow behaves in a magnetic field, like a
magnetic substance without weight, and perfectly free to move.
The magnetic effect on the cathode rays may be expressed by
Electric Discharges in Rarefied Gases. 71
stating that the negative rays mark the path of a sheaf of
charged particles, and therefore in general it is a spiral in a
uniform field. A sheaf of rays normal to a pole of a magnet
forms loops and nodes, as shown by Poincare.
Crookes' theory regards the cathode rays as streams of nega-
tively electrified particles driven with great speed away from
the cathode. The heating efftcts are explained by supposing
that the kinetic energy of the particles is partly transformed by
impact.
A rapidly moving particle acts like an electric current, and
produces round it a magnetic field ; when the particle is stopped
the field is destroyed. This rapid change in the field produces
rapidly changing electro-magnetic forces, analogous on the
electro-magnetic theory to the conditions which accompany
ultra-violet light, and therefore phosphoresence.
The phenomena of the discharge have led us to believe that
the molecules are broken up, and that chemical actions essen-
tially accompany the passage of electricity through gas.
We can readily admit that the molecules of gases, which con-
sist of two atoms, can be broken up by the current ; but there
is a difficulty in the case of mercury vapour, which must be
regarded as mon -atomic.
If, then, the dissociation theory is correct, we must, as War-
burg pointed out, suppose that the mon-atomic mercury vapour
may also be further analysed, and, by electric discharges,
carriers of electricity are produced, which are small in com-
parison with the ordinary atom or molecule.
iBatiiral listorg $c i^ijilosopljical Socittg.
Officers and Council of Management for i8gg-igOO,
THOMAS WORKMAN, j.p.
'gJtcc-S'rcsibenfs.
JOUN BROWN. I WM. SVVANSTON, f.g.s.
EGBERT YOUNG, c.e., j.p.
^on- '^reosurer:
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
<iaon. librarian :
THOMAS WORKMAN, j.p.
^Oii. ^ccrefarp:
ROBERT M. YOUNG, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a.
Council :
JOHN BROWN.
JOHN H. DAVIES.
PROFESSOR J. 1). EVERETT, f.r.s., d.c.l.
ANDREW GIBSON, f.r.s.a.
JOHN HORNER.
OTTu J A FEE, J.p.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.
R. LLOYD PATTERSON, j.p., f.l.s.
WM. H. PATTERSON, m.r.i.a.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
TUOMAS F. SHILLINGTON, j.p.
WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
THOMAS WORKMAN, j.p.
ROBERT YOUNG, j.p., c.e.
E. M. YOUNG, B.A., J.P., M.R.I.A.
SHAREHOLDERS.
[^Denotes holders of three or more Shares."]
♦Alexander, Francis, b.e., Belfast.
Alhvorthy, Edward, Ardgreenan, Cavehill Road, do.
Anderson, John, j.p., f.g.s., East Hillbrook, Holywood.
Andrew, John J., l.d.s., r.c.s. Eng., University Square, Belfast.
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong, Thomas, jun., 7 Donegal! Square West, do.
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, do.
Barbour, James, j.p., Ardville, Marino, Holywood,
Beattie, Rev. A. Hamilton, Portglenone.
Bigger, Francis J., m.r.i.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast.
Bland, Robert H., j.p., Lisburn.
Bottomley, Henry H., Belfast.
Boyd, William, Great , Victoria Street, do.
Boyd, William Sinclair, Ravenscroft, Bloomfield, do.
Braddell, Edward, The Limes, Malone Park, do.
Brett, Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, do.
Brett, John H., c.e., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Bristow, James R., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.
Brown, John, Longhurst, Dunmurry.
Brown, William K. (Representatives of), Belfast.
Bulloch, Alexander, Eversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burnett, John R., College Gardens, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., m.a., m.d., Lower Crescent, do.
Calwell, Alex. M'D., do.
Calwell, William, m.a., m.d., College Square North do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Carlisle, A. M., Elmwood House, do.
74
Shareholders.
Carr, A. H. R., Rathowen, Windsor Avenue, Belfast.
Carson, John, Walmer 'J'errace, Holywood.
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor.
Clark, George S., Dunlambert, Belfast.
Coates, Victor, j.p., d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry.
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p., Queen's Elms, Belfast.
Combe, George, Cranethorpe, Strandtown.
Cowan, P. C, m.i.c.e., Dublin.
Crawford, William, Mount Randal, Belfast.
Crawford, William, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown.
Cuming, Professor James, m.a., m.d., (Reps, of the late)
Wellington Place, Belfast.
Cunningham, Professor Robert O., m.d., f.l.s.,
F.G.S., Mountpellier, Malone Road, do.
Davies, John H., 45 Castle Street, Lisburn.
*Deramore, Lord d.l. (Representative of), Newtownbreda.
Dods, Robert, b.a., St. Leonards, Newcastle.
*Donegal, Marquis of, Belfast.
*Downshire, Marquis of, The Castle, Hillsborough.
Drennan, W. H., Wellington Place, Belfast.
Duffin, Adam, ll.d., University Square, do.
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park (Reps, of), Ballywalter.
Everett, Professor Joseph D., m.a., d.c.l., f.r.s.,
22 Earlscourt Square, London.
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast.
Ewart, Lavens M., j.p. (Reps, of), Glenbank House, do.
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., m.a., j.p., Glenmachan
House, do.
Faren, Wm., TJountcharles,
*Fenton, Francis G.,
Ferguson, Godfrey W., Donegall Park,
Finlay, Fred. W., j.p., Wolfhill House,
Finlay, Robert H. F., Cavehill Road,
do.
London.
Belfast.
Ligoniel.
Belfast.
Shareholders, 75
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc, Kelvin House, Botanic Avenue,
Belfast.
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., b.a., m.i.m.e., Assoc.
M.I.C.E., Eglantine Avenne, do.
*Getty, Edmund (Representatives of"), do.
Gibson, Andrew, f.r.s.a.l, Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, Catherine, Mountpleasant, do.
Gordon, Robert W., J. p. (Reps, of), Bangor.
Graham, Thomas, J. p., Holywood.
*Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d., m.r.i.a.,
(Representatives of), Broughshane.
Grey, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Cavehill Road, Belfast.
Greenhill, John H., Mus bac, do.
Greer, Thomas, j.p., m.r.i.a., Seapark, Carrickfergus.
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford.
*Hamilton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of), Belfast.
Harland, W., University Road, do,
Henderson, Miss Anna S. (Representatives of), do.
Henderson, Sir James, a.m., j.p., Oakley, Windsor Park, do.
Henderson, Mrs. Charlotte, Clarges Street, London.
Herdman, John, j.p., Carricklee House, Strabane.
*Herdman, Robert Earnest, j.p., Rosavo, Cultra.
Hermann, Walter, m.a., ph.d , R.A. Institution, Belfast.
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House, do.
Hind, John, junr., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Hodges, Professor John F., m.d., f.c.s., j.p.,
Sandringham, do.
Hogg, John, Academy Street, do.
Horner, John, m.i.,m.e., Chelsea, Antrim Road, do.
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.l., m.p., Orangefield, do. ,
*Hughes, Edwin, Dalchoolin, Craigavad.
Hyndman, Hugh, ll.d., Windsor, Belfast.
Inglis, James, J.P., Abbeyville, Whiteabbeya
76 Shareholders.
Jackson, A. T., c.e., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgie
Avenue, Belfast.
Jaffe, Otto, The Rt. Hon. The Lord Mayor, Kin
Edar, Strandtovvn, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey.
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Richmond Lodge, Belfast.
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, do.
Kidd, George, j.p., Lisnatore, Dunmurry.
*Kinghan, John R., Altoona, Windsor Avenue, Belfast.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, John, c.e., j.p., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Larmor, Joseph, m.a., f.r.s., St. John's College, Cambridge.
Leathern, Dr. R. R., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast.
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecumbe,
Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down.
Letts, Professor E. A., ph.d., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra.
Lindsay, James A., m.a., m.d.. College Square East, Belfast.
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House, do.
Lytle, Joseph H., j.i"., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.l., m.i.c.e., Stanley House,
Holy wood.
Macfarlane, John, Bladon Park, Belfast.
Mackenzie, John, c.e., Strathavon, Lisburn Road, do.
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), do.
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonvllle, do.
Malcolm, Bowman, m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim Road, do.
Maxton, James, m.i.n.a., m.i.mar.e., The Elms, Strandtown.
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens, Belfast.
Milligan, Seaton Forest, m.r.i.a., The Drift, Antrim Road, do.
Mitchell, Robert A., Marmont, Strandtown.
Montgomery Henry C, Bangor.
Shareholders.
77
Montgomery, H. H., Knock, Belfast.
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.l., Ballydrain House, Dunmurry.
Moore, James, The Finaghy. Belfast.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p., Tudor House, Holywood.
*Murphy, Isaac James, Armagh.
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of). Belfast.
Murray, Robert Wallace, j.p., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone, do.
*Musgrave, Henry, Drumglass, Malone, do.
Musgrave, Sir James. Bart., j.p., Drumglass, Malone, do.
MacAdam, Robert (Representatives of), do.
M 'Bride, Henry James, Hyde Park, Mallusk, do.
M'Bride. Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
*iM'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London.
*M'Cammon, Lieut. Col. Thomas A., Woodville, Holywood.
M'Cance, H. J., j.p., d.l., Larkfield, Dunmurry.
M'Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart., j.p., d.l. (Reps, of),
MacColl, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Strandtown, Belfast.
MacCormac, John, m.d., Victoria Place, do.
M'Cormick, Hugh M'Neile, Ardmara, Craigavad.
*M'Cracken, Francis (Representatives of),
jM'Gee, James, Woodville, Holywood.
M'Gee, Samuel Mackey, University Street, Belfast.
Maclhvaine, John H., Bangor.
M'Kisack, H. L., m.d., College Square East, Belfast.
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p., Queen's Elms, do.
M'Neill, George, Beechleigh, Malone Road, do.
MKnight, Jonn P., Nevara, Chichester Park, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Rowandean, Marlborough Park, do.
Nicholson, Henry J., College Square Noith, do.
O'Neill, James, m.a., College Square East,
*0'Rorke, Ambrose Howard, Dunratho,
do.
Craigavad.
f ark, Rev. Wm., m.a., Somerset House, University St., Belfast.
78 Shareholders.
Patterson, Edward Forbes, Adelaide Park, Blfaset.
Patterson, Mrs. Isabella, Bonn, Germany.
Patterson, Richard, J.P., Kilmore, Holywcod.
*Patterson, Robert Lloyd, J.P., f.l.s., Croft House, do.
Patterson, Robert, F.z.s., Malone Park, Belfast.
Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a., Garranard, Strandtown.
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Marlboro Park, Belfast.
Patterson, William R.. Windsor Avenue, do.
Pim, Edward W., J.P., Elm wood Terrace, do.
Pim, Joshua, Slieve-na-Failthe, Whiteabbey.
*Pirrie, Elizabeth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.k., m.r.i.a.. National Library, Dublin.
Purser, Prof. John, ll.d., m.r.i.a., Queen's College, Belfast.
Rea, John Henry, m.d., University Street. do.
Rea, William R., Gardtia, Fortwilliam Park, do..
Reade, Robert H. S., J.P., Wilmont, Dunmurry.
Riddel], Samuel, Beechpark, Belfast.
Robertson, William, j.p., Netherleigh, Strandtown, do.
Robinson, John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc, Royal Academical
Institution, do.
Shillington, Thomas Foulkes.j.p., Dfomart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, Felix Booth, Queen Street, do.
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a., j.p., d.l., Hopefield, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, m.d., f.r.c.s. Eng., Howard St., do.
Smith, John, Castleton Terrace, do.
Smyth, John, m.a., c.k., Milltown, Banbridge.
Speers, Adam, B.sc, Riversdale, Holywood.
Steen, Robert, ph.d. (Representatives of), Belfast.
Steen, William, b.l.. Northern Bank, Victoria Street, do.
Stelfox, James, Oakleigh, Ormeau Park, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
*Tennent, Robert (Representatives of), Rushpark, do.
Shareholders.
*Tennent, Robert James (Reps. of). Rushpark,
*Thompson, James, j.p., \Iacedon,
Thompson, S. B., Short Strand.
Torrens, Mrs. Sarah H. (Representatives of),
*Turnley, John (Representatives of),
79
Belfast.
Whiteabbey.
Belfast.
Whiteabbey.
Belfast.
Walkington, Mrs., Thornhill, Malone, do.
Walkington, Thomas R., Edenvale, Strandtovvn, Belfast.
Wallace, John, Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Walter, Hermann, m.a., ph.d., Royal Academical
Institution, Belfast.
Ward, Francis D., j.p., m.r.i.a.. Chlorine Gardens, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, j.p.. Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard T., Knock, do.
Whitla, Prof. William, m.d., j.p.. College Sq. North, do.
Wilson, James, m.e., Oldforge, Dunmurry.
Wilson, John K., Donegall Street, Belfast.
Wilson, Walter H., Stranmillis House, do.
*Wilson, W. Perceval, ' do.
*Wolflf, G. W , M.P., The Den Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, Drummena, Bladon Park, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., Rubane House, Glastry.
Workman, Rev. Robert, b.d.. The Manse, Newtownbreda.
Workman, R. D , Upper Crescent, Belfast.
* Workman, Thomas, j.p., Craigdarrah, Craigavad.
Workman, William, Nottinghill, Belfast.
Wright, James, Lauriston, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, p.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, c.f,., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
-J
8o
Anrrnal Subscribers,
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Dufferin and Ava, k.p., The Marquis of, Clandeboye, Co. Down.
Slokes, Miss M., Hon. m.r.i.a., Carrig Breac, Howth,
Co. Dublin.
HONORARY ASSOCIATES.
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park,
Stewart, Samuel Alex., f.b.s. Edin, Belfast Museum,
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue,
Belfast,
do.
do.
Tate, Prof. Ralph, f.g.s., f.l.s., Adelaide, South Australia.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, Belfast.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast.
Northern Banking Co., Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
York Street Spinning Company, Ltd., do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.
Allan, C. E., Stormont Castle, Dundonald.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, Belfast.
Barr, James, Beechleigh, Windsor Park, do.
Barton, H. D. M., The Bush, Antrim.
Boyd, John, Cyprus Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast.
Brown, G. Herbert, j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay.
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast.
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Chambers, Walter, c.e., Waring Street, do.
Cleaver, A. S., b.a., Dunraven, do.
Craig, James, j.p., Craigavon, do.
Davidson, S. C, Sea Court, Bangor.
Aiitiual Subscribers.
Dunvnlle, Robert G., J.P., d.l., Redburn, Holyvvood.
Fulton, G. F.. Howard Street, Belfast.
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace, do.
Green, Isaac, Ann Street, do.
Hanna, J. A., Marietta, Knock, do.
Hazelton, W. D., Clittonville, do.
Higginbotham, Granby, Wellington, Park, do.
Jones, R. M., M.A.,RQyal Academical Institution, do.
Kelly, W. Redfern, M.r.c.K., f.r.a.s., Dalriada,
Malone Park, do.
Lynn, William H., Crumlin Terrace, do.
Malone, John, Brookvale House, Cliftonville, do.
M'Laughlin, W. H., Brookville House, do.
Redfern, Prof. Peter, m.d., f.r.cs.i.. Lower Crescent, do.
Scott, Conway, c.e., Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
Swiney, J. H. H., b.a., b.e., Bella Vista, Antrim Road, do.
Tate, Alexander, c.e., Rantalard, Whitehouse, do.
Taylor, John, Brown Square Works, do.
Thompson, John, Limestone Road, do.
Turpin, James, Waring Street, do.
|[^|0i[t Hnd iii0iii|i{dinfls
BE LB'-A.Sa?
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
FOR THK
S 3E3 S S I O IsT 1890-1900.
BELFAST :
PRINTED BY ALEXR. MAYNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STREET
(printers to queen's college.)
T9OO.
CONTENTS.
Annual Report ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
Balance Sheet ... ... ... ... ... ... 7
Donations to Museum ... ... ... ... ... ... 8
Books Received ... ... ... ... ... ... 9
President's Inaugural Address — T. Workman ... ... ... 18
Personal Impressions of the Transvaal, Natal, and Cape Colony —
Robert A. Mitchell, LL.B. ... ... ... ... ... 27
Ireland and the Scottish Isles ; Ancient Connexions and Intercourse —
S. F. Milligan, M.R.I.A. .. ... ... ... ... 34
Some Thoughts on Rome — Conway Scott, C.E. ... ... ... 41
The Growth of the Ink Blot— W. H. Patterson, M.R.I.A. ... ... 42
The Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction under the
Agriculture and Technical Instruction Act — William Gray, M.R.I.A. 44
Some of the Work Done by Committees of the British Association —
Professor Maurice F. FitzGerald, B. A., M.I. M.E. ... ... 57
An Ancient Bombshell— Robert M. Young, B. A., M.R.I.A. ... ... 64
List of Office-Bearers ... ... ... ... ... ... 66
Liist of Shareholders and Subscribers ... ... ... ... 67
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
■:o:-
EST-A^BLISUBJID 1821-
:o:
SHAREHOLDERS.
1 Share in the Society costs £7.
2 Shares ,, cost £14.
3 Shares ,, cost £21.
The Proprietor of 1 Share pays 10s. per annum ; the proprietor of 2
Shares pays 6s. per annum ; the proprietor of 3 or more Shares stands exempt
from further payment.
Shareholders are only eligible for election on the Council of Management
MEMBERS.
There are two classes — Ordinary Members, who are expected to road
Papers, and Visiting Members who, by joining under the latter title, are
understood to intimate that they do not wish to read Papers. The Session for
Lectures extends from November in one year till May in succeeding one.
Members, Ordinary or Visiting, pay £1 Is. per annum, due 1st November in
each year.
Each Shareholder and Member has the right of personal attendance at all
meetings of the Society, and of admitting a friend thereto ; also of access to
the Museum and Library for himself and family, with the privilege of granting
admission orders for inspecting the collections for any friend not residing in
Belfast.
Any further information can ba obtained by application to the Secretary.
It is requested that all accounts due by the Society be sent to the Treasurer.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily from 10 till 4 o'clock.
Admission for Strangers, 6d. each. The Curator is in constant attendance, and
will take charge of any Donation kindly left for the Museum or Library.
:Belfa9t Natural Ibietor^ anb ipbilosopbical
Society*
ANNUAL REPORT, 1899.
■:o:-
The Annual Meeting of Shareholders of the Society was held
©n 14th June, in the Museum, College Square North. On the
motion of Mr. Robert Young, C.E., J.P., seconded by Dr.
MacCormac, the chair was taken by Mr. John Brown, and
there were also present Rev. Dr. Hamilton (President of
Queen's College), Professor Fitzgerald. B.A., M.T.M.E. ; R. L.
Patterson, D.L., F.L.S. ; T. F. Shillington, J.P."", James
O'Neill, M.A. ; Joseph Wright, F.G.S. ; J. H. Davies, John
M'Knight, J. Horner, M.I.M.E. ; Wm. Faren, J. E. MagiU,
Isaac Ward, Conway Scott, C.E.; R. Patterson, M.B.O.U. ;
Robert M. Young, J.P. (honorary secretary) ; and W. H. F.
Patterson (honorary treasurer).
Mr. R. M. Young, Hon. Secretary, having read the notice
convening the meeting, presented the report of the Council,
as follows : —
The Council of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
Society desire to submit to the Sharcsholders their report of the
working of the Society during the past year.
The Winter Session was opened on 7th November, 1899,
when the President of the Society, Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P.,
delivered an address, subject : '' Incentives to the study of
Natural History," with lime-light illustrations.
The Second Meeting was held on 5th December, 1899, at
which a lecture was given by Mr. Robert A. Mitchell, LL.B ,
subject : '' Personal Impressions of the Transvaal, Natal, and
a
2 Annual Meeting.
Cape Colony," illustrated by a large series of lime-light views
from photographs taken by the lecturer recently in South
Africa.
The Third Meeting took place on 2nd Januarv, iqoo, when
Mr. Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.T.A., lectured on "Ireland and the
Scottish Isles : Ancient Connections and Intercourse," illus-
trated by a large series of specially prepared lantern views.
The Fourth Meeting was arranged for 6th February, when
Mr. Conway Scott read a paper, subject : " Some thoughts on
Rome." Afterwards, Mr. W. H. Patterson described the
" Growth of the Ink Blot," Avith illustrations.
The Fifth Meeting, on 6th March, was devoted to the con-
sideration of technical instruction in Belfast, when Mr. W.Gray
read a paper on " The position of Belfast in relation to Technical
Instruction under the Agricultural and Technical Instruction
Act." This was followed by an interesting discussion.
The Closing Meeting was held on 3rd April, when a paper
was given by Prof. Fitzgerald, B.A., A.M.I.C.E., subject :
" Some of the Work Done by Committees of the British
Association."
These meetings were well attended, particularly those
devoted to Technical Instruction.
The Gilchrist Course of Lectures mentioned in the last
Annual Report were very successful, and a moiety of the
balance remaining after all expenses were paid was handed to
your council by the Committee, with the recommendation that
artizans should be admitted by ticket on certain days. The
number of kindred societies holding their meeetings in the
Museum exhibits no reduction. At the Easter holidays the
attendance of the public was similar to last year, although no
special attractions were on view. The ordinary days admissions
vary little of late years. As will be seen by the Hon.
Treasurer's Statement of Accounts, a substantial balance in
favour of the Society still continues to be shown after payment
of all liabilities.
A list of donations to the Museum and of the publications
Annual Meeting. 3
received in exchange from home and foreign societies will be
printed with the present Report.
Such donations as were received during the year have been
incorporated with the Museum collections and exhibited in
their proper place in the several cabinets. Amongst the speci-
mens given maybementionedMr. R Welch's land and fresh water
shells, some of which are rare species, and some only recently
added to the Irish fauna. Owing to evaporation many
specimens in jars require attention ; some of these have been
renewed, and others must shortly be dealt with. Further
additions to the herbarium have been selected, mounted, and
placed in their systematic order, and several cases of birds have
been cleaned and renovated. The curator and his assistant
have been fully occupied with the work, in addition to the
usual attention and oversight of the entire collections during
the session. Your council have to deplore the loss of their
president, the late Mr. Thomas Workman, J. P., who died after
a short illness at St. Paul's, Minnesota, on nth May last. He
had been for many years an active and valued member of our
society, and of the council, in which he was a vice-president
and librarian. During the two years in which he held the office
of president he was most zealous for the interests of the society,
and in last September he was chosen to voice at the Dover
meeting the city's invitation to the British Association. He
took the chair at our March meeting, and had made arrange-
ments to be home in time for our annual meeting, and that to
be held for the renewal of the invitation to the British Associa-
tion. Your council also received with much regret the
announcement of the death of Professor John F. Hodges, M.D.,
a former president of the society, and of Mr. Jas. Thompson,
J. P., one of the oldest and most valued members, whose
brother William died while president in 1852. Captain Robert
Campbell, the donor of many valuable specimens in the
museum, has also passed away, much regretted.
Mr. W. H. F. Patterson submitted the financial statement,
which showed a substantial balance in favour of the society,
though the subscriptions had slightly decreased.
4 Annual Meeting.
The President of Queen's College, in moving the adoption of
the report and statement of accounts, said that the Belfast
Natural History and Philosophical Society was one of the
few old things that our comparatively modern city had, and
was one of the most useful and most interesting of all the
societies that Belfast could boast of. He hoped the day was
far distant when it woul 1 cease to perform its very excellent
functions in the midst of this busy community.
The report reminded them that duringtheyear the society had
lost four very valued and old friends, all of whom he knew,
and all of whom the society had good reasons to prize. The
death of Mr. Thomas Workman was specially sad. He was the
second president who had died during his term of office, the
first being their eminent and well-known Belfast naturalist,
Mr. William Thompson, whose death occurred in 1852. Mr.
Workman, as they all knew, was a man of very varied and large
scientific attainments. He was one of the type of men who
helped long ago to earn for Belfast the appellation of the Athens
of the North, and who at the present day enabled it to still lay
claim to some extent to that name. Another death chronicled
in the report was that of Professor Hodges. They in Queen's
College had already in their own way taken note of that death,
which deprived them of the last of the old staff of original
professors. He had occupied a chair in the college for fifty
years, and he (the President) was glad to say that in a short
time a portrait of him, subscribed for by his friends in the
college and city, would be hung on the walls of the Ex-
amination Hall. In the Natural History Society the
late professor occupied a very prominent place, and in its
working he took a large share. In connection with his name it
ought to be said that very long ago he took steps in his own
private capacity to do, in of course a small way, what this very
year was being carried out by the Government through the
operation of the Agriculture and Technical Schools Act.
He established, many years since, a little farm of his own not
far from the College, for experimenting with seeds, plants, and
Annual Meeting. 5
manures, and from that time up to his death he was continually-
endeavouring to infuse a spirit of science into the agricuUure
of the North of Ireland. They who knew him best in his
latter days deplored the loss of a valued friend, whose genial
conversation and sage experience made intercourse with him
peculiarly valuable and pleasant. He was undoubtedly one of
the best types of the fine old Irish gentleman.
Mr. James Thompson did not latterly take a very prominent
part in the working of the Society, but he belonged to a family
which gave to Belfast one of the most eminent men of whom
the city could boast, namely, the late Mr. William Thompson.
As to Captain Campbell, he (the President) had known
him from boyhood, and a finer or braver fellow never trod
the quarter-deck of a British ship. It could be wished that
many more of their seafaring men would use their opportunities
abroad in collecting rare specimens for that Museum.
Those were the sad points referred to in the report, but there
was a bright side, and it might be summed up in a single
sentence, that the Society continued to do good and useful work
for the objects lor which it was instituted. It had had a busy and
useful year. Many of its members had taken a lively interest
in its work, and he could only express the hope that as the old
members passed away new ones might be found to come in to
fill their places, so that the Society might be continued, not
only in unimpaired, but, if possible, increased efficiency, and
handed down to future generations of Belfast men as they had
received it from the Belfast of long ago.
Mr. R. L. Patterson, in seconding, mentioned that at a town
raeetmg on Wednesday last it was decided to invite the British
Association to meet in Belfast in 1902 — that would be fifty
years after ttieir tirst meeting in 1852. On that occasion that
society took a leading part in the issuing of invitations, while
many of its members took an active part in the reception of
that distinguished body both mdividually and collectively. He
had no doubt that, as he hoped and expected the association
would accept the invitation, the present members of the society
6 Annual Meeting.
would do their best to make the gathering a distinct and
striking success. He regretted to hear that the subscriptions
showed a slight falling off. He did not exactly know that they
could increase the number of their shareholders, but occasionally
a little effort might get them recruits in the way of annual
subscribers, and thus they would increase the usefulness of the
society. In connection with their active membership there
was one point he should Hke to mention. On the list of share-
holders there figured the names of a good many deceased
shareholders, or rather the representatives of so and so deceased.
President Hamilton had suggested to him that they might try
and get Lord Shaftesbury to join the Society and he thought
the suggestion a good one.
The resolution was adopted.
The fcillowing five members, who retired by rotation, were
re-elected on the Council: — Sir Otto Jaffe, J. P.; President
Hamilton, D.D., L.L.D., Professor Fitzgerald, Mr. T. F.
ShiUiugton, J.P. ; and Mr. R. M. Young, J. P.
Mr. R. M. Young announced that Mr. J. H. Davies, a
member of the Council, had recently discovered in County
Antrim three species new to the Irish moss flora — namely,
lor tula marginata^ Amblystegium jfiiraizkaniim and Amhly-
stegium varium — specimens of which would be placed in the
Museum Herbarium.
Mr. R. Young gave an interesting description of some rare
specimens of worked flints (Wadi el Sheikh, Egypt), received
from the Free Museum, Liverpool, in accordance with the
system of duplicate exchange recently adopted.
The following Officers were elected : — President, John Brown ;
Vice-Presidents, President Hamilton, William Swanston,
F.G.S.; Robert Young, C.E., J. P.; R. L. Patterson, D.L.,
F.L.S. Honorary Treasurer, W. H. F. Patterson ; Honorary
Librarian, J. H. Davies ; Honorary Secretary. Robert M.
Young, B.A., J.P., M.R.I.A.
A vote of thanks to the Chairman, proposed by Dr.
MacCormac and seconded by Mr. Isaac Ward, concluded the
proceedings.
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DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, 1899-1900.
From Mr. John Fisher, Kilkeel.
Transverse section of a yew tree from Kilkeel, Co. Down, the
trunk was 20 feet long.
From Mr. W. H. M'Laughlin.
Specimen of goat moth ( Cossiis lignaperda)^ and its cocoon
embedded in a block of ash wood.
From The City of London.
Medal struck by the City in commemoration of the 60th year
of the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria.
From Mr. I. A. Richardson.
A flint lock musquet of a Broomhedge yeoman.
From Mr. Osborne Grimshaw.
Specimens of the submerged forest at Portrush.
From Mr. Robert Welch.
A large number of the rarer Irish land and Iresh water shells.
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, isx MAY, 1899, till
1ST MAY, 1900.
Adelaide. — Memoirs of the Royal Society of South Australia.
Vol. I, part I, and Transactions, vol. 23, parts i
and 2 — 1899. -^^''^ Society.
Albany. — Forty-ninth and Fiftieth Reports of the New, York
State Museum, 1895 and 1896.
The University of the State of New York.
Austin. — Transactions of Texas Academy of Science. Vol. 2,
no. 2, 1899. The Academy.
Belfast. — Report and Proceedings of Belfast Naturalists' Field
Club. Series 2, vol. 4, part 6, i89q.
The Club.
Bergen. — Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1899 ; also Crustacea of
Norway. Vol. 2, parts 13 and 14, 1899; and
vol. 3, parts I — 4, 1 899- 1 900.
Bergen Museum.
Berlin. — Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Vol.
26, nos. 4 — 10, 1899; and vol. 27, nos. I — 3,
1900. The Society.
Boston. — Memoirs of Boston Society of Natural History. Vol.
5, nos. 4 and 5, 1899; also Proceedings, vol.
28, nos. 13 — 16, 1899; and vol. 29, nos. i — 8,
1899. 2 he Society.
Bremen. — Abhandlungen Herausgegeben vom Naturwissen-
schaftlichen Verein zu Bremen. Vol. 16, part
2, 1899. The Society.
Breslau — Zeitschrift fiir Entomologie Herausgegeben vom
Verein fiir Schlessiche Insektenkunde zu Breslau.
Part 24, 1899. The Society.
Brighton. — Annual Report and Abstract of Papers of Brighton
and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical
Society for the year 1898-99. The Society.
3 0 Books Received.
Brussels. — Bulletin de la Societe Royale de Botanique de
Belgique. Vol. 37, 1898; and Vol. 39, 1899.
The Society.
„ Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique-
Vol. 43, 1899. T/ie Society.
„ Annales de la Societe Royale Malacologique de
Belgique. Vols. 21 — 23, 1896-98; also Bulletins
des Seances. The Society.
Buenos Ayrrs. — Annales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.
Series 2, vol. 6, 1899; and Comunicaciones, vol.
1, nos. 3 — 5, 1899. 77/1? Director.
Buffalo. — Bulletin of Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences.
Vol. 6, nos. 2 — 4, 1899. The Society.
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol.
28, part 1, 1898. Palaeontologia Indica. Series
15, vol. 1, part 2, 1899; "^^^ "^^v series, vol. i,
parts I and 2, 1899 ; also General Report of the
Survey for year 1898-99.
The Director of the Survey.
Cambridge. — Proceedings of Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Vol. 10, part 2, 1899; and parts 3 and 4, 1900.
The Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology. Vol. 32, no. 10; vols. 33 and 34; and
vol. 35, nos. I — 7, 1899. 2 he Curator.
Cardiff. — Report and Transactions of Cardiff Naturalists'
Society. Vol. 30, 1899; and vol. 31, 1900.
The Society.
Cassel. — Abhandlungen and Bericht (44) des Vereins fiir
Naturkunde zu Kassel, 1899. The Society.
Chicago. — Fortieth Annual Report and Bulletin of Chicago
Academy of Sciences, No. 2, 1897.
The Academy.
,, Occasional Memoirs of Chicago Entomological
Society. Vol. i, No. i, 1900.
The Society.
Books Received. Ii
Christiania — Christiania Videnskabs Selskabs Forhandlinger.
No. I, 1899.
The Royal Norske Frederiks University.
Edinburgh. — Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edin-
burgh. Vol. 31, part I, 1897; part 2, 1898 ;
and part 3, 1899. The Society.
„ Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society,
Session 1897-98 and 1898-99. The Society.
Elberfeld. — Jahresbericht derNaturwissenschaftlichen Vereins
in Elberfeld. Part 9, 1899. The Society.
Emden. — Eighty-third and eighty-fourth Jahresbericht der
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Emden,
1898-99. 2 he Society.
Genoa. — Giornale della Societa di Letture e Conversazione
Scientifiche di Genova. Anno 20, fasc. 2 — 4,
1899, also Rivista Ligure ; anno. 22, fasc. i,
1900. The Society.
GiESSEN. — Thirty-fourth Bericht des Oberhessichen Gesellschaft
fiir Natur and Heilkunde, 1897-98-99.
The Society.
Glasgow. — Transactions of the Natural History Society of
Glasgow. New ser. vol. 5, No. 3, 1900.
The Society.
„ Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of
Glasgow. Vol. 30, 1899. The Society.
GoTHENBERG. — Goteborg's Kungl. Vetenskaps och Vitterhets
Samhalles Handlingar, 1899. 2 he Society.
Halifax. — Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science, Vol. 9, part 4, 1898.
The Institute.
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen Karpathen Vereines, 26th
year, 1890. The Society.
Lausanne. — Bulletin de la Societe Vandoise des Sciences,
Naturelles. Vol. 35, n s. 131-133, 1899.
The Society.
12 Booksl Received.
-Lawrence. — Kansas University Quarterly. Vol. 8, nos. 2 and
3, 1899. Ihe Kansas University.
Leipsic. — Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig,
i898,andWisscnschaftliche Veroffentlichungen.
Vol. 4, 1899. The Sociaty.
„ Sitzungberichte der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu
Leipzig, 24th and 25th years, 1897-98.
The Society.
London. — Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vols.
52 and 53, 1896-1899. The Society.
„ Report of the 69th Meetingof the British Association ;
Dover, 1899. The Association.
,, Fifteenth Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund
of the Egypt Exploration Fund (Deshasheh),
1898, Sixteenth Memoir (Deir el Bahari), 1898,
and Seventeenth Memoir (Dendereh), 1900.
The Committee of this Fund.
„ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London. Vol. 55, parts 1 — 3, 1899. Vol. 56,
part I, 1900; also Geological Literature added
to the Library during 1898, and List of Fellows
of the Society. 2 he Society.
„ Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, Nos.
129—133, 1899, and Nos. 134 and 135, 1900.
The Society.
,, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London,
parts I — 4, 1899, and Transactions, Vol. 15,
parts 2 — 4, 1899; also List of Eellows of the
Society. The Society.
Madison. — Transactions of Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts, and Letters, Vol. 12, 1898.
The Academy.
Madras. — Bulletin of Madras Government Museum. Vol. 2,
No. 3, 1899, and Administration Report for
i898-'99. The SuperintendetiL
Books Received. 13
Manchester. — Journal of Manchester Geographical Society.
Vol. 14, nos. 7 — 12, T898, and Vol. 15, Nos,
I — 9, 1899. The Soeietv.
„ Transactions of Manchester Geological Society,
Vol. 26, parts 4 — 9, 1899, and part 13, 1900.
The Society
Marseilles. — Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Vol. 9, fasc, I — 5, 1899. The Lihrariaii.
Melbourne. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
New ser., Vol. 11, part 2, 1899. The Society.
Mexico. — Boletin del Institute Geologico de Mexico. No. 11,
1898, and 12 and 13, 1899. The Institute.
„ Boletin Mensual del Observatorio Meteorologico
Central de Mexico. No. for December, 1898,
and Nos. for January — September, 1899.
The Director.
,, Boletin del Observatorio Astronomico Nacional de
Tacubaya. Vol. 2, No. 5, 1899 ; also Obser-
vaciones Meteorologicos, 1897, and Anuario
20, for year i Qoo. The Director.
Milwaukee. — Bulletin of Wisconsin Natural History Society.
New seiies, vol. i, no. i, iqoo ; also i6th
Annual Report of Milwaukee Public Museum.
The Society.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo.
Vol. 2, fasc. Ti and 12, 1899. The Director.
Moscow.— Bulletin ot the Society of Naturalists' of Moscow.
No. 4, i8q8; and no. 1, 1899; also Memoirs.
Vol. 15, part 7, 1898; vol. 16, part 1, 1898; and
part 2, 1899. The Society.
Nantes.— Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de 1'
Quest de France. Vol. 9, parts i — 3, 1899.
The Society.
14 Books Received.
New York. — Annals of New York Academy of Sciences. Vol.
II, part 3, i8q8 ; and vol. 12, part i, 1899; also
Constitution, Bye -Law?, and List of Members,
1899. The Academy.
,, Bulletin of American Geographical Society. Vol.
31, nos. 2 — 5, 1899; and vol. 32, no. i, 1900.
The Society.
Odessa. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of New Russia.
Vol. 22, part 2, 1898; also Memoirs of the
Mathematic Section. Vols. ^6 and 19, 1899.
The Society.
Oporto. — Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes. Vol. 5, no. 4, 1898.
The Editor.
OSNABRUCK. — Jahresbericht des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins
zu Osnabruck for year 1898. The Society.
Ottawa. — Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada.
New series, vol. 10, 1897; and Maps to accom-
pany Report; also Contributions to Canadian
Palaeontology. Vol. i, part 5, 189J; and vol. 4,
part I, 1899. The Director of the Survey.
Padua. — Bullettino della Societa Veneto-Trentina di Scienze
Naturali. Vol. 6, no. 4, 1899; and Atti; series
2, vol. 4, fasc. I, 1900. The Society.
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences. Parts i and 2, 1899.
The Academy.
„ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.
Vol. 38, no. 159, 1899. The Society.
„ Transactions of Wagner Free Institute of Science.
Vol. 6, 1899. The histittite.
,, Report of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum;
also Monograph on the State of Nicaragua, and
Monograph on Costa Rica, 1898.
The Museum.
Books Received. 15
Pisa. — Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Natural!. Vol.
11, January to July, 1899; and Process! Verbali.
Vol. 12, Nov. 1899. ThQ Society.
Reigate. — Proceedings of Holmesdale Natural History Club,
iSqg. The Club.
RoMF. — Atti della Reale Academia dei Lincei. Series 5, vol.
8, semestre i, fasc. 7 — 12. Semestre 2, fasc.
I — 12, 1899; vol. 9, semestre i, fasc. i — 7,
1900; also Rendicontodeir Adunanza Solenne,
June, 1899. The Academy.
San Francisco. — Proceedings of California Academy of Sciences.
Series 3, vol. i, nos. 5, 6, 11, 12, 1899; and
Occasional Papers, no. 6, 1899.
The Academy.
St. Louis. — Tenth Annual Report of Missouri Botanical
Garden, 1899. The Director.
Stavanger. — Stavanger Museums Aarsberetning for 1898.
The Museum Trustees.
Stirling. — Transactions of Stirling Natural History and
Archaeological Society for year 1898-99.
The Society.
Stockholm. — Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens
Handlingar, Vol. 31, 1898-09. Bihang, vol.
24, parts 1 — 4, 1899; and Ofversigt, vol. 55.
1 898. The Academy.
Sydney. — Science of Man. New series, vol. 2, nos. 3, 5, 10 and
12, 1899 ; and vol. 3, no. i, 1900.
The Editor.
Tokyo. — Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur
und Volkerkunde Ostasiens. Vol. 7, parts 2
and 3, 1809. The Society. ,
Topeka. — Transactions of Kansas Academy of Science. Vol.
16, 1899. The Academy.
Toronto. — Proceedings of the Canadian Institute. New ser.
Vol. 2 parts, 1899. The Institute.
1 6 Books Received.
Upsala. — Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the Uni-
versity of Upsala. Vol. 4, part i, No. 7, 1898.
The University.
Vienna. — Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Koniglischen Reich-
sanstalt. N-s. 5 — 18, 1899, and Nos. i and 2,
T900. The Society.
„ Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Konglichen Zoolo-
gisch-Botanischen Gelleschaft. Vol. 49, 1899.
The Society.
Washington. — Year Book of United States Department of
Agriculture, 1899, ^"d Bulletins, Nos. 14 and
15, 1899. Ihe Secretary of the Department.
„ United States Geological Survey Reports —
1 8th Annual Report, parts i — 5 and 5 con-
tinued, 1897-98; 19th Annual Report, part i
1898; part 2, 1899, part 4, 1899, part 6, 1898,
and part 6 continued, 1898 ; 20th Annual
Report, part 6, and part 6 continued, 1899 ;
also Monographs, Vols. 29, 31, and 35, and
Atlas to Vol. 31, 1898. The Director.
„ Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. 20, 1898, and Vol. 21, 1899 ; also
Bulletin, No 47, parts 2 and 3, 1 898, and Annual
Report for 1899 ; Annual Report of the Smiths-
onian Institution, 1898 ; Miscellaneous Collec-
tions, Nos. 1,171 and 1,173, 1898.
The Smiihsoniajt Inititiition.
York. — Annual Report of Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
1899. The Society.
Zurich. — Vierteljahresschrift der Naturfor chenden Gesellschaft
in Zurich, 44th year, parts i — 4, 1899.
The Society.
From Mr. Victor Coaths, D.L. — The Zoologist, Vol. 5, 1847.
Vol. 6 of sen 3, 1882, and Vol 7, 1883.
Books Received. 17
From Mr. R. Lloyd-Patterson, J.P., F.L.S.— Journal of the
Linnean Society (Botany.) Vol. 26, No. 178,
and Vol. 33, Nos. 237 — 239, 1899.
F)'om Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P. — Malaysian spiders. Vol.
2, parts I — 4, 1899.
BELFAST
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSION 1899-1900.
7/// November^ 18Q9.
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,
Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P.
Incentives to the Study of Natural History,
(Abstract.)
It has no doubt been the privilege of many of you to ascend the
St Gothard valley by the wonderful railway that has been so skil-
fully engineered up it. At one moment the traveller is carried
in a straight line towards the snow crested alps at the summit,
as if no obstacle stood in the path, but that lasts only for a
little way. In another moment, with a shrieking whistle, you
enter into a darksome cavern of a tunnel, and the traveller
knows not whether his course is away from or towards the
object of his aspiration. However, when you again emerge into
the sunlight you find, though you have taken an enormous
spiral, you are till going onwards and upwards, and you can
see far below you th road you formerly traversed, and that
even your backward course was an onward one.
Such, it appears to me, is scientific progress ; we seem never
for any time on the straight course to perfect knowledge, but
ever on a spiral one if we follow after truth.
We cannot follow absolute truth, but only truth as it appears
Inaugural Address by the President. 19
to us at every moment ot our progress. Our path must
necessarily be on the line of the least resistance.
Too many incline to the line of no resistance, and taking
the river as their guide become the creatures of circumstance.
Like Tennyson's Lotus Eaters, they say —
Let us alone. What is it that will last ?
All things are taken from us and become
Portions and parcels of the dreadful Past.
Let us alone. What pleasure can we have
To war with evil ? Is there any peace
In ever climbing up the climbing wave ?
All things have rest, and ripen towards the grave
In silence ; ripen, fall and cease :
Give us long rest or death, dark death or dreamful ease."
But your presence here to night assures me that you are not
of those, but that you are ever willing to struggle on towards
the light. Now though the nineteenth century has still a few
months to run, this is the last session of the Belfast Natural
History and Philosophical Society which will use the numbers
eighteen hundred to mark its date, and as I think the study of
Natural History has, after the tremendous development when
Darwin published in 1859 ^^^ epoch making book on the
Origin of Species, entered somewhat one of these dark
tunnels, or at least shady places whe;eweare inclined to ask
are we making any progress, or what is the good of it all.
Believing thus, I think I cannot do better in my opening
address of this session, 1899-1900, after thanking you for the
honour you have shown me by again electing me as your
President, than by continuing my former address, " Incentives
to the Study of Natural History " ; treating on this occasion
the ways, colours, and instincts of Animals.
It had not been my intention to urge as an incentive, the
good we may do by the study of Natural History, but an
important instance has I'ust been brought before the public to
which I think it right to refer.
All persons who have lived or had friends living in tropical
or other hot countries must have heard something of the ravages
20 Inaugural Ad^/ress by the President.
of malarial fever or ague. The cause of the fever has long
been a mystery but at last it is to be hoped that naturalists will
be able to solve the mystery and that we are on the track of
the fell destroyer. It would appear that the cause is a living
organism which gets into the biood and there sets up a
disturbance of the system that brings on the fever. This
organism has been found to be not only carried to the victim
by a species of mosquito but actually the organism goes through
a change or metamorphosis in the body of the mosquito. It is
hoped, therefore, that if we can destroy the mosquito we will
be able to annihilate the disease.
In Rome, where malarial fever never originates but only in
the Campagna around the city, some of these mosquitos have
been allowed to suck the blood from a patient suffering from
malarial fever and after a few days allowed to eject their poison
into another human being and it was found that he was
inoculated with the fever. If the mosquito is ac once allowed
to attack the subject it can do no harm as the metamorphosis is
not completed and the organism is not in a fit slate to live in
the human system.
The eggs of this mosquito are eagerly sought after and
devoured by fish, so that they have no chance of coming to
maturity if laid in deep water where fish are, atid thus they can
only come to maturity in puddles or shallow surface water
where fish cannot live. Their larv^ae also float along the
surface of the water, getting the oxygen necessary for their life
from the air, so they can easily be destroyed by pouring a little
paraffin oil on the surface of the water which, spreading out,
cuts them off from the air. Of course belter surface drainage
Avill also have the effect of destroying them.
If these statements should prove true, as we have every
reason to expect they will, we have very direct evidence of the
good of this ennobling study.
It has always been most interesting to the student of Natural
History to investigate the similarity in structure existing be-
tween animals from separate parts of the globe, and if possible
Inaugural Address, by the President 21
to discover if these similarities are the result of a connection in
former times. For such an investigation a knowledge of the
forms that lived during the past history of the earth is
imperative.
Unfortunately it is most difficult to get the remains of
invertebrates well preserved in geological strata, owing to their
perishable nature, but there is one substance in which we have
them well preserved, even better than the larger animals.
That substance is amber. Great numbers of spiders, as well as
other articulata are found embedded in the amber which is
copiously cast up on the southern shores of the Baltic, many in
a complete state of preservation. The principal work by Koch
and Berendt, on the subject of these remains describes these
amber spiders, three of which are remarkable for their strangely
elevated heads, and are grouped in one genus Archaea. Type,
Archaea paradoxa.
Koch considered this genus not to be related to any known
spiders, while the late Professor Menge of Danzig, believed
them at lirst to have most affmity with letragnatha, but after-
wards refers Archaea to the Laterigrades. However within
the last few years living spiders have been discovered closely
related to Archaea^ but strange to say, in widely separated
parts of the world.
The first of these sent by me to the Rev. O. Pickard-
Cambridge and described by him under the name of Eriaiich-
eniui Workmani was found in Madagascar. He said " It is of
great interest, not only on account of its singularly elevated
caput, but because the elevation is of a type quite distinct from
anything I have ever before met with."
Some specimens of Walckenaera have the upper part of the
caput elevated to a great height, and the eyes are (some or all)
carried up with it; but in the present spider not only the eyes
but the falces are carried up, necessitating the extraordinary
development of the latter to enable them to meet and cooperate
with the other parts of the mouth. These parts would other-
wise have been left open and exposed and the spider itself
22 Inaugural Address by the President.
would have been in danger of starvation since the anterior
extremities of the falces, with their fangs and teeth, are the
main instruments for holding and compressing the spider's
prey, the juices of which flow thence into the mouth itself.
Another of these curious spiders came from Landana on the
river Congo on the west coast of Africa and has been described
by M. Eugene Simon and he has named it Landana Petiti dSttr
the discoverer M. L. Petit.
M. Simon has not only described a third living species under
the name of Mecysmauchenius segmentatus but also another
fossil species, Archaea pougnetiio\xx\6. embedded in amber from
the shores of the Baltic.
M. Simon in his splendid work on spiders, just being issued,
says, that he can see no difference between Archaea and
Ertauchenius, and therefore does away with the latter genus.
He also says of these spiders, " The geographical distribution of
the Archaeidae is not less curious than the details of their
strange structure. Although during the Tertiary epoch the
genus Archaea inhabited the North of Europe, the genera
actually living, which we must suppose to be its descendants, are
relegated to the most southern parts of the Old and New
world. The genus Archaea is found in Madagascar, the genus
Landana in the Congo districts, while the genus Mecysmau-
cheniiis comes from Cape Horn. The first two genera Simon
considers to be allied to the Argiopae, of which our common or
garden spider Araneus diadematiis belongs. Landana he has
placed in the Therididae. It would be of great importance to
know what sort of webs they make.
The L-ung-fishes, Jivmg representatives of the Dipnoi^ an order
of fish that goes back to the Devonian period, has also a similar
distiibution, represented by the Protopterus in Africa, the
Lepidosiren in South America, and the Ceraiodus in only one
or two rivers in Queensland.
In the skunk {Mephitis sufficans) we have a curious instance
of a mammal protected by warning colours, and a disagreeable
smell. The skunk goes about freely with its white tail erect
as a danger signal, fearing neither man or beast.
Inaugural Address by the President. 23
In 1881, when crossing the Pampas ot Uruguay, between the
Brazilian frontier and the city of Monte Video, in a diligence,
with a party of Spaniards, I had a personal interview with a
skunk in a state of nature, and can therefore speak from
experience of its defensive or rather offensive armature. While
stopping to change horses I wandered a little way from the
station, searching for spiders. While in the act of catching
some red ones in a crevice among rocks, I heard a curious
sound like that emitted by a large moth or butterfly flapping
its wings. I peered down into the opening, expecting to see
some insect trying to get out, but instead, I saw a funny little
pig like nose and two bright eyes looking up at me with a very
comical expression. This explained where the hist ! hist ! hist !
came from. But what was the thing. At first I thought it was
a young pig, but a pig does not make that noise, nor is it armed
with long claws as this animal was. It then began to show
signs of attack, and not liking the look of the long claws I
kept my distance and hallooed for the others, who soon came
running down to see what was wanted. When they came near
they did not seem to like the look of the creature.
borne of the party would not go within yards of the rock
where it was, but no one explained the nature of the beast and
why they feared it, except that it would not bite. Seeing they
were really in earnest that it would not bite I felt quite anxious
to capture it alive. So taking great precautions I slipped my
hand down the cleft until I got firm hold of the animal by the
back of the neck and, with difficulty, dragging it out, I began
to carry it to the diligence, congratulating myself on the hand
some capture I had made, for it looked very nice and mild with
its black body and long bushy tail.
My companions seemed strangely elated and laughed im-
moderately. Indeed if I had not been such a self-satisfipd
tenderfoot their strange behaviour would have aroused my
suspicions and I would have smelt a rat. The creature now
began to show signs of dissatisfaction as if it thought the joke
had gone far enough and being afraid it was making round to
24 Inaugural Address by the President.
bite my hand I let it drop to the ground, expecting it
immediately to bolt off. But such a thought seemed never to
have entered its mind. It apparently thought itself master of
the situation and when I poked my hat at it, it acted very
much like a playful kitten, sitting up on its hind legs and
jumping at the hat as if in fun. I got more than ever pleased
with my new-found pet and proceeded to re-capture it. When
suddenl}' it turned tail . . whew ! ! I The murder was
out, the laughter explained ; for feeling a most horrible
effluvium in my nose and smarting in my eyes I needed no one
to tell me what I had captured. A skunk, a beast I had smelt
before but never seen and handled and don't want to again.
I am sure I cannot better close my lecture than in the noble
words in which Professor Charles Richet, of Paris, opened that
address on Nerve Waves which entranced the British Associa-
tion at Dover last September.
" If, owing to the stupid prejudices and barbarian hate,
nations are still separated by divisions which may lead them
into fratricidal war, it falls to the men of science at least to set
the example of concord, in order that by their teaching, based
on reason, they may bring to all peace, sweet peace — the
chimera of the past, the reality of to-morrow." " To this
end nothing can be more effective than the great example of
the British Association and the Association Fran9aise, who,
within the space of a few days, are to meet twice as partners
in their fertile work : to-morrow on English soil, in this
hospitable town of Dover ; five days later on the soil of France,
on the shores you can see from here, where you will find the same
courteous and cordial welcome as our countrymen will receive
on this side." '• Yet, after these words of peace must come
words of war — nay, its open declaration.''
" Men of science have not the right to stay within the closed
gates of their tower of ivory ; it behoves them also to wrestle,
and to wrestle unceasingly for justice, to turn the united forces
of all generous minds against the common foe, the worst enemy
of mankind, and this is ignorance.
Inaugural Address hy the President. 25
" We must not value unduly the admirable conquests won
by science in this century. Admirable as they are, they are
yet nothing as compared to the great mystery beyond.
Newton compared our science to that of a child, who should
pick up a pebble on the seashore, and think he has penetrated
the secrets of ocean."
" After all our searching and all our efforts, we to-day can
hardly say more. The shades tliat surround us are as deep as
in the time of Newton ; and in this universe, vast and obscure,
at most, scattered glimmers of light, few and far between, reach
our straining eyes. We need all the co-operation of all men
of science, of all nations, to dispel some of these shades."
" What madness it would be not to unite, not to walk hand
in hand, but to strive apart ! The reward of this union
will be above all price ; the conquest of truth, the control of
brute matter, the gift of a life less precarious and less painful to
man, feeble man."
Also his closing words,
" Vast as is the world, mighty as are the fires of the infinite
stars, the intelligence of man is of a higher order than these ;
and I would fain exclaim with the great philosopher Immanuel
Kant : ' More than the starry heaven above my head, one
thing fills me with admiration : the moral law in the heart of
man.
Dr. Charles Sheldon in proposing a vote of thanks to the
lecturer, said that the President was not the least notable
among the members of the Workman family, who had done so
much in various forms to increase research in Belfast. They
had been delighted with the manner in which he had revealed
to them the results of his own investigation, and he (Dr.
Sheldon) hoped that the President's desire might be gratified
that the British Association would visit them at a future date.
Mr. G. W. Ferguson seconded and Mr, W. Gray supported
the motion, which was passed by acclamation.
The President thanked the mover of the vote of thanks and
26 Inaugural Address by the President.
the other gentlemen who had spoken for their kind remarkS;
and said he could promise the British association a very warm
welcome indeed if they visited Belfast in 1902.
27
Ith December^ 1899.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P., President, in the Chair.
PERSONAL IMPRESSIONS OF THE TRANSVAAL,
NATAL, AND CAPE COLONFY.
By Robert A. Mitchell, LL.B.
{Abstract.)
South Africa has attracted a great deal of pubHc attention
of late years, especially since the important episode of the
Jameson Raid, and the denouement now taking place had not
been altogether unexpected by those who really knew. It has
been said that South Africa was the '' grave of the reputations
of prominent men," but it has also produced its successes,
among whom are Cecil Rhodes and Sir Alfred Milner. To
Mr. Rhodes Great Britain owes her predominance in South
Africa to-day, ana to him is due the fact that we have a vast
empire in that part of the world. Sir Alfred Milner is a star
which has shot into brilliancy at a later date, but his conduct of
affairs during the crisis has marked him as a coming man.
South Africa is at present in a transition state, and we can
only guess at what its future will be. Unlike some of our
other colonies, which are entirely white men's country, South
Africa has its great native question always present, and always
will have it, for Great Britain has stopped the cruel and bloody
wars by which thousands formerly lost their lives, and has taken
measures to keep down epidemic diseases, such as smallpox,
which claimed its thousands of victims also. This is character-
istic of us as a colonising power, for whenever Britain puts her
28 Personal Impressions of the Transvaal.
shoulder to the wheel, ignorance, cruelty, and injustice vanish.
Great Britain alone has made a thorough success of colonising,
and we await with interest the advent of a new colonising
power across the Atlantic which may sometime equal, but
never eclipse us. Wherever Great Britain goes, unlike the
other nations of the world, she holds her possessions in trust for
mankind ; that is at once the keynote and the invisible strength
of her Empire.
South Africa is politically divided into many spheres, but
the principal divisions are Cape Colony, Natal, Rhodesia,
Orange Free State, and the South African Republic or
Transvaal. Germany and Portugal hold territories on the
borders of these, but one possession in the hands of the latter
power I hope will now become British, I refer to Delagoa Bay.
Cape Colony is the oldest and most important of the places
just named. Its length is about 440 miles, its breadth 600, and
its area 199,950 square miles (more than twice that of Great
Britain), but including dependencies it has an area of 355,171
square miles. To this vast area must be added that of
Bechuanaland, Chartered Company, Mashonaland, and .Mata-
beleland, which is 963,000 square miles, and Natal and Zululand,
or a grand total of 1,352,821 square miles owned by Great Britain
in South Africa. The population of Cape Colony and depen-
dencies is 410,000 whites and 1,500,000 blacks.
Natal and Zululand have an area of 34,650 square miles and
a population of 50,000 whites and 700,000 blacks.
The area of the South African Republic is 113,700 square
miles, and the population 204,000 whites and 645,000 blacks.
The Orange Free State has an area of 43,000 square miles
and a population of 95,000 whites and 130,000 blacks.
From Capetown to the Zambezi is about 1,200 mile:^, and from
the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean is ab ut 1,300, and when we
assimilate the Orange Free State and the South African
Republic our empire in South Africa will be a gigantic one in
point of area, but this vast country is peopled by but 720,000
whites and 4,000,000 blacKs, the two added together not much
Personal Impressions of the Transvaal. 29
more than the population of Ireland and the total white
population 's only about twice that of Belfast.
As regards the nature of her population, it is made up of
Cape Dutch, Britishers, Negroes, Malays and Indians. The
Cape Dutch are a mixed race, being descendants through inter-
marriage of the original Dutch settlers and the French
Huguenots who came to the country in the 17th century.
Their language is not pure Dutch, but a patois called the
" Taal." The lead in social improvement and the amassing
of wealth is taken by the British, and their superiority is due
to their greater application to habits of industry. The native
races comprise Kaffirs, Bechuanas, Hottentots, Fingoes, Zulus,
Mashonas and Matabele. The Zulu is the first type of the
coloured people of South Africa — he is at once a warrior and
a gentleman, and until Cetewayo was crushed in 1879 he never
soiled his fingers with work, as his women folk did all that for
him. Each native man who is not a Christian is entitled to as
many wives as he can buy, and his ideal number is four. The
price of wives when I was there last being 10 cows, and a
commission of one to the prospective mother-in-law.
The Malays who inhabit chiefly Cape Colony were brought
therefrom the East Indian Islands by the Dutch as slaves, and are
very energetic and industrious. Another element of the popu-
lation, and a serious one, is the Indian element. Natives were
brought from India to work in Natal, and are to a ver}'' appreci-
able extent supplanting the white man in that colony, and so
causing a burning question that will have some day to be
settled by the Home Government. Broadly speaking Cape
Colony is more Dutch than British ; Natal has only a sprinkling
of Dutch inhabitants ; in the Orange Free .State there are five
Dutch to one Britisher, and in the Transvaal almost two
Uitlanders to one Boer.
As may be observed in the several views at this stage thrown
on the screen, Cape town and Table Bay present a magnificent
sight to the visitor. Towns up country, however, are hardly
worth being called towns, they are small collections of houses
30 Personal Impressions of the Transvaal.
and at best what we would call villages, but as such they look
large in the estimation of the population unused to anything
greater. Places like Colesberg and De Aar, lately come into
prominence, are very small. The other important =eaports of
Cape Colony are Port Elizabeth and East London. Some of
the finest buildings in South Africa are in Capetown, which is
so much in advance of Belfast that it possesses an electric tram
service. Simonstown is the British Naval station for the Cape
and it was here that the naval brigade, which had won so much
fame for itself in recent battles had been organised, and it was
here that the bulk of the Boer prisoners were detained.
There are two ways to choose from for the traveller on his
way to Johannesburg, one is by train direct from Capetown a
hot and weary journey of 62 hours, and the other way via
Natal, first by sea and then by rail, which is preferable to the
long train journey from Capetown, but which gives travellers a
good chance of seeing Cape Colony scenery. The greater part
of Caie Colony consists of Karoo. Any one seeing it for the
first time would imagine himself to be in a desert and the very
look of the place would drive a County Down Farmer to
madness, and yet vast herds of cattle and flocks of sheep manage
to exist there. Port Elizabeth is the most English town in
the colony. Its chief export is wool. One remarkable feature
of Cape Colony scenery is the want of trees. What trees did
grow are not more than 20 feet high except the blue gum
tree which has been brought from Australia, and which reaches
a good height, and which are alwavs planted near the farm
house for the shade. Almost all South African trees bear
flowers.
Natal was first settled in 1820, and differs considerably from
Cape Colony as it is more fertile and is called the " Garden
Colony " in consequence. The Natal natives are for the greater
part of the Zulu stock ; they live in Kraals and are governed by
their own chiefs. The Colony of Natal is essentially British,
much more so than Cape Colony. Natal slopes upwards from
the coast to the great Central African tableland at a rapid
Personal Impressions of the Transvaal. 31
angle, and so causes an astonishing variety of climate from
tropical to quite cool in the neighbourhood of Langs Nek, about
5,500 feet above sea level. Pietermaritzburg is the prettiest
town in South Africa, and the railwa}'^ which connects it with
Johannesburg is a great feat of engineering skill, having been
brought round mountains and alongside precipices with wonder-
ful engineering skill in negotiating the several thousand feet
between the sea coast and Johannesburg. Travelling, apart
from railways, is rather rough and attended with considerable
danger. There are few bridges across rivers and streams, and
these have therefore to be crossed by drifts or fords, which is
a difficult matter in time of rain. Ladysmith, when I visited
it, was a very small place with very miserable hotel accommo-
dation. It stood on a plain, surrounded by hills on two sides.
Crossing into the Transvaal we may glance at its past history,
and the causes that led up to the present war. The Boers who
ruled it had formerly peopled Cape Co ony, had gone north
rather than live under the flag of the most liberty-loving
nation in the world. In 1877 the Transvaal was annexed by
the British in order to save it from extinction by the natives,
but through the weakness of the Government then in power,
when the Boers rebelled in 1881, it was again allowed its
independence. Conventions were entered into between the
Imperial Government and the Transvaal in 188 1 and 1884.
Almost everv provision of each of these conventions has been
systematically and deliberately broken by the Boer government
since they were signed. The result has been the present war.
The Transvaal has a very fine climate which is almost perfect
for consumptives, being dry and bracing. All the land
is covered with grass and there is plenty of water^
and so it is most suitable for stock farming. Rolling
grassy plains with blue gum trees here and there round
the farms and distant hills are the characteristic features
of the Transvaal landscape Johannesburg is about 5,000
feet above sea level and in the winter is quite cold. The
mineral resources of the country are not yet fully known, but
32 Personal Impressions of the Transvaal.
from what is known it is one of the richest places in the world
and has a great future before it. Johannesburg has been built
up within the last 14 years by the industry and skill of the
Uitlander. It is a very f ne city and a credit to our fellow-
countrymen. So oppressive, however, was the Boer Govern-
ment that the guns of the fort were kept constantly trained
upon it. Johannesburg was founded in 1886, and in 1897 it
had a population of ico,ooo, one-half white. Mr. Bryce, the
historian, says, '' Johannesburg with its mining environs has
nearly all the industry and wealth and half the whole white
population of the Transvaal, a country, be it rememberd, as
large as Great Britain, Pretoria and the lonely country to the
north, east, and west has the rest of the population and all the
power.''
Considering the political situation before the war and the
grievances of the Uitlanders, instances of which I met with in
Johannesburg, it seemed to me clear that the war was inevit-
able, and was directly brought about oy the Boer government
for its own ends. The Boer does not care for hard work,
but has no objection to enjoy the fruits of others labours.
This explains in a great measure their attitude towards the
Uitlanders, and their barbarity to the Natives.
The South African Republic was only a Republic in name,
and was really a corrupt oligarchy, almost all the members of
the government and most of the public men being known to
accept bribes freely, and President Kruger has pushed into
public and well paid offices as many of his 108 grandchildren
as he could, whether they had the necessary qualifications
or not. The fact is that the Boers are far behind the
times ; they are ignorant, taciturn, and suspicious — their ideas
in dealing with others is to be " slim," i.e.^ crafty. The
Uitlanders had many grievances to complain of ; it had been in
trying to bring about a redress of those grievances that the
present war originated. It is to be hoped that the issue will
be on the side of right and justice.
In showing some slides of Pretoria, I may explain that
Personal Impressions of the Transvaal. 33
Pretoria is quite unlike Johannesburg, and presents a great
contrast to it, being a quiet little country town, rather pretty,
and surrounded by hills — upon the summit of each a fort.
The only fine building in Pretoria is the Raad Zaal or Parlia-
ment House which cost _^20o,ooo.
The Orange Free State is almost entirely a stock raising
country. Farming and shop-keeping are the only industries.
Bloemfontein is a small country town, with nothing to claim
attention. The climate of the Orange Free State, like that of
the Transvaal, is almost perfect for consumptives. It is,
however, like the rest of South Africa, subject to violent
thunderstorms. While travelling in the Orange Free State
I experienced one of the most tremendous thunderstorms it is
possible to imagine, which raged for many hours. About 6
p.m. the sky clouded over, the rain fell in torrents and for
hours the thunder rolled and the lightning flashed. Forked
lightning, sheet lightning, and balls of fire followed each other
in quick succession so that the illumination of the landscape
was practically continuous. My friends and myself endeavoured
to count the flashes per minute, but as they were coming in all
directions we had to fall back on an estimate of 30 or 40
flashes.
In concludmg, may I express the pleasure I have had in
helping any one to-night to understand, even if faintly, the
main features of our future Great Dominion in South Africa
and the conditions which, until recently, obtained in one
portion of it more particularly.
3+
2nd January^ igoo.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J. P., President, in the Chair.
IRELAND AND THE SCOTTISH ISLES ; ANCIENT
CONNEXIONS AND INTERCOURSE.
By S. F. Milligan, M.R.I.A.
{Abstract.)
I have been led to think of this subject in consequence of
being one ot a large party who visited these islands in the
month of June last. On the occasion referred to two of the
leading archaeological societies — viz., the Royal Society of
Antiquaries of Ireland and the Cambrian Archaeological Asso-
ciation— chartered a fine steamer, and paid a visit to the Inner
and Outer Hebrides, as well as several islands lying outside the
track of tourists and ordinary steamers. I was much impressed
with the similarity of the surroundings, physical appearance,
and social conditions of the islanders as compared with our own
people in Mayo, Galway, and islands on the Western Atlantic
seaboard. In most of the islands Gaelic was still spoken, and
was easily understood by Irish-speaking people. Their inter-
course with Ireland was much greater three or four hundred
years ago than it is now, due to the fact that in the early
ages of Christianity and for many centuries afterwards Irishmen
had a great disposition for roaming all over Western Europe,
either as teachers, missionaries, or soldiers. About the year
560 a.d. Saint Columba formed the idea of going to Scotland
to attempt the conversion of the Picts to Christianity, and, if
successful, he hoped it would alleviate the condition of his
countrymen who had settled in the Scottish Dalriada. Columba
by his grandmother was related to the Dalriada Kings of
Scotland, and his sympathies were drawn out towards his
Ireland and the Scottish Isles. 35
kinsmen who were so harassed by the Picts. He had spent
the first forty years of his life in Ireland, founding churches
and monasteries, and, as an itinerant missionarj^ preaching all
over Ireland. He started from Derr} , founded by himself,
where stood his favourite monastery. He proceeded, accom-
panied by twelve of his followers, along the beautiful shores of
Lough Foyle to Innishowen Head, where the little bay is still
shown from which his curragh sailed to the Scottish Isles. It
was about the year 563 he left Ireland, and, as he was born in
521, he was then forcy-two years of age. He was full of energy
and zeal, and had vast experience of mission work, when he
made this new departure. Monasticism was taking a firm hold
in Ireland about this time, and the more zealous of the Irish
clerics were founding monasteries in the islands around the
Irish coast as well as in the islands on the larger lakes. Islands
were the favourite spots where these institutions first flourished.
It is supposed that monasticism originated in Egypt in the
third century, and rapidly spread over the then Christian
world. What was for their safety and security at first — that
is, their isolated position — ultimately durmg the Danish period
led to their destruction. Columba stopped at several islands
on his way. He called at Oronsay with the idea of remaining,
but as he could see the summits of the mountains of Ireland
from it he proceeded on to I, or Hy, now known as lona,
where he got a grant of land, and founded his famous
monastery. For two years he never lefi the island, getting
the little community into order, building his monastery, and
tilling the ground. By his holy life, example, and conversation
he impressed most favourably all who came in contact with
him. His little colony was like an oa'is in the desert of that
wild country. He was entirely successful in his mission to
Brude, the Pictish King, who became a convert to the Christian,
faith. The leading nobles followed, and for years afterwards his
labours amongst the Pictish nation never flagged until the
whole nation embraced Christianity. The result he anticipated
followed, and the mellowing influence of the Gospel caused a
36 Ireland and the Scottish Isles.
marked improvement in the relations between the Picts and
the Scots, and led to their ultimate union into one Scottish
kingdom. The monastery of lona became celebrated over
Western Europe, and for centuries afterwards shone as a bright
beacon of Christianity in this far-off isle of the sea. In the
burial-ground known as the Relig Oran there are buried 48
Scottish kings, 4 Irish kings, 8 Norwegian kings, and Egfrid,
a king of Northumbria, also many great Highland chiefs and
lords of the isles, so that very few spots on earth contain more
lemains of illustrious dead than does lona. It was the parent
of many monasteries not alone in Scotland and the Isles, but
in Ireland and the North of England. Columba returned to
Ireland at the close of his life to attend a great national
convention held at Drumceatt, near to where Limavady now
stands.
The Macdonnells became connected with Antrim, and
formed an Irish family, the head of which is the Earl of Antrim.
John Mor Macdonnell, son of Eion of Islay, and grandson by
his mother of King Robert II., came to Antrim for a wife.
He came over to seek the hand of Margery Bysett, a handsome
woman, and heiress to all the lands included in the Glens of
Antrim. The Bysetts were a noble Scotch family, who about
the year 1242 were outlawed from Scotland for the supposed
murder of the Earl of Athol, which charge was never proved.
Leaving Scotland with all their means, they acquired the
territory included in the Glens. Margery's father had married
a daughter of The O'Neill, and, having no other child, the
property fell to her. John Macdonnell was married in 1399 to
Margery Bysett at Glenarm, where her family had a castle.
They resided afterwards in Cantire, and occasionally at Glenarm.
From the period of their marriage a greater number of the
islanders settled in the Glens, which continued a favourite
resort and hiding-place when any trouble arose in Scotland.
The intercourse between Antrim and the Isles, particularly
Islay and Cantire, from this time became very close. There
was constant going to and from the Isles, and occasional forays
Ireland and the Scottish Isles. 37
were made as far as Castlereagh, when large preys cf cattle
would be driven back to the Glens, and thence to Rathlin, to
be taken afterwards to Tslay at their convenience. In the year
1 55 1 a feud existed between the O'Neills of Castlereagh and
the Macdonnells, and the latter made an incursion into Clan-
naboy, from which a great prey of cattle and other valuables
were lifted and removed to Rathlin. The Macdonnells were
able to strike a blow at England more easily through the North
of Ireland than any other quarter, and the Government in
Dublin made up their mind to put them down. This was in
1 55 1, when Elizabeth was Queen. Four ships were fitted out,
and a large number of soldiers placed on board to proceed to
Rathlin, and, if possible, carry off the plunder that was supposed
to be stored there. The ships, on their arrival, proceeded to land
an armed force of three hundred men, part gunners and part
archers. The Macdonnells awaited them on the shore, prepared to
give them a warm reception, By a sudden upheavel of the sea
or a great Atlantic roller the boats were driven high on the rocks,
and before they could recover themselves the Macdonnells
attacked and slew every man except the two captains. These
were retained as hostages, and afterwards exchanged for the
younger brother of the chief, the afterwards celebrated Sorley
Boy, who was then a prisoner in Dublin Castle. The Macdon-
nells at this time owned Dunluce Castle, which they had taken
from the MacQuillans, also Kenbane Castle and Dunanynie
Castle, built on a cliff near the sea at Ballycastle, which was
the favourite residence of Sorley Boy. Ballycastle was pre-
viously called Port Brittas, and was the place principally used
for landing or embarking for Cantire. It was also from here
that Fergus was supposed to have embarked when he and his
brothers founded the Scottish kingdom. A little to the east
of Ballycastle is Port Usnach, from where Naysi and Derdrie
sailed to Alba.
There were frequent intermarriages between the Macdon-
nells and the leading families in the North of Ireland. The
Macdonnells succeeded in holding a large portion of their
38 Ireland and the Scottish Isles.
Irish property, whilst they lost Islay and Cantire. We have
<ried to show that an ancient and intimate connection existed
between Ireland and the Scottish isles ; that they were of the
same race and language ; and that hundreds of years ago there
was a close and intimate union existing. They retain the
name that we have lost — that is, Scots, whilst we are called
Irish. When in Dunvegan Castle we were shown a drinking
cup made in the North of Ireland 400 years ago. Maguire, of
Fermanagh, in the fifteenth century married a lady from Skye,
Catherine Magrannal, and this cup was made at her expense
and forwarded as a present to her relatives there. The high
crosses of Ireland were reproduced in Scotland and the isles,
and the island monasteries of Ireland and Scotland were similar
in both architecture and discipline. The ruins we examined
on the Flannan Islands and North Rona have their counter-
parts in Innismurray, Arran, and the Skelligs. If you would
understand the social condition and the mode of life in Ireland
in the Tudor period, you may study it at present in the Island
of Lewis and other islands, where the mode of living has
altered very little for hundreds of years. Fynes Morrison, who
was secretary to the Lord Deputy, and who visited the Scottish
islands, writes in 1598 that the West of Scotland carried on
trade with Ireland in red and pickled herring, sea coal, and
aquavitae, in exchange for yarn and cow hides. The Scottish
Parliament passed an Act to promote temperance and stop the
importation of wine to the islanders. The large landowners,
however, were permitted to import wine, and the quantity was
fixed in proportion to their property. MacLeod, of Dunvegan,
might purchase 876 dozen bottles, smaller proprietors 220
dozens. Claret was the wine in most demand.
The Scottish people have done a great deal to attract
tourists to their country. Besides providing extremely cheap
railway and steamboat travelling, they have availed themselves
of the halo of romance that Scott has shed on so many spots in
Scotland in his poems and stories, and they continue to keep
them well to the front as an additional attraction to their fine
Ireland and the Scottish Isles. 39
scenery. We might do a little more in this way in Ireland.
Our country is not devoid of places possessing great historical
interest. All around our Antrim coast, no further back than
three hundred years ago, was bristling with stirring events.
Even two hundred years ago matters of che first importance
took place in our immediate neighbourhood — the landing of
William III. at Carrickfergus, and his march to Belfast on his
way to the Boyne. The old town of Carrickfergus, which took
its name from the Dalriadan King, has a history of very great
interest all through the Anglo-Norman times. What varied
people trod its streets — the great De Courcey, King John, and
many a gallant Norman knight ; Irish chiefs and gallowglasses,
the Chichesters, lord deputies, and others who lived there or
came to visit this stronghold of English power. We can almost
fancy we can hear the clash of swords when Sir James
Macdonnell attacked Sir John Chichester when returning after
collecting taxes over the glens. The battle took place a little
on the Larne side of Carrickfergus, and resulted in Sir John
being slain and his army of Englishmen being defeated. The
old ruin of Olderfleet at Larne marks the spot where Edward
Bruce landed with io,oco Scots in the year 131 5 for the conquest
of Ireland. As we proceed around the coast we reach Glenarm,
where the castle of the Bysetts stood on the south side of the
river, opposite to where Glenarm Castle now stands. Near
Waterfoot stand the ruins of Red Bay Castle, which was re-
paired and lived in by the Sir James to whom we have now
referred. Further round near Cushendun Shane O'Neill, the
great chieftain of Tyrone, fell, slain at a banquet by the
Macdonnells in revenge for the death of their chief James,
whom O'Neill kept prisoner till his death. Shane's head was
cut off and taken by an Englishman to Dublin Castle, where it
was placed on a spike over the gateway. Further along the
coast we reach Ballycastle, the ancient Port Brittas, where the
Scots landed and embarked on their journey to and from
Cantire. Here still stands the ruins of Sorley Boy's Castle of
Dunanynie, his favourite abode in life, and where he died. A
40 Ireland and the Scottish Isles,
little distance outside Ballycastle along the base of Knocklayde
there was fought one of the fiercest and most sanguinary
battles of that time. Shane O'Neill, without any justifiable
reason, attacked unexpectedly and treacherously the Macdon-
nells before the latter could collect their full forces. The army
of the Scots was almost exterminated, and the chief and his
brother — Sorley Boy — were taken prisoners. James was sent
to a castle of O'Neill's at Carrick, in Tyrone, and all ransom
refused, while his brother Sorley Boy was sent to Dublin Castle.
We cannot omit a reference to Dunluce Castle, which all
through the Elizabethan age held an important position in
Irish history. Here the eldest son of Sorley Boy — the brave
Alexander — defended the castle most heroically against Perrott,
the Lord Deputy. Between the Causeway and Ballycastle is
the ancient castle of Dunseverick, much older than any we
have mentioned, which brings us back to Cormal Cearnach, a
Red Branch knight, who resided there. On a hill near to
Cushendall is pointe-! out the grave of Ossian, the great Irish
bard and poet. These few references, taken hurriedly, may
suffice in the direction I have indicated, and point to the course
that should be taken to popularise travel in Ireland, which,
added to its scenic beauties, should make our country the
favourite resort of travellers.
The lecture was illustrated by upwards of eighty specially-
prepared lantern slides of both Pagan and Christian antiquities
and scenery taken during the visit already referred to by Mr.
MiUigan.
The cordial thanks of the meeting was accorded to Mr.
MiUigan on the motion of Dr. Moran, seconded by Mr. Wm.
Gray, M.R.I.A.
41
6th February^ igoo.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J. P., President, in the Chair.
SOME THOUGHTS ON ROME.
By Conway Scott, C.E.
{Abstract.)
At the outset the reader surv 'vei the early history of the city
OD the Palatine hills, and inquired into th^ causes contributing
to the greatness of the Roman power. But walking through
the streets of the Rome of to-day, with the mind full of
memories of the past, one could hardly realise that it was
Rome, the once mighty mistress of the civilised world. Every-
thing became so modernised that little remained of the old
Pagan city on the Tiber. The ancient architectural magnifi-
ce ce of Rome was dealt with, and a minute description given
of the present state of the ruins of those monuments of former
greatness. He considered that one of the causes of the fall of
Kome was the extent ot her possessions, which more or less
extinguished her early spirit of patriotism. Another cause was
her opposition to Christianity, which in the end won its
triumph, and subdued a far vaster realm than ever was held
sway over by Roman dictator or Emperor. But the Roman
civilisation formed a splendid basis for the Christian civilisation,
and to day the once capital city of the world was as famous for
sending out the soldiers of the cross to conquer the world f6r
Christ, as ever it was for sending out its legions to win earthly
dominions.
42
THE GROWTH OF THE INK BLOT.
By W. H. Pattekson, M.R.I.A.
{Abstract.)
The author described some experiments on the markings
produced by the appHcation of various coloured inks to
blotting paper and exhibited some remarkably brilliant ''blots"
which he had made, or rather which had made themselves by
the methods described below. Some of them bore a wonderful
resemblance to the pictures that have been produced of the
corona during an eclipse of the sun, others looked like paintings
of botanical subjects, but all possessed a strange kind of con-
structive beauty and harmonious blending of colour. Very
frankly Mr. Patterson admitted that the " blots," so far as he
knew, were of no practical use further than to illustrate in a
pleasing manner the principal of capillary attraction.
In forming the blot, the materials or appliances required
are some ink, some white blotting paper, and a piece of cotton
cord to serve as a wick. The most convenient way of causing
the blots to grow is by placing a wick in a bottle of ink so that
the ink can freely rise to the upper point of the wick. The
lower side of a sheet of blotting paper is then brought in
contact with the point of wick, and supported there in any
convenient manner, for instance, on the edge of a bowl or basin,
inside which the bottle of ink may stand.
The ink immediately commences to rise through the wick
into the paper, and quickly or slowly, according to the nature
of the ink, spreads into a blot of more or less circular form, until
it reaches the edge of the paper, but it is not well to let it go
The Growth of the Ink Blot. 43
quite so far if one wishes to have a pretty well shaped blot. By
transferring the blotting paper from an ink of one colour, say
red, to a bottle containing a different coloured ink, say green,
and letting the paper take up more or less of the various
colours, a great variety of very remarkable and unexpected
results will be obtained. Very soft and pretty blots can be made
if some clear water is led with a camel's hair brush to the upper
side of the blotting paper, while the lower side is still receiving
a supply of ink from the wick. The character of the blot can
in this way be varied in an almost endless manner.
In the case of black or blue black inks, it is a curious fact
that nearly every different make of ink forms a different kind
of blot, more especially as regards the edge, which is sometimes
beautifully branched or scalloped. There are also remarkable
differences as to the rates at which different inks will flow or
travel through the paper while the blots are growing.
44
6th March, igoo.
Mr. Thomas Workman, J.P., President, in the Chair.
"THE POSITION OF BELFAST IN RELATION TO
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION UNDER THE
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL
INSTRUCTION ACT."
By William Gray, M.R.LA.
Mr. Gray said that the time had arrived when it became
necessary to readjust our arrangements for imparting technical
instruction in Belfast, and that he proposed to discuss the
merits of that portion of the Agriculture and Technical Instruc-
tion Act of last Session that applied more particularly to
technical instruction in County Boroughs. He would briefly
indicate the lines along which our present system of industrial
education has been developed. In the middle of last century
the lirst institutions were founded in England, Scotland, and
Ireland for the promotion of technical instruction, or for the
practical application of Art and Science to industries. Mr.
Gray related the history of the first agencies founded in Great
Britain and Ireland for the practical application of Art and
Science to industries. The Board of Trustees in Scotland,
founded in 1727, the Dublin Society, incorporated by Royal
Charter in 1749, and the Society of Arts, London, founded in
1754. He referred particularly to the original School of Design
established in London in 1837, and its result, the founding of
what we now know as " The Department of Science and Art."
In Ireland the Dublin Society originated the Botanic Gardens,
the Industrial Museum, School of Art and Library, which
Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction. 45
in 1877 were transferred from the Royal Dublin Society, a
voluntary agency, to the care of the Science and Art Depart-
ment, under the Crown.
Reference having been made to the schools established by its
agency and to the opposition with which the Government
arrangements were met before the desired aims were accom-
plished, Mr. Gray went on to say that it was this spirit of inde-
pendence that must govern our aclion in dealing with the
Agriculture and Technical Instruction Act, which should
assist, but not supersede voluntary effort.
In the first quarter of this century the industrious and
progressive artisans began to feel the necessity for some form of
technical intstruction, and under the skilful leadership of Dr.
Birkbeck mechanics' institutes were founded in most manu-
facturing localities. At that period Belfast was not behind ;
indeed, it was then foremost among the towns in the kingdom
in the cultivation of literature, art, and science. This
educational work was in fact the foundation of that measure of
material prosperity Belfast has enjoyed in modern days. A
meeting was held in 1807 to receive " The report of the com-
mittee appointed to arrange a plan for the Government of the
Belfast Academical Institution." That plan embraced techni-
cal instruction in Chemistry, Botany, and Agriculture, and
such subjects as may be "conducive to the improvement of the
agriculture, arts, and manufactures of the country." What a
clear vision those old Belfast folk had of what is now about to
be unfolded possibly on their own premises?*
Mr. Gray then proceeded to explain how the old " Schools
of Design " originated with the Select Committee of the House
of Commons appointed in 1835 " to inquire into the best means
of extending a knowledge of the arts and the principles of
design among the people, especially the manufacturing popula-
tion." As the first School of Design founded in Somerset
House was not quite a success, because of its limited sphere
* Since the lecture was delivered the County Borough Council has taken a site tor
the proposed Technical College on the grounds of the Royal Academical Institution.
46 Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction.
of action, the Government in 1841 determined to further the
creation of schools of design in certain manufacturing
centres and to provide teachers for this purpose. Under
this arrangement the School of Design was established
in Belfast, subsequent changes in the conditions under which
aid was given to local schools, caused the Belfast school to be
given up although it had contributed works to the first
exhibition of students' works ever held in London. The
Belfast School of Art, which suceeded the old school
of design after some years, was opened in 1870, had
made steady progress, and in the School of Science, established
two years later in connection with the Working men's Institute,
pupils had taken high positions in the annual national
competitive examinations. The labours of the Royal Com-
mission on Technical Instruction during 1882 and 1883 gave
a powerful stimulus to local efforts lor the promotion ot
technical instruction, and while the Commission was sitting
Belfast was stirred up to establish the Hastings Street School,
which has steadily maintained a precarious existence ever since,
under most discouraging circumstances. The fact, then, that
we have struggling for existence a school of art, a science school,
and a certain form of Technical school demonstrated the
desirability and possibility of having a good combined central
Technical school if sufficient funds were forthcoming. Belfast
has always for its voluntary educational agencies but limited
means, and divided interests hindered their effective operation,
as in the case of the scheme formulated in 1887. Having
noted the want of co-operation among the various agencies
engaged in technical instruction in Belfast, and the evil
consequences arising therefrom, Mr. Gray drew attention to the
fact that by the Technical instruction Act of 1889 city councils
were enabled to aid local effort to provide technical
instruction to the extent of id in the £\. The Act was
welcomed throughout the kingdom, and new schools were
everywhereestablished under its provisions. In Belfast, although
every effort had been made by public appeal, deputations, and
Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction. 47
personal application to induce our City Council to follow the
lead of the chief cities and towns of the kingdom, up to the
present the County Borough Council of the city only
granted from the rates the sum of ^800 per annum,
which is distributed in an arbitrary way between our
four industrial schools, that for many years have been
hampered by straightened financial difficulties, to the
serious disadvantage of the technical educational prospects of
the city. Mr. Gray referred very fully to the effect of the Cus-
toms and Excise Act of 1890, under which large sums are ren-
dered available for technical instruction in England, Wales, and
Scotland, and the establishment of the City and Guilds of
London Institute, which in 1878 founded a central and other
colleges in London, in which technical instruction was carried on
to an advanced stage. Mr. Gray clearly pointed out how Ireland
was handicapped by having no advantage under the Customs and
Excise Act for the promotion of Technical Instruction, and that
owing to the apathy of our City Council, the Technical
Instruction Act of 1889 was not put into operation.
Mr. Gray said that, amid the chaos and confusion that
prevailed in the political atmosphere of Ireland in 1895, ^ far-
seeing intellect perceived and followed up an opening that gave
some prospect of securing a substantial advantage for Ireland in
favour of the agricultural and industrial classes of the country.
The steps taken in the formation of the Recess Committee by
the Right Hon. Horace Plunkett, M.P., and the important
report of the Committee's labours laid before the Chief Secretary
in August, 1890, was the origin of the Agriculture Act intro-
duced into Parliament in 1897. Fortunately this as then
drafted was not passed, owing to pressure of other business, but
it was reintroduced in an amended and much-improved form, and
and, without any help fromthe Belfast municipal authorities, was
passed into law last year under the title of " The Agriculture
and Technical Instruction Act." Under the provisions of
this most welcome Act Belfast and other county boroughs
in Ireland will be enabled to readjust the local arrangements
48 Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction.
for technical instruction, and if Belfast County Council
would but do its duty and try to make up for
past delay it would be enabled to formulate and carry
out such a scheme as would equal that of any city in
the kingdom, and be worthy of our educational and indus-
trial traditions and advancement. The Act provides for the
establishment of a Department of Agriculture and other
Industries and Technical Instruction, with the Chief Secretary
as President, and a Vice-President appointed by the Crown.
Mr. Gray mentioned that the technical instruction branch
referred more particularly to Belfast, and noted several matters
of importance connected with the duties of the Board ot
Technical Instruction and the consultative Committee. The
funds at the disposal of the department, in addition to the cost
of administration, will be about ;^i66,ooo per annum, or
including departmental expenses, a total of ^200,000 per
annum. Of this amouut a sum of _;^55,ooo per annum will be
allocated exclusively to technical instruction in Ireland, not
depending on an annual Parliamentary vote, but conferred by
direct endowment. It is not only possible, but it would be
desirable, for the county councils, say of Antrim and Down, to
work in unison with Belfast County Borough Council in the
working out of their respective schemes. All educational efforts
should be co-operative, and for this purpose scholarships may
be founded connected with National and other country and
town schools to enable students to pass on to the more im-
portant central school in Belfast. All educational agencies
should be considered in the scheme, so as to avoid friction or
overlapping. For this reason no really effective scheme can be
formulated unless with the co-operation of all our educational
agencies. The actual amount to which Belfast may be entitled
will depend upon the division to be made of the £55,000 by the
department with the concurrence of the Board of Technical
Instruction. Assuming that the division will be in equal parts,
then Belfast, in proportion to its population, would receive a
little over ^10,000 a year from this source of income, exclusive
Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction. 49
of the income from the penny rate under the Act of 1889, and
the additional penny rate under the act of last year. The
purposes on which the money is to be expended will be deter-
mined by the Department and not by the City Council.
As the powers and duties of the Science and Art
Department in Ireland and the administration of grants
for teaching art and science will be transferred to the
new department, the usual result fees and wrints hitherto
paid are still available, from which we may calculate upon an
increase of ^1,000, and, if the local contribution from the rates
is only id in the £\^ a total income of j^i5,ooo a year may be
calculated upon, exclusive of pupils' fees, provided that the
^55,000 is divided mto two equal portions by the department.*
Attention was called to the fact that the " department will not
approve of any scheme that is not assisted from money provided
by local authorities or from local sources," and that the financial
aid under the Act will not be limited to any one institution,
and the amount to be given to the Central School will depend
upon how far it will be conducted in harmony with all the
other local educational agencies.
Mr. Gray strongly advocated the immediate formation of a
composite managing committee, and said that it was shown by
the records of Europe and America that when the agencies
employed for the management and maintenance of educational
institutions are limited to municipal control such institutions
are rarely successful, but similar institutions become living
realities when they command the liberality and active exertions
of individual citizens in their private personal capacity, un-
trammelled by the formalities of office. Hence it will be very
desirable that a good Composite Committee should be formed
to draft the scheme and carry it into execution, as has been
found to work well in all the chief towns of the kingdom, and
in the County Council. The appointment of a composite
executive committe in Belfast was recommended by the Chief
*The Department has for the present apportioned ;^20,ooo to the County Boroughs,
;^20,ooo to the Rural districts, and keep in reserve ;{, 15,000.
d
50 Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction,
Secretary and Mr. Horace Plunkett. Assuming that it was
formed, Mr. Gray expressed the opinion that it could not set
before it a higher or better aim than to fully realise that form
of a technical instruction institute suggested by the composite
committee that met during the Mayoralty of Sir James Haslett,
M.P., in 1887, which proposed to establish " a central institution
for the teaching in a combined form of art, science, and
technology, as applied to the trade and manufacturers of the
district, utilising and combining so far as possible for this
purpose the school of art, schools of science and technology,
and the technical school." A full definition of what was meant
by the expression '' technical instruction " was given, and the
views of many well-known authorities quoted. Proceeding,
Mr. Gray said they could not do better than to provide without
delay a central institution in which our present excellent Art,
Science, and Technological classes may be properly and com-
fortably housed, with ample space, class-rooms, laboratories,
and lecture-rooms, equipped with all necessary fittings and
appliances of the most approved kinds, and conducted by a
staff of specially qualified teachers for each department of the
work, capable of rendering teaching assistance or advice to any
school or class in the city. Thus appointed, together with
bright, cheerful, and attractive surroundings, they might fiirly
calculate that the 1,500 pupils now receiving instruction in
their local art, science, and technological classes would be in
creased to not less than 3,000 in the r.ear future, with a promise
of proportionate advantage to our local industries. Enlisting
into their educational scheme every available auxiliary, they
should extend and should complete the intended Technical
Museum and Art Gallery connected with the Public Library,
and every function connected with that institution should be
subordinated to the purposes of technical instruction in its
widest and most liberal aspects, and placed under the manage-
ment of the composite technical committee, and conducted by
them as part of the Technical Instruction Scheme for the city.*
*The County Borough Council have joined the Library Committee and the Technical
Instruction Committee into one Committee.
Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction. 51
Although elementary teaching will be excluded from the
proposed technical institution, the elementary schools under
the National Education Commissioners must not be altogether
overlooked in our technical scheme. When the national
education scheme was drafted in 1838 it was far in advance of
an educational system in Britain, and it was intended to be
technical in its character, but sectarian conflicts eliminated
that important element from our national system of industrial
education. This form of technical instruction should be
restored The late Commission had recommended its renewal,
and in future technical instruction would be encouraged so as
to prepare the young pupils for the next step in the technical
institutions of the county boroughs, our National schools
would then be helpful auxiliaries to the central institution ;
their students at entrance to the Technical College would no
doubt be tested by examination, and classed accordingly
Scholarships may be founded for competition among the
National school pupils preparing to enter the Technical
Institute, and also scholarships to enable advanced pupils of the
Technical Institute to go forward to the technical branch of
the Queen's College, the Royal University, and the Royal
College of Science in Dublin.
Evening continuation classesshouldbe promoted in connection
with our National schools, and to this end, as well as to supply
the necessary school accommodation now required for Belfast,
Mr. Gray advocated the opening of four National schools in
Belfast under the Technical Committee to become models for
their respective localities, if not for the whole country. These
would be evening as well as day schools, and they may be further
used as branch Libraries. These should be properly equipped,
and officered by a staff of qualified teachers enabled to discharge
their professional duties untrammelled by clerical obligations:
Mr. Gray in conclusion referred to the fosterage laws of ancient
Ireland that provided for certain forms of technical instruction,
then the native Irish were disposed to indu?try, and skilled in
workmanship, qualities that may be revived with great advan-
52 Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction,
tage to our industrial progress. Tlie opportunity is given
Belfast to-day to help to revive the best forms of our national skill
open up new fields of industry, and by a well considered scheme
of technical instruction set an example for all Ireland, and
justify anew the imputed title of Belfast as the industrial
metropolis of Ireland.
Professor Fitzgerald, in opening the discussion, said he wished
to emphasise what Mr. Gray had said as to what the old Belfast
people were in the beginning of the century, compared with
what they were at the present time. What Mr. Gray had said
was a most interesting lesson, and showed that Belfast was fifty
years behind the place where it was fifty years ago. Could
they conceive that the old Belfast people, who were willing to
allow a little money out of their pockets to build such insti-
tutions as that in which they were met — could they conceive
that they would allow such an important place as the Victoria
Institute to break down in the way it ha i been allowed to go ?
With regard to the necessity of breadth of the local
scheme touched upon by .Mr. Gray, he might say the Cor-
poration had got a peculiarity of never saving anything
about anything that they cojld help. They appointed a mixed
Committee, who drew up a scheme which was fairly broad, and
as he was on that Committee he could give them some idea of
the plan. The general notion was that the Corporation Tech-
nical Committee should co-ont a number of outsiders, not
exceeding one-half of the members of the Corporation, to form
a mixed Committee for working the technical education scheme
in Belfast, and that the immediate working of schools should be
regulated by a board of heads of departments of schools.
The departments of the school were not precisely finally
settled, there was a list made by the Committee, bu': it would
be liable to alteration from time to time. Among the depart-
ments of the school it was intended to comprise a set of
preparatory evening classes for youths, some of whom were
serving their apprenticeship at the present time. It has been
found that this was necessary in other large towns. In order
Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction. 53
that boys should not be debarred from taking advantagj of the
superior classes of the technical schools it was neces-ary to
have preparatory classes. The schools were to be built
exactly opposite the building in which they were . ssembled. and
pupils would not be admitted to the regular technical classes
who were not properly prepared. A subject which had not
been mentioned by the lecturer, but which he (Professor
Fitzgerald) hoped would be included, was cookery. It was an
historical fact that the ancient Irish never seemed to mind what
the}' ate. He himself thought the preparatory classes should
be held in various parts of the city, but he believed they were
to be held only in the central institute. With regard to the
b eadth of the scheme, he did not know whether those present
in the Y.M.C.A. when Mr. Balfour was there paid sufficient
attention to the strong reference that was made to the necessity
in Ireland within the next few years of training a large number
of teachers. That ap^ eared one of the primary difficulties with
technical instruction. In the scheme special provision was
made both for the agricultural and technical instruction teachers.
The agricultural teachers, he thought, meant nothing more
than teachers in technical schools outside the county boroughs.
He had noticed in the papers that a considerable number of
national school teachers were wanting to be trained in manual
instruction, and existing teacher.-, with few exceptions, had no
training in work of that kind ; but to that he would not refer.
The agricultural teachers would be paid out of the grant which
would go to the agricultural division out of the .^55,000 to
which reference had been made.
]\lr. Stevenson was of opinion that the apithy with which
technical instruction , as regarded in Belfast was decidedly
disheartening to all interested in the subject. It would seem
as if Belfast manufacturers had a poor opinion of their fello\Vs
when it came to anything affecting the arts or sciences. He
believed a great number of the young people in Belfast who
used their hands might increase their comfort and usefulness
very much if they could add a little brainwork to their labours.
54 Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction.
The new institution would assist such, and no doubt there
would be a great improvement in the prosperity of the city
after its establishment. He had had recently several hundred
designs sent him from various parts of the country, and, while
the senders no doubt were well educated, the results from an
artistic point of view would have been laughable had one not
felt some sadness in looking at them. In conclusion, he wished
to express the pleasure he felt at listening to Mr. Gray's paper,
and his entire confidence in the far-reaching effect which the
establishment of this institution would have in their midst.
Mr. MiUigan said everyone had been delignted with Mr.
Gray's admirable paper. One of the most intelligent and
cultured audiences he had ever seen in the hall he looked
upon that night, and it was a great pity the members of the
Council did not come there for information — the mformation
which they needed very much. They had made a move as to
site for the new buildmg, but he would have preferred it at
Marcus Ward's, because it would have saved them ^i,ooo a
year. However, money was of no importance to the Council,
and it was better to have the present site than none. He hoped
that Mr. Gra}''s Lecture would be printed, and that the
members of the Town Council would read it, for he felt assured
it contained information they would get in no other place.
Though late, they were not too late to do well. The future
prosperity of the city depended largely upon the interest taken
iu the matter, and he hoped the technical school would be
pushed forward as quickly as possible.
Mr. W. Armstrong regarded the subject from two points of
view — the cosmopolitan and the patriotic. He expressed the
opinion that they were bound to go on with it, because other
nations were making progress, and if ifiey would simply sit still
and pat each other on the back they would soon find them-
selves fifty years behind the times.
Mr. Shaw thought the great linen manufacturers of Belfast
might have established a school of design for their own purposes,
and that the great shipbuilding concerns might have done
Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instruction. 55
something similar for their respective places of business.
Nothing, however, had ever been done. He spoke in favour
of drawing and the teaching of the chemistry of common
things, and said that without some practical work even the
elementary teaching of chemistry would be useless. There
might be a danger of the cry of technical schools supplanting
the proper work of other schools.
Mr. Wheeler asked on what principle Mr. Gray had arrived
at the figures representing the two divisions of the ;^5 5,000
grant.
Mr. May inquired what class of people would be benefited by
the teaching in the school regarding woodcarving.
Mr. Gray in replying said there would be a prescribed course tor
pupils, with an examination, and after two years they would be
put to practical work. The Technical instruction given in the
Central School would be limited as much as possible to those
practising it in the way of trade. No encouragement should be
given to mere amateur aims after educational embellishments.
All must be practical, and calculated to promote our local
industries. Replying to a question, Mr. Gray said that the
amount available was clearly given in the Act, and included not
only aid to the Central School, but was available also for any
other educational effort. It was a mistake to think that all the
funds provided by the Act will be devoted to the Central College.
In replying to Professor Fitzgerald, he might say it was an
extraordinary thing that after ten years waiting we had no official
knowledge of what the Town Council proposed to do. If the
project was to be successful it must be kept in touch with the
public, and the people should know what the members of the
Council were doing.* Of all the sites best adopted for the
purposes of a technical school, he thought the one chosen in
1887, immediately behind the Public Library, was the best,
because in that place they could have had all their schools to-
* Up to the time of going to press no acceptable scheme has been devised. No
composite committee has been formed, and the persons most interested in Technical
instruction have not been consulted.
56 Position of Belfast in Relation to Technical Instrnction.
gether. We do not object to the site selected on the grounds
of the Royal Academical Institute, only for its cost, which must
come out of the ratepayers pocket, and not out of the funds
available under the provisions of the Technical Instruction
Act. The Council should go in for a building for educational
purposes, and not for a building to simply decorate the city.
57
3rd April^ igoo
Mr. Robert Young, C.E,, J.P., Vice-President in the Chair.
SOME OF THE WORK DONE BY COMMITTEES
OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
By Professor Maurice F. FitzGerald, B.A., M.I.M.E,
The Lecturer began by remarking that many people, including
some ^who might have attended meetings of the British
Association, had little, if any, conception that that society was
more than an organisation for carrying out annually a sort of
scientific picnic. The Association, like many other societies,
had a yearly meeting or conference, held usually in the end of
summer or beginning of autumn, which lasted for a week, and
which constituted, to the outsider, the most obvious and
apparently important part of the work of the Associa-
tion. This impression was natural enough, and was encouraged
by the large attendance of scientific and other notabilities, and
by the immense number of papers read and discussed, during
this annual meeting, the Association being divided into sections
(now numbering nine) which have separate meeting rooms,
so that a large number of papers are read, or subjects discussed
every day simultaneously. As an example taken at random,
the Bristol meeting of 1898 might be instanced, when the
number of items in the sectional proceedings was 304. It was
pointed out, that however large the amount of work represented
by the labour undergone in listening to the maximum possible
number of these communications, by any person attending the
meeting, such work was not itself of any particular scientific
value, and that the real importance of the Association was
58 Work Done by British Association Committees,
liable to be more or less masked by the " fuss " attached to
the Annual meeting. It was remarked that, as in other
societies holding periodical meetings or conferences, a
great part of the really valuable work of the British
Association was done by committees appointed to in-
vestigate particular matters, and to report on them to the
annual meetings. The committees pursued their work all the
year round, sometimes for many years in succession, and were
aided by money grants from the Association. The total sum so
granted since the formation of the Association in 1832 up to
the present time amounted to about ;^66,7oo. In the Report
of the meeting of British Association at Bristol in 1898,
above referred to, 723 pages were occupied by Reports of
Committees and 303 by transactions of the Sections at the
Bristol meeting itself, the total number of Reports of Com-
mittees being nearly fifty, and a good many of these were
interim reports of Conimitltes, some of which have been at
work for over thirty years. The Lecturer proceeded to remark
on the character and influence of the work of various com-
mittees of the Association, beginning with reports by Fairbairn
and Hodgkinson, so far back as 1837, on Hot and Cold Blast
Iron, whose relative merits were at that time a matter of con-
siderable importance, in consequence of the then just beginning
development of railways, and the free use of cast iron in bridges
and girders. Ultimately, as we now see, improvements in the
manufacture of wrought iron and steel and the consequent
reduction in the cost of bridges constructed of these materials,
compared with the cost of cast iron, coupled with the relative
disadvantages of the latter, had led to the abandonment of cast
iron as a material for bridge structures of any size, but until well
on in the fifties cast iron was an important part of the structure
of many bridges, and its properties formed the subject of in-
vestigation by the Association. These investigations were of
material use and assistance to the Commissioners on Railway
structures, whose report, made in 1848, forms the basis of the
present Board of Trade regulations for Railway Bridges and
similar works.
Work Done by British Association Committees. 59
During the period from 1830 to i860 a vast increase
in the use of steam power for manufacturing purposes took
place, and steamships came into existence capable of making
long sea voyages. Among the matters of importance on
which information was deficient at the time, not the
least was the provision of adequate strength in boilers,
since the problems arising from increase of steam pressure have
always been prominent, and steam pressure has steadily risen
since the days of Watt. Accordingly there were found in the
records of the Association the investigations of Fairbairn on
the effects of temperature on the strength of wrought iron in
1856, and on the collapse of circular flues in 1857. This latter
may be described as formmg the foundation for the design of
all furnace flues since, and is still the ruling authority in this
matter, its conclusions having been early embodied in the rules
for the strength of circular marine boiler furnaces adopted by
the Board of Trade, as well as in the principles of design used
by all the leading manufacturers of land boilers of the Cornish
and Lancashire types. About i860 another matter connected
with the strength of iron and steel came into greater promi-
nence than before, namely, the effects on the material of
repeated loadings and unloadings, reversal of stress from
tension to compression and vice versa at short intervals,
and of vibration. Again here we find the most impor-
tant part of the early woik reported on by the British
Association, beginning about i860. This work was, some seven
or eight years later, taken up by the Prussian Government in
a more thoiough and complete manner than could have been
effected with the resources ot the Association, and has been
continued at Government expense ever since. It is of a kind
which must unavoidably take up much time to carry out.
Another matter which occupied much attention for a good '
many years was the performance of steamships in respect ot the
relations of power and speed. Up to about i8b5 little real
progress was made owing largely to false impressions as to the
importance of details of form, and the consequent controversies
6o WorA Done by British Association Committees.
as to the merits of '' wave line " forms, " hollow" versus " full "
lines, and the like. The Association, however, got together a
committee of men, including Mr. Froude, Professor Rankine,
Robert Napier, and others, who really did understand what
they were about, and, after a few years, placed the question on
a proper basis. In about ten years, that is in 1874, the
Admiralty became so impressed with the importance of this work
that they established their experimental tank at Torquay for the
testing of ship's models, and the German and U.S. Admiralties or
Navy Boards have since followed suit. It may seem strange
that a body so difficult to move in any new direction
as ihe British Admiralty is commonly assumed to be, should
have taken up this matter before any private shipbuilder or
foreign government did, but apart from the fact that govern-
ment departments occasionally have the sense to act rightly,
the difficulties of predicting, even roughly, the speed and horse-
power of new ships always pressed much more Lcverely on the
Navy designers than on others, partly on account of the pro-
portions of the ships they dealt with diverging, as a rule, much
more from the ordinary types of cargo or passenger steamer
than these do from one ancther, and partly from the wide
differences between different ships ot tiie Navy itself, specially
accentuated at the time referred to, by the then recent intro-
duction of ironclads. Besides this, the Admiralty had received
a very severe lesson on the unwisdom of neglecting good advice
from sensible people, it having been made abundantly manifest
that, it they had attended to reports on the stability of ships
which had been pressed on their attention by the British
Association about 1863, and carried out very simple tests fully
explained theiein, but vyiiich the Admiralty officials stated were
not practical, the " Captain " would have been ascertained to
be unfit for being sailed in the way which led to her capsizing.
After the accident of course, it was found that the tests of
stability proposed were quite easy to carry out, and they
have been ever since made on every new ship in the
Navy.
Work Done by Br^'frs/^ Associatioii Committees. 6i
The enormous strides made by the electrical industries
in the last twenty five years were referred to by the lecturer,
and it was shown that, until the matter was taken up by the
British Association, the commercially necessary means of
measurino^ electric quantities were so deficient as to be, for
most practical purposes, altogether wanting. For telegraphic
purposes — or at least most telegraphic purposes — the actual
amount of electric energy required to be supplied was too small
to call for any particularly accurate measurement, nor did the
apparatus involve, as a rule, any verv close regulation of
voltage or current. Consequentlv although the scientific
principles on which the measurement of electric quantities is
made had been laid down, and some standards of measurement,
corresponding, in matters electrical, to the standard yard and
pound in matters of ordinary measurement, had been made or
proposed to be made, still the whole subject of dealing with
electricity on an industrial scale was practically as much in a
state of chaos as the buying and selling of coal would be if the
mines all sold it by the truck load, but every mine had a
diflPerent sized truck, whose capacity had never been measured,
to shippers who dealt in it by the shipload, every man according
to his ship, but the tonnage of the ships was not ascertained, and
the consumer received it bv the cartload, every dealer pleasing
himself as to the size of his cart, and building new carts when
the old ones were worn out, as near the former size as he could
judge by the eye.
About thirty eight years ago the Association set itself
to rectify this state of things, and for that purpose appointed
a committee on Electrical Standards, with a view to pro-
viding means for doing with electricity what corresponds to
providing foot rules, weighing machines, and pounds or other
weights to measure the coal trucks, ship loads, and cart loads, in
the case of the coal. The Committee rightly judged the matter
to be one of international importance, and began by collecting
advice on the system of measurement to be employed, as well
as all other information relating to existing standards from
62 Work Done by British Association Committees.
foreign as well as British sources. It very soon appeared that
even among scientific workers, methods of measurement were
often used which were (comparatively speaking) not much
more accurate for the purpose in hand than measuring- off
lengths of cloth by the reach from finger tip to shoulder are,
and that one of the very first steps to be taken was to find out
accurate methods in measurement, and to construct accurate
instruments. The trouble occasioned by these things may
be realised when it is found that it took about seven years to
produce a really reliable standard resistance. Everything about
it was ill understood at first. The most suitable material
was unknown ; wires which were supposed to be exactly alike
in constitution were found, on exact testing, to differ materially:
alloys supposed to be permanent were found to alter irregularly
in time. Different experimental methods for arriving at the
same result were found to give discordant results, and the
apparently small and obscure causes of the discrepancies had to
be searched out and corrected. The result has been that
electricity can now be dealt in for industrial purposes as easily
and accurately as any other commodity, and in some respects
more easily, since the fundamental system of weights and
measures used is international, both in actual value and names
of the quantities, so that pressure in volts, current in amperes,
and power in kilowatts mean the same things all the world
over.
It is probably not too much to say that no authority
except the British Association could have been brought
about this result. No other body possessed the scientific
weight and insight required to initiate the system, no other
body could have enlisted such able assistance, and no other
bodv could so effectually insure the universal adoption by the
world of the system of measures and nomenclature brouo;ht
forward by it, and have led up to the international conferences
required for that adoption to be oflficially ratified. The Lecturer
adverted to the small cost at which the work of the Associa-
tion's Committees was done, for though the sum total of the
Work Done by British Association Committees. 63
grants for scientific purposes already referred to (£66,700),
expended since 1832, mi^ht seem pretty large, it really repre-
sented but a fraction of what would have been paid if the same
investigators had been employed to do the work as part of their
regular paid professional or commercial work. Many eminent
^professional men, whose fees when called in for advice might
sometimes be reckoned at pounds a minute, or men, like
Sir W. Fairbairn and others, who gave the use of
their works, materials, and the assistance of their staff, carried
out lengthy and troublesome investigations without charge.
It would be but fair to say that the ^66,700 would have been
expanded into probably a quarter of a million, if all the work
done had been paid for in the commercial sense, as the Railway
Commissioners, the Board of Trade, the Admiralty, and others
would have had to do if they had not had the British Associa-
tion to do so much for them as it had done.
The Lecturer desired to draw attention to the many valuable
Reports made to the Association on educational subjects ; it
would, however, occupy too much time to enter into any
any review of these. Some were statistical and were mainly
valuable as an index of the progress or otherwise made in in-
troducing scientific and technical subjects into the courses of
various schools. Others contained reports from various
authorities, scholastic and otherwise, on their experience as to
the effectiveness of particular methods of teaching, and the
value of particular subjects as expanders of the general
faculties of the pupils. Others again dealt with such matters
as the proper fitting up and uses of museums and collections,
and the necessary provision in the way of demonstrator and
apparatus required to render these most useful. This matter
was especially worthy of attention, and was one in which most
museums were specially deficient, insomuch that the great
majority of the persons to whom museums or trade collections '
should be useful were, partly from want of training, and
partly from want of assistance, quite unable to take any
practical value out of the collections of objects before them.
64 Work Done by British Association Committees.
The Lecturer was obliged to omit reference to the immense
value of the great mass of the British Association reports on
purely scientific subjects. There were in Belfast many persons
fully competent to appreciate, and infinitely better qualified
than himself to discuss, the reports on subjects connected with
Natural History. In pure science, the computation of tables
of the values of special mathematical functions, the bibliography
of particular scientific information, and the like, did not lend
themselves to exposition before a popular audience without
previous explanation at considerable length of how and why
the matters on which so much trouble was spent were of
importance, so that a whole evening would, in many cases,
have to be devoted to a single Report, but the Lecturer hoped
that some of those able to do so would endeavour to make this
society and the public realise the value and magnitude of the
work of the British Association in relation to Natural History
and kindred subjects.
AN ANCIENT BOMBSHELL.
By RoBFRT M. YouxG, B.A., M.R.LA.
{Honorary Secretary.)
This ancient bombshell, which is exhibited by the courtesy of
Mr. E. G. MacGeorge, J.P., was found at a depth of 8 feet in
estuarine clay adjacent to the Scottish Provident Buildings.
It weighs about I cwt., is 10 inches in diameter, and 2 inches
thick, of cast iron. There is a fuse hole in which a wood plug
4 inches long and i^ thick was found. Small handles of iron
rod are inserted at each side. The discovery of the bomb was
made when Mr. Robert Corry, contractor for the additional
buildings of the Scottish Provident Institution, was excavating
on the ground adjoining their present block. By reference to
old maps of Belfast it would seem that this site lay outside of
An Ancient Bombshell. 65
the old town rampart, one of whose bastions was erected on the
side of Donegall Square North, near Fountain Street. The
ground seems to have been marshy, and drained by the Malone
ditch, which is shown as extending to Sandy Row about 1790.
Since no artillery of heavy calibre is mentioned in the various
accounts of Belfast as regards 1 7th century struggles, the missile
in question may be probably referred to the next century, when
the volunteer movement originated. The Alall passed the
spot, and many of the military displays took place in its
vicinity. Howitzers of 6-inch calibre were used in some of the
reviews. Notably in 1781, when 5,300 men were under arms.
On this occasion it is stated that shells were discharged of such
a composition as to afford the appearance of real shells without
the danger.
ii^atural 2|istors $c Pjjilosnpijital Sotietg*
Officers and Council of Management for igoo-iqoi.
^rcsibent :
JOHN BROWN
■^tce-'g'rcsibents :
EEV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d. | WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
R.LLOYD PATTERSON, D.L.,r.L.s. | ROBERT YOUNG, c.e., j. p.
iboxK. 'ireosurer :
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
j^on- j£ibrarion :
JOHN. H. DAVIES.
^ott. §ccrefa»:i> :
ROBERT M. YOUNG, h.a., j.p., m.r.i.a.
gouncil :
JOHN BROWN.
JOHN H. DAVIES.
PROFESSOR M. F. FITZGERALD, li.A., m.i.m.k.
ANDREW GIBSON, f.k.s.a.
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d., president g.c.b.
JOHN HORNER, m i.m.e.
SIR OTTO JAFFE, j.p.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN, m.r.i.a., f.k.s.a.
R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l., j.p., f.l.s.
AVM. H. PATTERSON, m.r.i.a.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
THOMAS F. SHILLINGTON, j.p.
WM. SWANSTON, f.q.s.
THOMAS WORKMAN, j.p.
ROBERT YOUNG, j.p., c.e.
R. M. YOUNG, ]i.A., J.P., m.r.i.a.
SHAREHOLDERS.
[* Denotes holders of three or more Shares.^
*Alexander, Francis, b.k., Belfasl.
AUworthy, Edward, Ardgreenan, Cavehill Road, do.
Anderson, John, j.p., f.g.s.. East Hillbrook, Holywood.
Andrew, John J., l.d.s., r.c.s. Eng., University Square, Belfast.
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong, Thomas, jun., 7 Donegall Square West, do.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, do,
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, do.
Barbour, James, j.p., Ardville, Marino, Holywood.
Beattie, Rev. A. Hamilton, Portglenone.
Bigger, Francis J., m.r.i.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast.
Bland, Robert H., j.p., Lisburn.
Bottomley, Henry H., Belfast.
Boyd, William, Great Victoria Street, do.
Boyd, William Sinclair, Ravenscroft, Bloomfield, do.
Braddell, Edward, The Limes, Malone Park, do,
Brett, Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, do.
Brett, John H., c.k., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Bristow, James R., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.
Brown, John, Longhurst, Dunmurry.
Brown, WiUiam K. (Representatives of), Belfast.
Bulloch, Alexander, Eversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burnett, John R., Elmwood Avenue, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., m.a., m.d.. Lower Crescent, do.
Calwell, Alex. M'D., do.
Calwell, William, m.a., m.d.. College Square North, do.
•Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Carlisle, A. M., Elmwood House, do.
68
Shareholders.
Carr, A. H. R., "Rathowen, Windsor Avenue, Belfast.
Carson, John, Walmer Terrace, Hol5rwood.
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor.
Clark, George S., Dunlambert, Belfast.
Coates, Victor, j.p., d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry.
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p., Queen's Elms, Belfast.
Combe, George. Cranethorpe, Strandtown.
Cowan, P. C, M i.c.E., Local Government Board, Dublin.
Crawford, William, Mount Randal, Belfast.
Crawford, William, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown.
Cunningham, Professor Robert O., m.d., f.l.s.,
F.G.S., Mountpellier, Malone Road, Belfast
Davies, John H., 45 Castle Street, Lisburn.
*Deramore, Lord, d.l. (Representatives of), Newtownbreda.
Dods, Robert, b.a., St. Leonards, Newcastle.
♦Donegal, Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast.
*Downshire, Marquis of (Reps, of). The Castle, Hillsborough.
Drennan, W. H., Wellington Place, Belfast.
Duffin, Adam, ll.d., University Square, do.
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park (Reps, of), Ballywalter.
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast.
Ewart, Fred W., Derryvolgie, Lisburn.
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., m.a., j.p., Glenmachan
House, Belfast.
Faren, Wm., Mountcharles,
*Fenton, Francis G.,
Ferguson, Godfrey W., c.e., Donegall Park,
Finlay, Fred. W., j.p., Wolfhill House,
Finlay, Robert H. F., Cavehill Road,
do.
London.
Belfast.
Ligoniel.
Belfast.
Sharehola'ers. 69
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc, Kelvin House, Botanic Avenue,
Belfast.
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., b.a , m.i.m.e., Assoc.
M.I.C.E., Eglantine Avenue, do.
*Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), do.
Gibson, Andrew, f.r.s.a.i., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, Catherine, Mountpleasant, do.
Gordon. Robert W., j.p. (Reps, of), Bangor.
Graham, Thomas, j.p., Holywood.
•Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d., m.r.i.a.,
(Representatives of), Broughshane.
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Cavehill Road, Belfast.
Greenhill, John H., mus. bac, Southampton.
Greer, Thomas, j.p., m.r.i.a., Seapark, Carrickfergus.
*HalI, Frederick H., Waterford.
Hamilton, Rev. Thos., d.d.. President, Queen's College, Belfast.
*Hamilton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, W., do.
Henderson, Miss Anna S. (Representatives of) do.
Henderson, Sir James, a m., j.p., Oakley, Windsor Park, do.
Henderson, Mrs. Charlotte, Clarges Street (Reps, of), London.
Herdman, John, d.l., j.p., Carricklee House, Strabane.
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, j.p., Rosavo. Cultra.
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House, Belfast.
Hind, John, junr., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Hodges, Professor John F., m.d., f.c.s., j.p.,
Sandringham (Representatives of), do.
Hogg, John, Academy Street, do.
Horner, John, m.i.m.e., Chelsea, Antrim Road, do.
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.l., m.p.. Orangefield, do.
*Hughes, Edwin, Dalchoolin, Craigavad.
Hyndman, Hugh, ll.d., Windsor, Belfast.
IngHs, James, j.p., Abbeyville, Whiteabbey.
yo Shareholders.
Jackson, A. T., c.e., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgie
Avenue, Belfast.
Jaffa, Sir Otto, j.p., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey.
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Richmond Lodge, Belfast.
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, do.
Kidd, George, j.p., Lisnatore, Dunmurry.
*Kinghan, John R., Altoona, Windsor Avenue, Belfast.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, John, c.e., j.p., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park,
(Representatives of), do.
Larmor, Joseph, m.a., f.r.s., St. John's College, Cambridge.
Leathern, Dr. R, R., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast.
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecumbe,
Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down.
Letts, Professor E. A., ph.d., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra.
Lindsay, Professor James A, m.a., m.d., College Square
East, Belfast.
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House, do,
Lytle, Joseph H., j.p., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.l., m.i.c.e., Stanley House,
Holywood.
Macfarlane, John, Bladon Park, Belfast.
Mackenzie, John, c.e., Strathavon, Lisburn Road, do.
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), do.
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonville, do.
Malcolm, Bowman, m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim Road, do.
Maxton, James, m.i.n.a., m.i.mar.k., Kirkliston Drive,
Strandtown.
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens, Belfast.
Milligan,Seaton Forest, m.r.i. a., The Drift, Antrim Road, do.
Mitchell, Robert A., ll.b., t.c.d., Marmont, Strandtown.
Montgomery, Henry C, Bangor,
Shareholders.
71
Montgomery, H. H., Knock, Belfast.
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.l., Ballydrain House, Dunniurry.
Moore, James, The Finaghy, Belfast.
MuUan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p , Tudor House, Holywood
*Murphy, Isaac James, Armagh.
*Murphy, Joseph John, (Representatives of), Belfast.
Murray, Robert Wallace, j.p., Newcastle.
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone, Belfast.
*Musgrave, Henry, Drumglass, Malone, do.
Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., d.l., j.p., Drumglass, Malone, do.
MacAdam, Robert (Representatives of), do.
M'Bride, Henry James, Hyde Park, Mallusk, do.
M'Bride, Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
•M'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London.
*M'Cammon, Lieut. -Col. Thomas A., Woodville, Holywood.
M'Cance, H. J., j.p., d.l., Larkfield, Dunmurry.
M'Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart., j.p., d.l. (Reps, of),
MacCoU, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Strandtown, Belfast.
MacCormac, John, m.d., Victoria Place, do.
M'Cormick, Hugh M'Neile, Ardmara, Craigavad.
*M'Cracken, Francis (Representatives of),
M'Gee, James, Woodville, Holywood.
M'Gee, Samuel Mackey, University Street, Belfast.
Macllwaine, John H., Bangor.
M'Kisack, H. L., m.d., College Square East, Belfast.
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p., Queen's Elms, do.
M'Neill, George, Beechleigh, Malone Road, do.
M'Knight, John P., Nevara, Chichester Park, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Holywood.
Nicholson, Henry J., College Square North, Belfast..
O'Neill, James, m.a.. College Square East, do.
♦O'Rorke, Ambrose Howard, Dunratho, Craigavad.
Park, Rev. Wm., m.a., Somerset House, University St., Belfast.
72 Shareholders. \ -vsrovi j
Patterson, Edward Forbes, Adelaide Park, Belfast.
Patterson, Airs. Isabelle, Bonn, Germany.
Patterson, Richard, j.p., Kilmore, Holyvvood.
*Patterson, Robert Lloyd, j.p., d.l., f.l.s., Croft House, do.
Patterson, Robert, f.z.s., M alone Park, Belfast.
Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a., Garranard, Strandtown.
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Knock, Belfast.
Patterson, William R. (Representatives of) do.
Pim, Edwara W., j.p., Elmwood Terrace, do.
Pirn, Joshua, Slieve-na-Failthe, Whileabbbey.
*Pirrie, Elizabeth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.k., m.r.i.a,, National Library, Dublin.
Purser, Prof. John, ll.d., m.r.i.a., Queen's College, Belfast.
Rea, John Henry, m.d., University Street do.
Rea, William R., Gardha, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Reade, Robert H. S., j.p., d.l., Wilmont, Dunmurry.
Riddell, Samuel, Beechpark, Belfast.
Robertson, William, j.p., Netherleigh, Strandtown do.
Robinson, John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc, Royal Academical
Institution, do.
Shillington, Thomas Foulkes, j.p., Dromart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, Felix Booth, Queen Street, do.
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a., j.p., d.l., Hopefield, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, m.d., f.r.c.s. Eng., Howard St., do.
Smith, John, Castleton Terrace, do.
Smyth, John, m.a., c.e., Milltown, Banbridge.
Speers, Adam, b.sc, Riversdale, Holywood,
Steen, Wm. C, m.d., Windsor Crescent, Belfast.
Steen, William, b.l.. Northern Bank, Victoria Street, do.
Stelfox, James, Oakleigh,.Ormeau Park, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
*Tennent, Ro.bert (Kepresentatives of), Rushpark, do.
Shareholders.
73
♦Tennent, Robert James (Reps, of), Rushpark, Belfast.
♦Thompson, James, j.p. (Reps, of), Macedon, Whiteabbey.
Thompson, S. B., Short Strand, Belfast.
Torrens, Mrs. Sarah H. (Representatives ot), Whiteabbey.
•Turnley, John (Representatives of), Belfast.
Walkington, Mrs., Thornhill, Malone, do.
Walkington, Thomas R., Edenvale, Strandtown, do.
Wallace, John, Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Walter, Hermann, m.a., ph.d., Royal Academical
Institution, do.
Ward, Francis D., j.p., m.r.i.a., Ivydene, Malone Park, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, t-P-, Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard T., Knock, do.
Whitla, Prof. William, m.d., j.p., College Sq. North, do.
Wilson, James, m.e., Oldforge, Dunmurry.
Wilson, John K., j.p., Donegall Street, Belfast.
Wilson, Walter H., Stranmillis House, do.
•Wilson, W. Perceval, do.
*Wolff, G. W., M.P., The Den, Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, Drummena, Bladon Park, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., Rubane House, Glastry.
Workman, Rev. Robert, b.d.. The Manse, Newtownbreda.
Workman, R. D., Sans Souci, Harrow View,
Wealdstone, Middlesex.
*Workman, Thomas, j.p., Craigdarrah (Reps, of), Craigavad.
Workman, William, Nottinghill, Belfast.
Wright, James, Lauriston, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, c.e., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
74 Annual Subscribers.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
DufFerin and Ava, k.p., The Marquis of, Clandeboye, Co. Down.
Stokes, Miss M., Hon. m.r.i.a., Carrig Breac, Howth,
Co. Dublin.
HONORARY ASSOCIATES;
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park. Belfast.
Stewart, Samuel Alex., f.b.s. Edin, Belfast Museum, do
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Tate, Prof. Ralph, f.g.s., f.l.s., Adelaide, South Australia.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, Belfast.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast.
Northern Banking Co., Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
York Street Spinning Company, Ltd., do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.
Allan, C. E., Stormont Castle, Dundonald.
Boyd, John, Cyprus Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast.
Brown, G. Herbert, j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay.
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast.
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Cleaver, A. S., b.a., Dunraven, do,
Davidson, S. C, Sea Court, Bangor
Annual Subscribers. 75
Fulton, G. F., Howard Street, Belfast.
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace, do.
Green, Isaac, Ann street, do.
Hanna, J. A., Marietta, Knock, do.
Hazelton, W. D., Clittonville, do.
Higginbotham, Granby, Wellington Park, do.
Jones, R. M., m.a., Royal Academical Institution, do.
Kelly, W. Redfern, m.i.c.e., f.r.a.s., Dalriada,
Malone Park, do.
Lynn, William H., Crumlin Terrace, do.
Malone, John, Brookvale House, Cliftonville, do.
M'Laughlin, W. H., Brookville House, do.
Redfern, Prof. Peter, m.d., f.r.c.s.i., Lower Crescent, do.
Scott, Conway, c.e., Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
Swiney, J. H. H., b.a., b.e., Bella Vista, Antrim Road, do.
Tate, Alexander, c.r., Rantalard, Whitehouse, do.
Taylor, John, Brown Square Works, do.
Thompson, John, Mount Collyer, do.
Turpin, James, Waring Street, do.
|[i[pi|t mA §\mm\mp
OF THE
BE LB".A.ST
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIEiy
FOR THE
SEssionsr iqoo-iqoi.
BELFAST :
PRINTED BY ALEXR. MAYNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STREET
(printers to queen's college).
IQOI.
. •• • f . mmm^mo^*
CONTENTS.
Annual Eeport
Balance Sheet ...
Donations to Museum ...
Books Received
President's Inaugural Address — J. Brown
The Botany of the Shores of Lough Neagh — John H. Davies
Ohj'ects Comprised in Lord Deramore's Eecent Donation — W. H
Patterson, M.fl.I. A., and S. A. Stewart, F.B.S., Ed. ...
Notes on some Clay Concretions from the Connecticut Valley, U.S.A.—
W. Swanston, F.G.S.
Some Side Lights on the China Question — Rev. A. R. Crawford, M.A.
Report of Delegate to Corresponding Societies' Conference — J. Brown .
Irish Railways and the State — Lynden Macassey, C.E.
Colour— W. B. Morton, M.A. ..
Scenery and Antiquities of Sligo, Connemara, and Clare — Seaton F
Milligan, M.R.I. A.
List of Office- Bearers ...
List of Shareholders and Subscribers
6
7
17
35
43
49
51
60
63
81
82
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
EST.A.BLISIIEir) 1821.
SHAREHOLDERS.
1 Share in the Society costs £7.
2 Shares ,, costs £14.
3 Shares ,, costs £21.
The Proprietor of 1 Share pays 10s. per annum ; the proprietor of 2
Shares pays 5s. per annum ; the proprietor of 3 or more Shares stands exempt
from further payment.
Shareholders are only eligible for election on the Council of Management.
MEMBERS.
There are two classes — Ordinaay Members, vrho are expected to read
Papers, and Visiting Members who, by joining under the latter title, are
understood to intimate that they do not wish to read Papers. The Session for
Lectures extends from November in one year till May in succeeding one.
Members, Ordinaiy or Visiting, pay £1 Is. per annum, due 1st November in
each year.
Each Shareholder and Member has the right of personal attendance at all
meetings of the Society, and of admitting a friend thereto ; also of access to
the Museum and Library for himself and family, with the privilege of granting
admission orders for inspectiag the collections for any friend not residing in
Belfast.
Any further information can be obtained by application to the Secretary.
It is requested that all accounts due by the Society be sent to the Treasurer.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily from 10 till 4 o'clock
Admission for Strangers, 6d. each. The Curator is in constant attendance, and
will take charge of any Donation kindly left for the Museum or Library.
Belfast matural IbiQtox^ anb pbiloeopbical
Society.
■:o:
ANNUAL REPORT, 1901.
The Annual Meeting of Shareholders of the Society was held
on the 1 6th July, in the Museum, College Square North. Mr.
John Brown, President, occupied the chair, and the attendance
included— Messrs. R. Lloyd-Patterson, D.L., J.P. ; W. H-
Patterson, M.R.I.A.; T. F. Shillington, J.P. ; R. Young, J.P.,
C.E. ; Andrew Gibson, George Kidd, J.P.; R. M. Young, J.P. ;
Henry Musgrave, Davys Bowman, A. J. Jackson, W. Armstrong,
R. Patterson, M.R.T.A. ; Isaac Ward, James O'Neill, M.A. ; W.
F. Faren, and W. H. F. Patterson. Letters of apology regret-
ting their inability to be present were announced as having been
received from Sir James Henderson, D.L. ; and Mr. Seaton F.
Milligan, M.R.I. A.
Mr. R. M. Young, Hon. Secretary, having read the notice
convening the meeting, submitted the report of the Council,
as follows : —
The Council of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
Society desire to submit their report of the working of the
Society during the past year.
The Winter Session was opened in the Museum on the 6th
November, 1900, when the President of the Society (Mr. John
Brown) delivered an inaugural address ; subject — " Some
Matters Electric," with lantern and experimental illustrations.
The Second Meeting was held on the nth December, when
the following papers were read :— i, Mr. John H. Davies, on
"The Botany of the Shores of Lough Neagh ;" 2, Mr. W. H.
Patterson, M.R.I A., " Some Account of the Objects Comprised
in Lord Deramore's Recent Donation, Principally Antiquarian;"
3, Mr. W. Swanston, F.G.S., " Notes on Some Clay Concretions
from the Connecticut Valley, U.S.A."
2 Anniinl Meeting.
The Third Meeting was held on the 20th December, when a
lecture was kindly given by Rev. A. R. Crawford, M. A., Kirin,
Manchuria ; subject, " Some Sidelights on the China Question,"
illustrated by special limelight views.
At the Fourth Meeting, held on 8lh January, 1901, two
papers were read: — i. The President, subject, "Report as
Delegate of the Society to the British Association Meeting at
Bradford ;" 2, Mr. Lyndon Macassey, C.E., B.A., LL.B.,
subject, " Irish Railways and the State," followed by a dis-
cussion.
The Fifth Meeting was held on 5th February, when a
lecture was kindly given by Professor Morton, M.A. ; subject,
'■ Colour,'' with experimental illustrations.
Mr. Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.I.A., gave the sixth lecture, on
5th March ; subject, " Scenery and Antiquities of Sligo,
Connemara, and Clare," illustrated by a series of 150 lantern
slides. The chair was taken by Sir James Henderson, D.L., in
the unavoidable absence of the President.
The Seventh Meeting was held on 2nd April, when a
lecture was kindly delivered by Mr. George Cof!ey, M.R.I.A.,
keeper of the Irish antiquities. National Museum, Dublin ;
subject, " The Antiquity of Man and the Dawn of Art,"
illustrated by a special series of lantern slides of palaeolithic
implements.
The attendance al the meetings was well maintained, and
several were inconveniently crowded.
The number of allied societies holding their meetings in the
Museum shows no reduction. This was also the case with the
ordinary admissions of visitors to the Museum, which have been
above the average, and many who took an interest in some or
the subjects illustrated expressed their gratification with what
they saw in the collections. At Easter the Museum was thrown
open, as usual, at a nominal charge, and full advantage of this
ooportunity was taken by the public, particularly children. No
damage was done to any part of the collections. As will be
seen by the Hon. Treasurer's Statement of Accounts, duly
Annual Meeting. 3
audited by the Local Government Board, a slight diminution
is shown by the balance in hand, but this is fully accounted for
by the large sum spent on necessary repairs to the building and
the cases.
A list of donations to the Museum and of the numerous
publications received in exchange from home and foreign
societies will be presented with the present Report.
Amongst the donations, that of Lord Deramore is specially
noteworthy, comprising as it does a large number of valuable
Irish antiquities, and some Greek and Roman. The Irish
bronzes have been arranged by themselves in the Benn Room,
and the stone implements and some ethnological specimens
have been incorporated with the general collections. A number
of good fossils remain, for which there is no space available at
present. Many valuable objects from the recent excavations at
Abydos have been presented by the Egypt Exploration Fund,
through the good offices of Mr. John Ward, J. P., F.S.A. Such
other donations as have been received during the year have
been placed in their proper cabinets. Your Council have under
serious consideration the necessity of rearranging the contents
of the Museum, and making as complete as possible the Irish
natural history collections. In view of the meeting of the
British Association next year in Belfast, they have also decided
on having a loan collection of Irish antiquities, &c., following
the precedent of their action when the first meeting was held
here in 1S52. The Council desire to express their best thanks
to the local Press for their admirable reports of the Society's
meetings. Five members of Council retire from office, of which
four are eligible and offer themselves for re-election — viz.,
Messrs. R. Lloyd- Patterson, J. PI. Davies, John Horner, and
Robert Young.
The Hon. Treasurer (Mr. W. H. Patterson) submitted the
Statement of Accounts, from which it appeared that the
expenditure amounted to ;^252 los. 2d., while the income was
;^3I5 14s. 6d., leaving a balance in hands of £6-^ 4s. 4d.
Mr, Lloyd-Patterson moved the adoption of the Report, He
4 Annual Meeting.
much regretted he had not been present at the last meeting of
the Council. There were two subjects he would like to draw
the attention of the meeting to, first, their large and successful
meetings, and, secondly, the rearrangement of their collections.
The latter was a matter upon which he felt strongly, and he
would not trust himself to speak as strongly on it as he felt.
Many of the specimens were very old, and while every care had
been taken of them that circumstances would permit, they were
clearly worn out. For his part, he thought it would be better
to have a small and perfect collection, as far as it went, than a
large and faulty one. The financial report showed that the
slight diminution in the balance-sheet is accounted for chiefly
by expenditure on the building.
Dr. MacCormac, in seconding, regretted that he could not
use the superlative degree when speaking of the monetary side
of the question ; but, considering the admirable lectures they
had had, he was bound to speak in the superlative degree. He
was present at one, the most interesting he had ever had the
opportunity of listening to, apart from its literary aspect, and
he was sorry to see so few present. He might say if the Belfast
public knew the merits of the lectures they had in that room
they would always have the room filled, and filled to overflowing.
Mr. Henry Musgrave proposed a vote of thanks to Mr.
Brown for having presided, and to Mr. Young, Secretary. He
paid a high compliment to Mr. Brown's ability, and said he
understood he had consented to occupy the presidency for
another year. He (Mr. Musgrave) thought that very proper.
Mr. Davys Bowman seconded the motion, which was sup-
ported by Mr. William Armstrong, and carried by acclamation.
The Chairman briefly replied, after which the lollowin^y were
elected members of Council : — President, John Brown ; Vice-
Presidents, President Rev. T. Hamilton, D.D., LL.D. ; R. L.
Patterson, D.L., F.L.S. ; W. Swarstcn, F.G.S. ; Robert Young,
C.E., J.P. ; Hon. Treasurer, W. H. F. Patterson ; Hon.
Librarian, J. H. Davies ; Hon. Secretary, Robert M. Young,
B.A., J.P., M.R.I.A.
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DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, 1900-1901.
From Head Constable John Raynor.
A fresh specimen of Palimiriis vulgaris, which is a cray fish
known as the spring lobster. Caught at Portrush.
From Mr. Walter Smyth, Holywood.
A specimen of the bittern {BotaiLrus stellaris).
From * * # *
A Hving specimen of a longicorn beetle {Astyomus aediliis)
captured on Queen's Island, Belfast.
From Miss Perry, Wellington Place.
A snake's skin from West Africa.
From Lord Deramore.
A large number of bronze celts, swords, spearheads, rings, etc.
Flint arrowheads, stone celts, fossils, minerals, classic
pottery, Egyptian curios, leather water bottles, etc.
From Egypt Exploration Fund.
A number of specimens obtained in the recent excavations at
Abydos.
From Mr. R. M. Young, J. P., M.R.I.A.
Portrait of R. Lloyd-Patterson, Esq., D.L., F.L.S., former
President of the Society.
From Mr. W. Swanston, F.G.S.
Clay concretions from the Connecticut Valley.
From Miss M. K. Andrews.
Rock specimen, showing granite intrusion in Silurian rocks of
Mourne ; also specimens of a number of local rocks.
From Mr. A. S. Oswald.
A beggar's badge, in brass, inscribed "St. Field, 25."
From Mr. Richard Hanna.
Portion of the planking of a wooden ship perforated by the
shipworm {Teredo). Found at Newcastle sandhills.
ADDITION'S TO THE LIBRARY, ist MAY, 1900, till
1ST MAY, 1 901.
Adelaide. — Transactions of the Royal Society of South
AustraHa. Vol. 24, parts i and 2, 1900, and
Memoirs, vol. i, part 2, 1900. The Society.
Albany. — Forty-ninth Annual Report of New York State
Museum, vol. 3, 1895. Fiftieth Report, vol. 2,
1896, and Fifty-first Report, vols, i and 2, 1897.
The Regents of the University.
Bergen. — Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1899, part 2, and 1900,
parts I and 2 ; also Aarsberetning for 1899 and
1900 ; and Crustacea of Norway. Vol. 3, parts
5 — 10, 1900. Bergen Museiun.
Berlin. — Verhandlungen dtr Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde zu
Berlin. Vol. 27, nos. 4 — 10, 1900; and vol. 28,
Nos. I — 3, 1 901. 2 he Society.
Birmingham. — Proceedings of Birmingham Natural History
and Philosophical Society. Vol. 10, part i,
1896; and part 2 — 1897; and vol. 11, part i,
1899; also Records of Meteorological Observa-
tions for 1896 and 1897. 2 he Society.
Bologna. — Rendeconto della R. Accademia delle Scienze dell'
Istituto de Bologna ; new series, vol. 2, fasc.
I — 4, 1898, and vol. 3, 1899. The Academy.
Boston. — Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History.
Vol. 29, nos. 9 — 14, 1900. Memoirs, vol. 6, no.
6, 1900; and no. 7, 1901; also Occasional
Papers, vol. i, no. 4, 1900. The Society.
Bremen. — Abhandlungen Herausgegeben vom Natuiwissen-
schaftlichen Verein zu Bremen. Vol. 16, part,
3, 1900. The Society.
Breslau — Zeitschrift fur Entomologie Herausgegeben vom
Verein fiirSchlesiche Insektenkunde zu Breslau.
New series, part 25, 1900. 2 he Society.
8 Books Received.
Brighton. — Annual Report of Brighton and Hove Natural
Histor_v and Philcsophical Society for 1899-1900.
2he Society.
Brisbane. — Annals of the Queensland Museum, no. 5, 1900.
Tlie Director.
Brussels. — Bulletin de la Societe Royale de Botanique de
Belgique. Vol. 39, 1900. The Society.
,, Annales de la Sociele Entomologique de Belgique.
Vol. 44, 1900. The Society.
„ Annales de la Societe Royale de Malacologique de
Belgique. Vol. 34 (part of), 1899.
The Society.
Buenos Ayres. — Comunicaciones del Museo Nacional de
Buenos Aires. Vol. i, Nos. 6 and 7, 1900.
The Director.
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. VcJ.
28, part 2, 1900; vol. 2q, 1899 ; vol. 30, parts 1
and 2, 1900 ; and vol. 33, part I, 1901.
Palseontologia Indica. Series 9, vol. 2, part 2,
1900; and vol. 3, part i, 1900; also series 15,
vol. 3, parts I and 2, 1899; and General Report
of the Work of the Survey for 1899.
The Director of the Survey.
Cambridge. — Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society. Vol. 10, parts 5 — 7 ; and vol. 11, parts
I and 2, 1 900- 190 1. The Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology. Vol. 35, no. 8, 1900; vol. 36, nos. i
— 6, T900; vol. 37, nos. I and 2, 1900; and vol.
38, nos. 2 and 3, 1901; also Annual Report for
1899-1900. The Secretary, Ale.x. Agassiz.
Cardiff. — Report and Transactions of Cardiff Naturalists'
Society. Vol. 32, 1901. 7 lie Society.
Casskl. — Abhandlungen und Bericht (45) des Vereins fiir
Nzturkunde zu Kassel, 1900. 2 he Society.
Books'_Received. 9
Chicago. — Bulletin of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, No.
3, 1898. The Academy.
Christiania. — Christiania Videnskabs Forhandlinger. Nos. 2
— 4, 1899; and Oversigt for 1899; also Norway
Official Publication for the Paris Exhibition in
1900.
llie Royal Norskc Frcdenks University.
Cincinnati. — Bulletin of the Lloyd Library of Botany,
Pharmacy, and Materia Medica, No. i, I ,00.
The Messrs. Lloyd.
Colorado Springs. — Colorado College Studies. Vol. 8, 1899.
Colorado College Scientific Society.
Dantzic. — Schriften der Naturtorschenden Gesellschaft in
Danzig. New series, vol. 10, part i, 1899.
The Society.
Davenport, Iowa. — Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of
Natural Sciences. Vol. 7, 1900.
The Academy.
Dublin. — Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society.
Series 2, vol. 7, parts 2 and 3, 1899; and par'is
4 — 7, 1900. Scientific Proceedings. New
series, vol. 9, part i, 1899; and part 2, 1900.
Economic Proceedings. Vol. i, parts i and 2,
1899; and Index, 1899. The Society.
Edinburgh. — Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 21, part 4, 1900.
The Society.
,, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Vol. 22, 1897-99. ^^^^ Society.
„ Transactions of the Scottish Natural History
Society. Vol. i, part i, 1900. The Society.
Genoa. — Rivista Ligure di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. Anno,
22, fasc. 2, 4, 5, and 6, 1900; and fasc. i, igoi.
The Society.
Glasgow. — Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Vol. 21, 1900. The Society.
lo Books Received.
Halifax, N.S. — Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova
Scotian Institute of Science. Vol. lo, part I,
1899 ; and part 2. 1900. The Institute.
Hamburg. — Verhandlungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen
Vereins in Hamburg. Ser. 3, vol. 7, 1900; and
Abhandlungen, vol. 16, part i, 190c.
The Society.
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen Karpathen Vereines, 27th
year, 1900. The Society.
Tndianopolis. — Proceedings cfthe Indiana Academy of Science
for 1891 and 1899. I'he Academy.
Khakkow. — Proceedings of the Society of Sciences, Physico-
Chimiques, of the University of Kharkow.
Part 24, 1898; and parts 25 — 27, 1900.
The Society.
KiEW. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists' of Kiew. Vol.
16, part I, 1899. The Society.
Lausanne. — Bulletin de la Societe Vandoise des Sciences
Naturelles. Ser. 4, no. 134, 1899 ; and nos.
135 — 137, 1900. The Society.
Lawrence. — The Kansas University Quarterly. Vol. 8, no. 4,
1899 ; and Bulletin of the University of Kansas.
Vcl. I, nos. 2 and 3, 1900. The Cniversitv.
Lripsic. — Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig,
1900. The Society.
London.— Report of the Seventieth Meeting of the British
Association ; Bradford, 1900.
The Association.
,, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London. Vol. 56, parts 2 — 4, 1900; and vol.
57, part I, 1901; also Geological Literature for
1899 ; and List of Fellows, 190-.
The Society.
,, Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, Nos.
136 — 139, 1900 ; and Nos. 140 and 141, T901.
The Society.
Books Received. II
London. — Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London,
parts I — 4, 1900. Transactions, Vol. 15, parts
5 — 7, and vol. 16, part i, 1900-1901; also List
of Fellows, 1900. The Society.
Madison. — Bulletin of the Geological and Natural History
Survey of Wisconsin, Nos. 3 and 4, 1808, and
Nos. 5 and 6, iqoo. The Director.
,, Transactions of the Wisconsin Acadenw of Sciences,
Arts, and Letters. Vol. 12, part 2, 1900.
The Academy.
Madras. — Bulletin of Madras Government Museum. Vol. 3,
Nos. I and 2, 1900; and Vol. 4, No. i, 1901 ;
also the Administration Report for 1 899-1 900.
The Superintendent.
Manchester. — Journal of the Manchester Geographical
Society. Vol. 11, nos. 9 — 12, 1895; vol. 14, nos.
9-< 12, 1898; vol. 15, nos. 10 — 12, 1899 ; and
vol. 16, nos. I — 9, 1900. The Society.
,, Transactions of the Manchester Geological
Society. Vol. 26, parts 14 — 19, 1900.
The Society.
Marseilles. — Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Vol. 10, preface and fasc. 1--6.
The Librarian.
Melbourne. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
New ser., vol. 12, part 2, 1900. The Society.
Mexico. — Boletin Mensual del Observatorio Meteorologico.
Central de Mexico. Oct. — Dec, 1899, and
Jany. — June, 1900. The Director.
,, Boletin del Observatorio Astronomico Nacional de
Tacubaya. Vol. 2, No. 6, 1900 ; also Anuario,
Ano. 21, 1900, and El Clima de la Republica
Mexicana, Ano. 2, 1900. The Director.
„ Boletin del Instituto Geologico de Mexico. No. 14,
part 1 , 1 900. The Institute.
12 Books Received.
Milwaukee. — Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History
Society. New ser., vol. i, nos. i and 2, 1900.
The Society.
,, Seventeenth Annual Report of the Trustees of
Milwaukee Public Museum, 1899.
The Trustees.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo.
Vol. 2, fasc. 15 and 16, 1900; fasc. 17, 1901 ;
and vol. 3, fasc. 13, 14, and 18, 1900.
The Director.
Moscow. — Bulletin of the Society of Naturalists of Moscow.
Nos. 2 — 4, 1899, and nos. i and 2, 19CO.
The Society.
Nantes. — Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences de 1' Quest de la
France. Vol. 9, part 4, 1899, and vol. 10, parts
I and 2, 1900. The Society.
New Yokk.— Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Vol. 12, parts 2 and 3, and vol. 13, part i, 1899
1900. Memoirs, vol. 2, part i, 1899, and part
2, 1900. The Academy.
,, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.
Vol. 32, nos. 2 — 5, 1900, and vol. 33, no. i,
1 90 1 . The Society.
Nottingham. — Report and Transactions of Nottingham
Naturalists Society for 1899-iqoo.
The Society.
Oporto. — Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes. Vcl. 6, 1900.
The Editor.
Ottawa. — Preliminary Report on Klondyke Goldfields of
Yukon, Canada, and Geological Map ; also Note
on the Sydney Coal Field, Nova Scotia, and
Maps 652-654, 1900.
The Director of the Survey.
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia. Part 3, 1899, and
parts I — 3, 1900. The Academy.
Books Received. 13
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society, No. 160, 1899, and nos. 161 — 164; 1900.
The Society.
„ Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of
Science. Vol. 3, part 5, 1900.
The Institute.
Pisa.— Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Natural!, Processi
Verbali, January, November, 1900.
The Society.
Rochester. — Proceedings of Rochester Academy. Vol. 3,
brochure 2, 1900. The Academy.
Rome. — Atti Rcale Accademia dei Lincei. Vol. 8, semestre i,
fasc. 12, 1899. Vol. 9, semestre i, fasc. 8, 9, 11,
12, 1900. Semestre 2, fasc. i — 3 and 7 — i?,
1900 ; vol. 10, semestre i, fasc. i — 6, 1901 ; and
Rendiconto dell' Adunanza Solenne del, lolh
June, 1900. Tlie Academy.
,, Journal of the British and American Archaeological
Society of Rome. Vol. 3, no. 2, 1900.
The Society.
,, Bollettino della Societa Zoologicaltaliana. Ser. 2, vo'.
I, fasc. 2 — 4, iqoo. The Society.
San Francisco. — Proceedings of the Californian Academy cf
Sciences. Geology, vol. i, nos. 7 — 9, 1900.
Zoology, vol. 2, no. i, i89q, and nos. 2, 4, and
6, 1900 ; also Occasional Papers, no. 7, 1900.
The Academy.
St. Louis — Eleventh Annual Report of Missouri Botanical
Garden, 1900. The Director.
Stavangek. — Stavanger Museum Aarsberetning for 1899
The Museum Triistees.
Stirling. — Transactions of Stirling Natural History and
Archaeological Society for 1899- 1900.
The Society.
14 Books Received.
Stockholm. — Handlingar of the Royal Swedish Academy.
New ser., vol. 32, 1899. Ofversigt, no. 56,
1899, and Bihang, vol. 25, parts I — 4, 1900.
The Academy.
Sydney. — Science of Man, new ser., vol. 3, nos. 3 — 12, 1900,
and vol. 4, no. l, 1901, The Editor.
ToKio. — Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fi'ir Natur
und Volkerunde Ostasiens. Vol. 8, part 2,
1 900. The Society.
Toronto. — Transactions of the Canadian Institute. Vol. 6,
1899. Proceedings, new ser. vol. 2, part 3,
1900, and part 4, 1901. The Institute.
Upsala. — Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the Uni-
versity cif Upsala. Vol. 4, part 2, 1899.
The University.
Vienna. — Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Geolo
gische.i Reichsanstalt. Nos. 3 — 18, 1900, and
I — 3, 1 901. The Society.
„ Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Zoolo-
gisch Bolanischen Gesellschaft. Vol. 50, 1900.
The Society.
Washington. — Year Book of the Department of Agriculture
for 1899. Report of the Secretary for 1900.
Bulletin of the Department, nos. 12 — 14, 1900,
and North American Fauna, nos. 16 — 18, 1899-
1900. The Secretary of the Department.
„ Seventeenth Annual Report of the American
Bureau of Ethnology. Part 2, 1895-96.
The Director of the Bnrean.
,, Nineteenth Annual Report of the United States
Geological Survey. Parts 3 and 5, with Atlas,
1897-98, and Twentieth Report, part i, 1898-
99; also Bulletins, nos. 151 — 156, 1898, and nos.
157 — 162, 1899. Monographs, vol. 32, part 2,
vols. 33, 34, 36, 37, and 38, iSgo.
The Director,
Books Received. 15
Washington. — American Monthly Microscopical Journal. Vol.
21, nos. I — T2, iqoo. The Fiihlisher.
„ Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for
1898. Special Bulletin, part i, 1900. Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections, 1,253, 1901.
Annual Report of the United States Museum,
1898. Bulletin of the U.S. Museum, no. 47,
part 4, iqoo.
The Smithsonian Institution.
Xalapa. — Boletin Mensual Meteorologico y Agricola del
Observatorio Central del Estado Vera Cruz, four
numbers, 1898 1900. The Director.
York, — Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
1901. The Soeietj.
Zurich. — Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
in Zurich, 44th year, parts i and 2, 1900.
The Society.
From Mr. R. Lloyd -Patterson, D.L., F.L.S. — Journal of the
Linnean Society (Botany). Nos. 240 and 241,
1900, and 242, 1901.
From James Green, Esq. (Massachusetts Bar), Worcester,
Mass, U.S.A. Causes of the War in South
Africa.
BELFAST
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSION 1900-1 901.
6ih November^ igoo.
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,
Mr. J. Brown.
Some Matters Electric.
At this opening meeting of our Session there is wanting a time
honoured ceremony that usually graces the occasion. I allude
to the introduclion to you of your president elect by his outgoing
predecessor.
For the second time in the history of the Society death has
removed its President during his term of office. On the present
occasion I feel the loss of one of my earliest Belfast friends, one
who was always ready in sympathy whether of condolence and
help in times of sorrow or of congratulation in times of success.
One whose advice and counsel were freely available. One from
whom I have received many kindnesses, and with whom I have
spent many pleasant and profitable hours. I feel sure these
sentiments find an echo in the hearts of all those who knew our
late President.
In his death the Society has to deplore the loss of one who
had its best interests at heart, whose shrewdness made him quick
to discern these interests, and whose energy left no stone
unturned in working for them. During my thirteen years official
connexion with the working of the Society as its Honorary
1 8 Inaugural Address by the President.
Treasurer I had often occasion to observe the disinterested and
completely unostentatious way in which Mr. Workman gave
his mind to the good of the Society. Several important steps
which turned out advantageously were initiated by him.
Mr. Workman's membership was an honour to us. He was
one of the few business men in our city who found time for
original scientific research. Mr. Workman not only spared
time from his business for this purpose, but actually took
advantage of his far business connexions to assist him in the
successful study of that branch of natural history which he had
made his own.
Memoirs published in our own proceedings and elsewhere
bear witness to the success attending his researches — the
discovery of new species and the more careful observation of
the habits of others.
The volume of plates illustrating in detail so many of the
Arachnida, which has been so carefully prepared by his own
hands, assisted sometimes by his daughter, and of which a
beautiful copy was presented by him to the Society bear^
witness to the interest with which he pursued his subject.
Offering to the memory of our late President this tribute of
esteem and regret, I turn to my own duties unannounced.
In seeking a subject on which to address you, it seemed that
either something pertaining historically to the Society, or
something with which I myself was connected or interested, or
some topic of new and general interest might be appropriate.
The first mentioned has been ably treated already. I have,
therefore, thought it might not be amiss to take up a little of
the two last.
I shall first deal as briefly as possible, with my own work on
a subject of much scientific interest, though not perhaps of a
very popular kind, " The Theory of Voltaic Action." It seems
proper that some record of this should find a place in our pro-
ceedings, and this has not yet been the case. Afterwards I hope
to describe experimentally some modern applications of
electricity.
Inaugural Address by the Presiaent. 19
As my work on voltaic theory is on the main line of research,
I would lead up to it by a brief reference to the history of the
subject. The earliest experiment in this connexion was a very
simple and now well-known one described by Sulzer^, in 1760,
in a paper on " The theory of agreeable and disagreeable
sensations" The experiment consisted in placing under the
tongue a plate of silver, and on top of the tongue a plate of lead
or zinc or other suitable metal. In bringing the outer ends of
these metals in contact a peculiar sensation is experienced in
the tongue. That this is really due to the formation of an
electric current passing through the tongue between the metals
was not even guessed at the time of its observation, nor for
many years afterwards. Yet its discoverer (if he had only known
it) was the first to observe the current from a voltaic cell.
Science, however, does not progress by such co-ordinated
observations of isolated efTects, and the first step towards the
discovery of the true character of the phenomenon was made by
the observation and connexion of two almost accidental efTects
noted by Galvani,^ professor of anatomy at Bologna.
In 1780 when investigating the nervous irritability of cold
blooded animals he observed that the limbs of a recently killed
frog, when hung by the crural nerve on a metal support near an
electric machine, contracted convulsively at the occurrence of
each spark drawn from the machine. Six years afterwards he
observed the same contraction when a copper hook, on which
the nerve hung, and the limb itself came simultaneously in con-
tact with an iron railing — the copper hook, the iron railing,
and the frog's leg forming thus a circuit of three bodies in
contact. The similarity of the result pointed to the same
cause — electricity. But how in this last mentioned case was
the electricity produced ?
This question has exercised the scientific world ever since. '
Galvani thought it was produced in the animal tissues, and
even went so far as to connect it with the spirit of the animal.
1. ^/Wf Electrochemie, Ostwald, p. 41.
2. Ibid, p. 27. 3. Ibid, p. 45.
20 Inaugural Address by the President.
A year after the publications of his work, which naturally
excited the greatest interest, it was criticised by his great com-
patriot, Alessandro Volta,^ Professor of physics at Pavia.
Galvani's attention had been devoted to the nerves and muscles
of the frog. Volta's was directed upon the metallic matters in
contact with them. He emphasised (what Galvani had already
noticed) that strong muscular contractions were only obtained
when the connecting arc is composed of two metals in contact,
and he maintained that the electric current causing the muscular
contractions was produced at the contact or Junction of the
metals ; and he describes this theory of hjs, without reticence or
modesty, as a discovery of the highest order.
H:id Volta's observations been made half a century later,
when the splendid researches of Faraday emphasized the
beginning of a more perfect knowledge, a truer view of science
would doubtless have supported and intensified the leaning
which he himself at first possessed towards the assumption that
the source of the electric action was to be found in the chemical
activities at the contact between the metals and the liquids of
the fresh animal tissues.
That the electricity was produced by chemical action of
these fluids on the metals was indeed suggested by Fabroni,*
in 1792, and by Creve,* whose explanation of the action bears
a quaint resemblance to that which a wider knowledge has
brought foith in modern times. ^
Volta, however, was carried away by the (merely apparent)
simplicity of the metallic contact theory and by the result of a
most ingenious form of experiment which seemed to preclude
the possibility of any such chemical action on the metals. The
apparatus used is represented by that on the table and is
known as Volta's condenser. Here the two metals are in the
form of plates, having plain surfaces, and mounted on insulating
supports so as to be capable of being approached very closely
to one another without touching. If when so approached the
4. Wilkinson's Galvanism I, p. 313 — 15.
5. Ibid, p. 311. 6. Ibid, p. 104.
Inaugural Address by the President. 21
two plates be joined for a moment by a metallic wire and then
separated, it is found that the zinc appears to be positively and
the copper negatively electrified. I say appears advisedly.
If we neglect any possible actions of the atmosphere on the
metals we are tied to Volta's view. It is surprising, considering
the clear insight and the careful and persevering nature which
Volta possessed, that he did neglect such atmospheric action,
and continued to do so even after his brilliant invention of the
Voltaic pile and cell in 1799, in which, notwithstanding, the
obvious presence of cheu ical action, he still placed the seat o^
generation of the current at the contact of the two metals. I
am inclined to think that the largi acceptance which Volta's
contact theory obtained subsequently was due in great measure
to his impressive and self-confident style of writing, to the care
he took to publish widely, and to the respect due to his
undoubted genious rather than to any convincing characteristic
in his experiments. For it is to be noticed that beginning with
Fabroni and Creve and culminating with our own immortal
Faraday, there was a succession of philosophers who maintained
that in all cases the electric effect was due to chemical action
upon the metals whether of the atmosphere on Volta's condenser
plates or of liquid in his cell. In the cell indeed the presence
of chemical action is evident, and the need of some such source
of energy to produce the continuous current of the cell is more
obvious.
To illustrate this, I have here two metallic plates, one of
copper and one iron, placed in the necessary metallic contact
through a wire which forms part of this galvanoscope. When
placed in this jar of acidulated water the current generated
immediately deflects the pointer of the instrument. If the
experiment be continued for some hours, we find the iron has
been dissolved by the acid while the copper remains unacted
on. In Faraday's researches'" on many varieties of such cells it
was clear inter aha that contact of dissimilar metals was not
necessary (one metal and two liquids being also active), also that
7. Experimental Researches in Electricity II., p. 18.
22 Inaugural Address by the President.
the direction of the current was always from the chemically
active surface of metal through the liquid to the inactive one.
A very remaikable experiment arises from this last-mentioned
law.
You observed that when we dipped these metal plates in the
acidulated water the pointer moved to the right, and I told you
that in this case the iron was being attacked. We now place
them in another solution, a solution of potassium sulphide
which attacks the copper most, with the result that the current is
reversed, and sends the pointer to the left. It now flows from
the copper by liquid to iron. I point especially to this experi-
ment with its reversal ot current for a reason which follows
later.
After Faraday's brilliant researches, men's minds seemed to
have inclined towards belief in the chemical source of the current
till about 1862, when Lord Kelvin (then Sir William Thomson)
published what he described as a new proof of Volta's contact
force,* which was really only a very elegant variation of Volta's
fundamental experiment, and does not to my thinking throw
any further light on the subject. Lord Kelvin, however,
became himself convinced that the contact theory was the true
one, and this seems very remarkable when we remember that
it is to Lord Kelvin we owe the enunciation of the law (now
known as Thomson's law) defining the intimate and exact
connection between the electromotive force of the cell and the
chemical actions in it. The great authority belonging to Lord
Kelvin's high order of genius however swayed the scientific
world towards what he accepted as true.
We have now come to the period when I was tempted to
enter the lists. I found then two opposing camps, one led by
the genius of Faraday holding that the Voltaic current and all
Voltaic action was due to chemical action at the surface of the
metal and liquid, the other maintaining that the seat of the
force generating the current was at the contact of the two
8. Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, p. 317.
Fiff. I.
Inaugural Address by the President. 23
metals and pointing to the Volta condenser experiment as
precluding the possibility of chemical action. They pointed
out that this condenser experiment gave the same result in
vacuo where they said no atmospheric action could take place.
They omitted to consider, however, that there was no such
thing as a vacuum attainable. After the best means of exhaustion
known there is always amply sufficient gas left to cause the
minute amount of chemical action required for this particular
electric effect.
Since it seemed hopeless to attempt to nullify the electric
effect by removing the atmosphere, it occurred to me to try if
varying the chemical nature of the atmosphere Avould cause a
corresponding variation of the electric eflFect.^ In fact I con-
sidered that if with a Volta condenser we could arrange a
change of the chemical activities of the atmosphere surrounding
the plates analogous to the change of the chemical activities of
the liquid in the cell which I have just described, we should find
a reversal of the electric charges analogous to the reversal of
current in the cell.
I chose the same metals as Faraday, copper and iron, and of
these this small condenser Fig. i was made so as to be enclosed
under a glass bell on insulating supports. When tested in
ordinary atmosphere the chemical action of which is chiefly
directed towards the oxidation of the iron, the usual Volta effect
was produced. The iron plate communicated a positive charge to
the electrometer. Then, without changing any of the metallic
contacts, I passed into the glass bell a stream of hydrogen
sulphide gas. The copper was actively attacked and tarnished by
the gas and at once took, electrically speaking, the place of the
iron in the first case, and a positive electrification was now
obtained from it.
My satisfaction and indeed elation at finding my hypothesis,
so clearly verified was very great. Indeed I believed that this
experiment would end the dispute between the contact and
9. Phil. Mag. VI., p. 142, 1878.
24 Inaugural Address by the President.
chemical theories that had gone on for nearly a century.
Immediately afterwards I arranged the experiment in the
form devised by Lord Kelvin where a metallic ring is formed —
half of one metal here copper, and the other half of a different
metal, here iron. Over the junction swings a delicately
suspended needle capable of being electrified. Lord Kelvin
showed that when positive the needle swings towards the
copper attracted by a negative electrification, if negative towards
the iron. I showed that these deflexions are reversed if the
atmosphere be charged with hydrogen sulphide in this case as
in that of the condenser method.
Using copper and nickel plates in air and in hydrochloric
acid gas,^" the electrification is also reversed following its
analogous reversal in the corresponding cell. Finally, although
the requisite conditions obtain with only a few metals and
liquids, I was able to arrange five different experiments of an
analogous kmd, and in all these the hypothesis was amply and
decidedly confirmed.^^
An attempt to annul the Voltaic efTect by a removal of all
active chemical atmospheric matters from about the metals in
a more thorough way than had hitherto been employed was
made by sealing up in an exhausted glass tube this small Volta
condenser, together with a quantity of potassium intended to
absorb oxygen, etc.^^ Means were provided for testing the
electric difference of potential. Lord Kelvin, I may mention,
told me I should not succeed in annulling the difference of
potential by these means.
Tn my first experiment, which lasted six months, it was
reduced somewhat and increased on re-opening the tube. In a
second experiment lasting i8 months, and in a third lasting
seven years, there was no such effect observed. Lord Kelvin
10. Phil. Mag. VII., p. 109, 1879.
11. Proc. Roy. Soc, XL!., p. 301, 1886.
12. Ibid., LXIV., p. 369, 1899,
Inaugural Address by the President. 25
was therefore correct in his prophecy. I attribute this negative
result to the extreme difficulty of removing the chemically
active matters from about the plates.
Several other forms of experiment were devised to obtain
evidence on the question. In the result I can say that I have
found nothing to definitely contradict and much to support the
hypothesis I adopted originally.
In considering the true nature of the effect in Volta's funda-
mental experiment, I concluded that its explanation would be
found in a modification of the theory originally put forth by
De la Rive,^^ that the electrification was produced by electrolytic
chemical action on the metallic surfaces, and that the electrolyte
acting on these sui faces was condensed on them in the form of
a liquid film. In the ordinary atmosphere this film is doubtless
chiefly water with oxygen, carbonic acid, etc., in solution. Its
basis is doubtless in all cases water, while any gases present
would dissolve in this aqueous film. In confirmation of this it
was found that when by exceedingly careful and patient
manipulation the plates of the zinc-copper Volta condenser
were brought exceedingly close together, but not actually
touching, the films on their surfaces came together and acted
together as the liquid conductor of a cell, and a continuous
current could be obtained from the cell so formed^* sufficient to
deflect a galvanometer connected to the condenser plates.
Such a theor}^ explains the action of the Volta condenser and
that of the cell as really the same, in so far as either can be
explained. In so doing it has to admit that we know very little
about either of them. I believe that is one of the attributes
that characterises it as non-acceptable in comparison with
theories which, based on large and ill-supported assumption,
profess to explain everything.
13. Traite d' Elecfrieite II., p. 776.
14. Proc. Roy. Soc, XLI., p. 307, 1886, also Repertorium der Physik, XXIII.,
P 732-
26
Inaugural Address by the President.
^
^
E
Fisf. 2.
In Figure 2 D represents an ordinary Voltaic cell — a plate of
copper and one of zinc connected and immersed in an oxidizing
electrolyte. A current flows with the arrows, round the circuit
copper, zinc, electrolyte, copper.
Now, if we cut this circuit at a point in the copper, as shown
at E, we get a diiference of potential between the copper ends
at the division, positive in the part next the immersed portion
of the copper, negative in the other end. Similarly if we cut
the zinc as at F, we get the positive end above towards the
contact, negative end below, and if we divide through the
electrolyte as at G we have still the same effect, positive at the
side in which the zinc is immersed, negative in that containing
the copper. Now supposing we let this dividing diaphragm
through the electrolyte be composed of air, and let it gradually
increase so as to occupy so much of the space between two metal
plates that only a mere film of the electrolyte is left on each metal
surface, we have at once the whole effect as observed in the
Volta condenser experiment or in the contact experiment of
Lord Kelvin. I have shown this to be the case experimentally^^
and, further, if instead of merely dividing a single electrolyte,
we use two electrolytes^*' such as a layer of copper sulphate
solution on the copper, and zinc sulphate solution on the zinc
15. Phil. Mag. VII., p. 110, 1879.
16. Proc. Roy. Soc, XLI., p, 306, iS
Fig- 3-
Fig.
Fig 4.
Inaugural Address by the President. 27
we get the difference of potential equal to that of the Daniell
cell analogous with this arrangement of films.
As touching the reception of my conclusions by the scientific
world, it may be said that some accepted them fully, while
others merely modified their definitions so as to save them from
contradiction by my experiments. Professor Clerk Maxwell^'^
was among the first to agree with me, and the interest taken
in the experiments and acceptance of the conclusions drawn
from them by one occupying a place so high in the scientific
world doubtless led others to consider them.
Having now completed the more drily scientific part of my
address, I shall ask your permission to describe a few
applications of electric power arranged for the convenience of
my own home, and afterwards to describe and exhibit experi-
ments on the more important modern developments of electric
art in wireless telegraphy and the Wehnelt interrupter.
At and about my home at Longhurst we employ, besides
electric lighting eight electric motors and five pieces of apparatus
in which electric heating is used. Fig. 3 represents an
electrically driven gravel sitter. The motor is seen on the top
driving the barrel screen which separates out the coarsest gravel,
delivering it at the end into a barrow. Below the barrel screen
is a sieve hung on springs and caused to vibrate and shake
about by blows on its edge from the cams on the barrel screen.
This delivers fine gravel into a second barrow and lets the sand
fall through into a third. The economy over the usual method
with two inclined flat screens is in the fact that only one
shovelling is needed instead of say three or four for the two
screenings, and the subsequent filling of the barrows with the
product to be wheeled away.
The spiral shaped cam seen on the top is arranged to rise
periodically with its supporting piece (which is hinged to the
main frame) and fall suddenly as it is being rotated by contact
with the revolving drum of the screen. The blow given by its
fall shakes out any stones that may have become wedged
between the rods of the screen.
17. Elementary Treatise on Electricity, p. 14.9.
28 inaugural Address by the President.
Fig. 4 illustrates an electric motor arranged to drive either
a mangle or an ice making machine.
At present it is connected by the strap to the mangle which
it drives very agreeably on washing days. By changingTthe
belt it may work the ice maker, the product of which was found
acceptable in the hot weather. You simply enclose about a
pint of water in the receptacle, switch on the current, and come
back in twent}' or thirty minutes for the ice. Water or wine
can be iced in a very few minutes, and ice cream can be made.
Fig. 5 shows our electric motor car, or as a friend calls it the
electric street boat. In it the motor and gearing are at the
back over the driving wheels. The accumulator to carry the
store of electricity needed for a 20 mile ride is under the middle
of the car. The steering is effected by the wheel in front acting
on the front wheels.
On the table is an electrically driven meat chopper, in which
I have arranged a small motor simply coupled up to the usual
hand chopping machine. The only disadvantage m introducing
a machine of this kind into one's domestic arrangements is the
continuous monotony of croquettes and rissoles which its
handiness suggests to the housekeeper. By removing the
chopping arrangements, and substituting egg beating apparatus,
it is converted into a very efficient egg beater.
When this machine had been working for a year or so in my
kitchen it occurred to me that the effect could be got more
directly and simply. The magnetic pull which drives the
rotary motor acts, like all other pulls, in straight lines and
would produce the rectilinear motion required for meat chopping
and egg beating, if we did not employ complicated means in
the motor to produce rotary motion which we do not want,
and are obliged to render rectilinear by further contrivances
before we can use it.
It would be evidently simpler and better to allow the
rectilinear pull to produce directly rectlinear motion. This is
accomplished in the new form ot apparatus Fig. g (here
arranged as a meat chopper) in which the well known action
of a solenoid on a soft iron core is employed.
Inaugural Address by the President.
29
The current in passing
round the coil attracts
upwards the core E
and its attachments,
including the knife F^
with a force of 3 to 4
lbs. In order to let it
fall again it is only
necessary to break the
current, which is dene
by the sliding break or
collar G. The current
in entering the coil D
passes through the two
contact springs J J and
the sliding collar G,
making connexion bet-
ween them, but as soon
as the core in rising has
stretched out the spring
supports H H of the
collar far enough to
draw it up out of con-
tact, the circuit is
broken and the core
falls by its own weight
assisted by the re-
silience of a buffer
spring E^ under the
coil. The sliding collar
break follows it down
and again completes
the circuit, and so the reciprocating action continues. The
material to be chopped is placed in a vessel with a wooden
bottom as indicated in the figure by broken lines.
Besides this vertical motion it is necessary to rotate the
30 Inaugural Address by the President.
knife F^ so as to distribute its strokes over the whole of the
meat. This rotation is effected by the inclined grooves G^ in
the collar break which engage with catches on the heads of the
contact springs causing a turning movement each time the
collar is drawn upwards.
A quick reciprocating motion of the kind we have here
might be applied to many things svich as hammering, rock
drilling, etc. I have, as an experiment, fitted a hammer to this
apparatus which can be controlled like a steam hammer.
Again by turning the whole thing upside down and attaching
to the cone a fret-saw or jig-saw with a spring take up, it has
been made to saw also.
By substituting another core with a suitable plunger it is
converted into an egg beater of great convenience and efficiency.
The addition to this of an adjustable oil dropping arrangement
gives it the power of making an excellent mayonnaise.
Mayonnaise making, according to a high authority, requires
" time, patience, and nicety." When these matters are
arranged for in the machine one simply puts in the egg, oil,
vinegar, and condiments, switches on the current, and in
twenty or thirty minutes there is an excellent mayonnaise.
I now pass on to what is perhaps the most important electric
invention of the last few years, namely, wireless telegraphy.
In ordinary telegraphy the message is transmitted by means of
electric currents in an insulated wire from the sender to the
receiver, returning by the earth through earth plates, connected
one to each end of the wire and buried in damp soil or in water.
In returning through the earth the current does not confine
itself to one path but spreads out through the earth. If we
insert in the path of a portion of this earth current a second
pair of earth plates and wire, we shall get a part of the earth
returned current in a wire connecting these plates sufficient to
affect a telephone, so that signals made by the current, in the
first mentioned wire, can be heard in the telephone. Such a
system is, I understand, in successful operation between Rathlin
Island and the mainland at Ballycastle.
Inaugural Address by the President. 31
A method of much greater scientific interest as well as of
later invention is that which has been recently perfected and
brought into notice by Marconi. In this form of wireless
telegraphy the message is carried by wave motions in the
aether. In one sense it is not more wonderful than signalling
by flashes of light ; light waves being also wave motions in
the sether, but with waves very much shorter than those used
in telegraphy.
It will be interesting to recall briefly the history of the dis-
covery of these electromagnetic aether waves.
In the year 1845 that greatest of all experimental philosophers
Michael Faraday, tells us — " I have long held an opinion almost
amounting to conviction, in common I believe with many other
lovers of natural knowledge, that the various forms under which
the forces of matter are made manifest have one common origin,
or in other words are so directly related and mutually dependent
that they are convertible as it were one into another and
possess equivalents of power in their action. This strong
persuasion extended to the powers of light and led to many
exertions having for their object the discovery of the direct
relation of light and electricity, but the results were negative.
These ineffectual exertions could not remove my strong
persuasion derived from philosophical considerations, and,
therefore, I recently resumed the enquiry by experiment in a
most strict and searching manner, and have at last succeeded in
magnetizing and electrifying a ray of light."
We can imagine the great philosopher standing thus, as it
were, on the farthest bound of knowledge, at the utmost point
of discovery jutting out into the misty waters of the as yet dim
unknown, gazing, examining into the depths of the infinitely
possible, watching each dim foredawning of those gigantic
truths, which that finest almost supernatural intuition with
which he was endowed, convinced him existed there.
With this intuitive experimentalization of Faraday we
contrast — but cannot compare — the brilliant deductions of
Clerk Maxwell, who, in a later time, working on the experi-
32 Inaugural Address by the President.
mental data of Faraday and others, and throwing on them the
clear decisive light of mathematical deduction, concluded not
only that there was a connection between light and electricity,
but that light itself was really an electromagnetic phenomenon.
He showed also that disturbances in the aether were produced
by electric discharges, and that if such discharges were repeated
with sufficient rapidity they would become the source of aether
waves similar to light waves, but much longer, and having
many surprising peculiarities. To such waves, for instance,
certain opaque non-conducting substances such as pitch vulcanite
and so forth would be found transparent. To these they would
offer no more opaqueness than glass does to light. Metals
would be opaque, but would have electric disturbance produced
in them by the impact of these electromagnetic aether vibrations.
The experimental confirmation of these deductions was,
however, still to be made. In 1883 Prof. George F. FitzGerald
drew my attention to this, and pointed out that if we could
produce electric discharges at the rate of 50 or 100 million per
second we could verify Maxwell's prophesy. I could think of
no current breaker which could work at such a rate. I
mention this to show how narrowly one sometimes misses
becoming famous. If we had only thought of the oscillatory
discharge of an ordinary induction coil or leyden jar it would
not have been left to Herz five y^ars later to show that the
oscillations of such discharges have the required frequency for
radiating Maxwell's waves and to invent also means for detect-
ing the radiations at a distance from their source.
In the working of such an induction coil as this now before
you, at each spark there is an inconceivably rapid surging
backwards and forwards of the current forming the spark, so
that what looks like one spark is really a discharge oscillating
in opposite directions between the brass knobs with extreme
rapidity. By means of a suitable receiving instrument, telegraphy
can be carried on by the usual code of short and long flashes.
Such elementary apparatus as I can show you here works very
well across the lecture room as you see. Marconi has been able
by more perfect arrangements to send messages over 40 miles.
Inait,giiral Address by the President. 33
If I have not wearied you too much I would now attempt to
show two or three rather interesting experiments with another
new electric invention. Wehnelt's electrolytic interrupter as
applied to the induction coil.
The construction of the Wehnelt is very simple — merely a
jar containing dilute sulphuric acid into which dips a lead plate
forming the negative terminal of a supply at 100 volts or so.
The other terminal is a platinum wire about the thickness of
a darning needle enclosed in a glass tube so as to expose only
half an inch or so to the liquid. When the current is switched
on it passes by the platinum wire through the liquid to the lead
plate. In doing so it heats the little platinum wire red hot.
The heated wire electrolyses and also boils the acidulated water
in contact with it, and surrounds itself with a layer of steam
and electrolysed gas. Steam being a non-conductor the
current cannot pass it, and so the needed interruption of the
current occurs. The steam then promptly condenses thus
allowing the dilute acid to come again in contact with the
platinum wire. The current again flows, only to be interrupted
again and so on at the rate of several hundred times per second,
the rate of frequency depending on the make of the interrupter,
and the self-induction of the coil employed. The result at the
secondary terminals is a torrent of sparks succeeding each other
so rapidly as to resemble a flame of fire. If the terminals be in
the form of circles placed one over the other the discharge
between them may be made to move round the circles by the
proximity of a magnetic pole according to well known laws
Again if the terminals be prolonged two or three feet in an
upward direction, but diverging slightly as they rise, the dis-
charge will form at the lower part, be carried up by the heated
air formed in its track till it breaks at the top to reform below.
Sir Otto Jaflfe, in moving a vote of thanks to the President,
said it would be an impertinence on his part to attempt to
criticise the lecture they had heard. He congratulated the
President in that he had not only attempted but had been
successful in scientific researches on one of the most difficult
subjects of the present day.
34 Inaugural Address by the President.
Professor Purser, in seconding the motion, said he thought
they would all agree with him in saying that they had seldom
listened to a lecture so lucid and so well arranged. The experi-
ments in wireless telegraphy had been wonderfully successful.
The motion having been passed by acclamation,
The President, in acknowledging the vote of thanks, said that
after all, the success of an experimental lecture mainly depended
not so much on the lecturer as on the care and efficiency of his
assistants, and in this case their very best thanks were due to
his friend Mr. MacWhirter, of Glasgow, who had come over
specially and had given so much care and time to the prepara-
tion and carrying out of the experiments. They were also
indebted to Mr. MoUan for his efficient assistance, to Professor
Whitla lor the use of the current from his house, to Mr.
M'Cowan for making provision for this, and to Professor
Morton, Mr. Finnegan, and Mr. Drennan for their kindness in
lending apparatus.
35
///// December^ I goo.
Mr. J. Brown, President, in the Chair.
THE BOTANY OF THE SHORES OF LOUGH NEAGH.
By John H. Davies.
(Abstract. )
Mr. Davies said that prior to the close of the seventeenth
century there had been very Httle, if any, systematic investi-
gation of the botanical productions of Lough Neagh. The
first records were those supplied by the celebrated English
botanist, Dr. William Sherard, who endowed the chair of
Botany at Oxford, the distinguished Dillenius being the first
Sherardian Professor. When visiting his friend, Sir Arthur
Rawdon, at Moira, in 1692, Sherard spent some time in
herborising along the lake shores. Following Sherard about
the end of the next century, nearly 100 years later, came their
townsman, John Templeton, than whom there had been
no more zealous and devoted naturalist. In the course of his
frequent visits to the lough and to Portmore, which are con-
nected, he added much to the then meagre knowledge of its
botanical history. In 1833 Dr. David Moore, when associated
as botanist with General Portlock in the Ordnance Survey of
Derry, had splendid opportunities which, at Lough Neagh, he '
used with the greatest advantage in the exercise of bis love of
botanical research. In more recent years their knowledge of
the lake flora had been extended by not a few of the ardent
and active botanists of the present time. Mr. Davies described
2)6 Botany of the Bhores of Lough Ncngh.
the character of the rich and varied flora of the lough, and
made allusion to the most noteworthy discoveries of those
whose names he had mentioned. Some of the plants detected
there by the earlier explorers, he said, were supposed to be now
lost through the lowering of the level of the lake by the
drainage works in the Lower Bann, but careful observation
might probably result in the restoration of some of them to the
list of Lough Neagh plants. One of the most important recent
discoveries, by which the flora had been enriched, was that of
a little sand-loving cress, Teesdalia imdicatiHs, at Washing Bay,
Co. Tyrone. It occurred in some abundance, but there was a
question as to whether it might be indigenous. His own
observations led him to believe that it had long been established
there, and, though the ways in which a plant of the kind may
be introduced were manifold, one was inclined to think it might
be native. Recalling to mind, soon after it had been seen there,
that the great bulk of the sand brought from the lough b)
canal to Lisburn and Belfast for building and filtration purposes
is taken from the place where the plant is found, two of the
spots along the canal where the sand is discharged were
examined. In both, the plant was seen in quantity, with every
appearance of having been there for some time, which was in
support of the view that if not native at Lough Neagh, it was
by no means a recent introduction.
Continuing, the lecturer said that the mterest belonging to
tht occuxrQnctoi Polygonum mite at Lough Neagh, where he
had the good fortune to meet with it very recently on both
the County Antrim and County Armagh margins, consisted in
its being a very rare plant in Ii eland. There were, indeed,
only two other stations for it. In England it was also a scarce
plant, and it was not known in Scotland nor in Wales.
Sometimes one saw in the lake on the Antrim border con-
siderable quantities of a very rare water crowfoot, Ranunculus
fluitans^ but on examination it was found to be floating loose in
the water, not a single stem being attached. Were it not
known that it occurred in the Sixmilewater, discovered there by
Botany of the Shores of Lough Neagh. 37
his friend Mr. Stewart, some years ago, that river still remain-
ing its only Irish station, it might possibly be mistaken as a
lake plant. It was carried from the river to the lake in times of
flood. Though producing abundant fruit, much of which must
frequently find its way to the lough, the plant did not grow
there. So nice was it in its choice of habitat that it occurred
only in streams having a rapid current.
Proceeding, Mr, Davies said that notwithstanding the
attention that had been given to the investigation of its flora by
those to whom allusion had been made, it might not unreason-
ably be supposed that in the case of a lake having an area of
over 150 square miles, there were some parts of its margins that
had never been thoroughly explored. For a botanist he could
conceive nothing more likely to afford profitable enjoyment
than to spend a long summer holiday there, to examine its
diversified shores, to visit its islands, and to dredge its waters
for Characese and other hydrophytes. The student of nature
who found pleasure in mingling with his pursuits matters of
human interest would have opportunity. The hardy and
intelligent fisherman you met by the way, or who invited you
into his cottage for acceptable shelter from a passing thunder
shower, would ask you about '' them quare weeds," and impart
his views on the affairs in which he took interest. If you fell
in with him on the beach at his noontide meal of freshly-caught
pollan, cooked on the embers of a wood fire, you were heartily
welcome to a share, and he (Mr. Davies) could avouch that those
same pollan, cooked after that fashion, and served to you on
fresh, cool sycamore leaves, were fish most excellent that would
not be lightly esteemed by the most fastidious epicure. He was,
moreover, kindly and obliging in other ways, and would deem it
no trouble to help you en your way by ferrying you over an
intervening stream or inlet. But, however it may have been
with him aforetime, he was now not much given to straying along
the banks at the " clear, cold eve," or other time of day.
His energies were devoted to the care of his nets and the
baiting of his lines, to the capture of his pollan and trout and
38 Botany of the Shores of Lough Neagh.
eels, and he was not overmuch concerned in searching for the
submerged architectural structures of poetic fable. The old
order changeth. Now-a-days he must take account of railroads,
and his fish must be packed and despatched in time to catch
the Liverpool steamer.
Continuing, Mr. Davies said that one of the most in-
teresting features of the lough flora was the presence there
of a small group of plants, some of which were not found
inland elsewhere in Ireland, and others which seem never
to have been seen inland throughout the British Isles. The
main difference between some parts of the shores of their
large lakes and the seaside consisted in one case of the absence,
and in the other the presence, of salinity. In both, the degree
of humidity was much the same, and in some other respects
there was more or less similarity. In their island, save at the
seaside and parts of their lake shores, they had very little, or
none, of the loose shifting sands which influence the character
of the flora. It was necessary to have some understanding of
this before looking for or attempting to explain the presence
Inland of plants which are regarded as maritime. As was well
known, there are species having a partiality for situations in
close proximity to the sea, which occur on some of their highest
moui tains. Examples of some of these were given, the popular
and scientific names of which sufficiently indicated their
preference for the sea coast. In the high altitudes inland, in
which they occur, it was to be assumed they found atmospheric
conditions necessary for their growth and sustenance, their
distribution not being solely influenced by salinity of soil
Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that they had at Lough Neagh,
and that only on the County Antrim shore, a number of plants
usually regarded as maritime, which, in Ireland, had not been
met with elsewhere in distinctly inland localities. The names
of some of these were mentioned, and, in particular, allusion
was made to the Sea Club-rush, Scirpiis iiiarttimus, which, so
far as he knew, did not occur otherwhere inland in any part of
the British Isles. A well-known botanist, Mr. Nathaniel
Botany of the Shores of Lough Ntagh. 39
Colgan, knowing Mr. Davies' interest in the matter, had
given him references to its continental range of distribution.
There it was known to occur in the regions adjacent to the
Jura Mountains. Yet, it remained that in this island it was
restricted to the seaside, Lough Neagh, so far as he could
ascertain, being the only exception. In the course of last
summer he had seen there another plant, a sand spurrey,
Spergidaria rtipestris, which held the same position. How
came these plants ? Not carried by sea-birds which visit
the lake, since in that case the}' might be expected at the
margins of other large lakes, also frequented by sea-birds.
There were considerations which pointed to geological
possibilities. One incident bearing on this he might mention.
In 1874 the British Association met in Belfast under the
presidency of Professor Tyndall. That meeting was most
memorable, and of some of the discussions that then arose, and
were for some time continued, there were those of them, who
retained a lively recollection. On that occasion a well-known
geologist, Mr. Hardman, brought forward a paper on " The
age and mode of formation of Lough Neagh." He sought
to prove that the clays overlying the basalt were lacustrine
deposits of Pleiocene age. Two years later, during a visit to
Crumlin in company with Professor Hull, they found in the
clay at that place fossil shells, the only fossils save those
of plants previously known to occur in the Lough Neagh clays.
They were considered to be fresh water shells, and their
discovery was held to be in support of a theory that there
was a former very large Lough Neagh, also fresh water, with
an area probably twice as great as at present. This aroused
so much interest that three of their members, his friends, Mr.
W. Swanston, Mr. Stewart, and Mr. Wright, made a thorough
investigation of the deposits, which led to widely different
conclusions. The shells, which were in loose drift over-lying
the boulder clay, were found to be, not fresh water shells, but
those of the common mussel. It was found also that the deposit
contained several species of microzoa now living along their sea
4© Botany oj the Shores of Lough Neagh.
coasts. These had lived and died, where their remains were now
to be seen at Crumlin Waterfoot. The deposit in which they
occur must have been formed by the action or within the
influence of the sea. That being so, it seemed not very unHkely
that at least some of the group of plants to which he had called
their attention were survivals of a once littoral flora at Lough
Neagh, when, through subsidence of the land in Pleistocene
times, the country along the course of the Lower Bann was
probably an arm of the sea.
Mr. Davies concluded by stating that he had been inviting
their attention to the Lough Neagh flora, but he thought
he might say that they in the North of Ireland, possessing
the largest lake in the United Kingdom, were perhaps
scarcely alive to the many debatable points in connection
therewith. The physical problems as to the origin of the
Lough itself would afford subjects for much discussion. Was it
glacier formed, or was it due to some geological flexure ? or, was
the depression caused by a fracture of the strata at that place
as suggested by Portlock's report ? Then, the geological
deposits surrounding it, its great bed of clay, with its petrified
trees and its nodules of ironstone in which are preserved the
fossilised leaves of a flora long since extinct in these regions,
required more investigation. Zoology offered for research
another field which had not yet been exhausted. The avifauna
was most attractive, and a further study of its unusual fish and
crustaceans would be instructive.
Mr. S. A. Stewart, in the course of some brief remarks, said
he had listened with great pleasure to the paper which Mr.
Davies had just read. The shores around Lough Neagh sup-
ported a rich and varied flora, and its waters yielded an
abundance of aquatic plants, some being of considerable rarity.
Lough Neagh was often resorted to by the botanist; and
seldom failed to reward his research. Mr. Davies had just
shown that it had not yet been exhausted, and no doubt the
list of its plants will be still more extended when its western
shores have been scanned by keen eyed Naturalists as well as
Botany of the Shores of Lough Neagh, 41
the eastern had been by Mr. Davies and others. A most
interesting point, briefly referred to in this paper, is the
occurrence of certain maritime plants at a locality so far
removed from the influence of sea water. The existence of
shells of littoral molluscs in a clay bed on the Crumlin River
had been cited as evidence proving that the sea, in a most
recent geological period, extended up into the depression of
Lough Neagh. Owing to one of the latest elevations of our
land this anciently maritime lough was now a freshwater lake ;
but these plants, which usually flourish by the seacoast, remain
to corroborate the evidence of the mussel shells of Crumlin
River.
Mr. Wm. Swanston remarked that the occurrence of plants
whose natural habitat is along the sea coast so far inland, and
established on the margins of Lough Neagh, is a most valuable
point brought out by Mr. Davies, which goes far to confirm the
view that at no very distant geological date the Lough was
marine. This botanical evidence is new, but as far back as
187Q the same conclusion was surmised on geological grounds
by the discovery of beds, near the southern shore, containing
shells of the common mussel {Mytihis edulis). These shells —
or rather fragments — were determined by the late Dr. Gwynn
Jeffreys, the greatest authority on British Mollusca then living.
The microscopic examination by our fellow-member, Mr. Joseph
Wright, of the strata in which the shells were found, also
prove the marine origin of the beds, Mr. Wright being able to
record several species of Foramenifera (a group of minute
organisms exclusively marine) from the small quantity of
material exammed, those being forms such as may readily be
found any day on our sea shores. Quite recently zoological
evidence was unexpectedly established by Mr. Robert Welch,
of our city, and Dr. Scharff, of Dublin, who, while dredging in
Lough Neagh, found in some plenty a small crustacean {Mysis
relictd), new to Britain, but a member of a marine group of
which four species are recorded by the late Wm. Thompson
from the Irish coasts. These scattered pieces of evidence — very
42 Botany of the Shores of Lough Neagh.
interesting in themselves — when brought together, are, in my
opinion, conclusive, and show in a very remarkable manner the
value of noting and recording observations seemingly trifling in
themselves. Mr. Davies' paper deserves the fullest notice the
Society can give it.
Mr. Davies, in replying, thought that little remained to be
said save for him to express his best thanks for the manner in
which the paper had been received, and for the kind words that
had been spoken. Sometimes one heard the conjecture
expressed that the Pollan, to which allusion had been made,
was possibly a transformed herring, but he hardly supposed
that that was intended to be taken seriously. If it were such,
the transformation was positively marvellous in that it did not
possess the generic characters of the herring. There was a
prevalent notion that it was peculiar to Lough Neagh, but he
believed that it also occurred in Lough Erne and in Lough
Derg. Closely allied species were met with in Wales and on
the Continent. For the natnralist there were not many places
with more varied enticements than Lough Neagh.
43
SOME ACCOUNT OF THE OBJECTS COMPRISED IN
LORD DERAMORE'S RECENT DONATION, PRIN-
CIPALLY ANTIQUARIAN.
Part. I. — Antiquarian.
By W. H. Patterson, M.R.LA.
{Abstract?}
The Society is much indebted to Lord Deramore for his
kindness in presenting to their Museum a large collection of
objects of scientific and antiquarian interest. It is quite fitting
that the antiquities, being mainly Irish, should find an abiding
place in an Irish Museum, and especially in one where Irish
antiquarian remains already form an important feature. Lord
Deramore's gift makes our series of ancient implements still
more complete, and in this way helps us to realise how these
primitive or barbaric people lived, and what means they had
for carrying on their occupations of war and the chase.
The stone implements in the Deramore collection are not
numerous as compared with those of bronze. Two hammer
stones of a tough quartzite, with hollows in the sides for con-
venience in holding, represent this class of antiquities. One of
these is oval, measuring 6 inches by 4 inches ; the other
is almost round, measuring 3 inches across.
And here I may say that, most unfortunately, none of the
antiquities, either stone or bronze, have any labels attached
(with one or two exceptions only), stating where or when they
were found. If collectors would only realize in time how the
value of a specimen of any kind is enhanced by the preserva-
tion of full particulars of place and date, and circumstances of
finding, their collections would be of much greater scientific
value than they often are.
The Deramore antiquities, we must assume, are in the
main Irish, but we do not know any of the circumstances con-
nected with the discovery of the objects themselves.
44 Objects comprised in Lord Dcramores Recent Donation,
The collection contains fourteen polished stone celts, vary-
ing from 2\ inches to 13 inches long. These are the hatchet-
shaped implemeuts, which are so well represented in all collec-
tions of Irish antiquities, and of which vast numbers have been
found, and are still being found, in Ireland ; perhaps I might
say especially in County Antrim. Most of these fourteen celts
are of close-grained black stone, in fact, varieties of basalt, but
the largest, and another next to it in size, are of a whitish
coloured stone. Some of the middle-sized ones, say from 4 to
5 inches long, are in very fine and perfect condition, and there is
one of very unusual form with the side edges flattened and
hollowed ; one of the larger, about 6 inches long has been
made from a slaty rock, and large flakes have weathered off
both sides, leaving, however, the edge intact.
The objects of flint are few in number ; there are two well-
marked flint-flakes of light-coloured flint, both showing
secondary working.
There are twenty-five flint arrow-heads, barbed, stemmed,
and leaf-shaped, from | inch to 2\ inches in length. Many of
these are beautifully chipped into form, and show what exquisite
skill the flint workers of our stone-age had attained to.
We come now to the antiquities formed of bronze. This
fine metal, which has been found by analysis to be made up of
about ten parts of copper and one part of tin, is exceedingly
hard and close grained, and is capable of taking an edge almost
as fine and sharp as iron or steel. The ancient bronze age
people made their weapons and implements by casting, in the
first place, and then, by hammering and grinding, they were
finished to form the things as we now find them.
Many of the moulds have been found in Ireland in which
spears, hatchets, and other weapons were cast, and in some
places finds have been made of moulds, broken -up bronze, and
finished and partly finished implements, showing plainly that
such sites were the workshops of old artificers in bronze.
In the Deramore collection there are nineteen flat bronze
celts, from 4 inches to 8 inches in length, varymg very
Objects comprised in Lord Deramore's Recent Donation. 45
much in breadth, and also in the shape and curve of the
cutting edge, some having the edge almost straight, others
half-moon shaped. This is the simplest form of bronze celts,
and is supposed to have been suggested by the stone celts
which were in such common use in the stone age. These fiat
celts were either cast in sand, from models of wood or metal, or
in moulds cut in sandstone. Some of these moulds have been
found.
The next development of the bronze celt has been called
the flanged celt. In this form the sides have been
hammered so that a flange has been raised, sometimes scarcely
perceptible, and sometimes of considerable breadth ; and
later on, if we may use the expression, when a still broader
flange was wanted, the moulds were altered or were so made
that a bold flange was made in the casting at once. The
collection contains nine flanged celts, very interesting specimens,
from 4 inches to 5^ inches long, and showing a gradation
of flanges from the very slightest to ones that are broad and
bold.
We now come to a most interesting series of celts, called
by antiquaries " palstaves," or winged celts. This type shows
a distinct advance upon those just named, and has been planned
for the much more eflective fixing of the wooden handle. The
side flanges have been enlarged and strengthened, and in this
way deep hollows have been formed; a "stop ridge" right
across the centre of the celt has been added at both sides, and
we can readily see what a fine weapon or implement for war,
the chase, or agriculture a well-handled palstave celt would
be.
The Deramore collection contains twenty-six palstaves,
from 4 inches to 7 inches long, and of great variety in form and
strength. Some show a little ornament. One of the palstaves;
6 inches long, has been labelled " Found along with a skeleton
near Armagh." Among the palstaves there are three small
unfinished narrow celts, about 4^^ inches, much weathered, and
almost exactly alike. As these have not an Irish look, I
46 Objects comprised in Lord Deramore's Recent Donation.
submitted one of them to Sir John Evans, who writes me that
he thinks it is of EngHsh origin, and is in all probability from
the great hoard found at Stibbard, in Norfolk, where about
seventy such rough castings were found, as well as ten castings
for spear-heads, evidently the factory of an old English worker
in bronze.
We now come to the most advanced and perfect form of
bronze, axe-shaped objects — namely, the socketed and looped
celt. Of these celts there are twenty-two in the Deramore
collection, from the large, strong celt, measuring 4^ inches
long down to tiny ones, little more than i^ inches long. What
these very small ones were used for it is hard to conceive, and
yet they must have had their use, although this could not have
been to strike a hard blow ; they are too light and small for
that.
The way in which socketted celts show a great advance in
the metal-workers' art is the clever way by which the deep
socket or hollow was formed, and the casting left comparatively
thin, except, of course, near the edge, where some thickness of
metal was wanted for frequent grinding and sharpening. The
socket was made by the introduction in the mould of a core,
and this was probably done in just the same way that a modern
moulder or brassfounder would adopt. Celts of this type had
almost always a bronze loop cast on, close to the opening of the
socket. This, no doubt, was for the purpose of receiving a
thong or other tie to secure the bronze head to the wooden
handle, and thus prevent its falling off and being lost in battle.
All the Deramore socketted celts have loops.
There are twelve bronze spear-heads, some unfortunately
in a rather fragmentary state ; eight of these have each two
loops fixed against the socket for helping to secure the spear
head to the shaft. The largest of these is only 9 inches in
length, and the shortest about 4 inches, so that there are
none of the ver}^ fine long spears seen in some collections. The
broad, keen blades and deep sockets are so cleverly fashioned
that these spears may be pronounced masterpieces of the bronze*
Objects comprised in Lord Deramoris Recent Donation. 47
workers' art. There are two other spears of quite a different
type, with long openings in the blades ; one of these is labelled
"Spear from Naples, R.B. 1849." The R. B. is obviously the
late Sir Robert Bateson, first baronet, grandfather of the
present Lord Deramore. The second spear is very similar in
shape, but fresh and clean, instead of being deeply corroded.
There are two broad, thick and short blades with rivet holes at
base, which may have been battle axes.
There is a dagger-knife blade, 5 inches long, labelled
" Irish skeyn, Co. Kildare," and there is another somewhat
similar, with socket and rivet holes.
Of the leaf-shaped swords, which are usually seen in col-
lections of Irish antiquities, Lord Deramore's collection con-
tains eight ; some are much broken ; the largest of these is 20
inches long. There is an object of bronze which seems to be
the point of a scabbard ; it is 6;^^ inches long, and is decorated
with fine engraved lines.
I find among the bronzes two socketted gouges ; they are
of small size, and are of a well-known type.
There are forty-eight bronze rings, some of them hollow,
varying from i inch to 3^ inches in diameter. Such rings
have been found in great numbers in Ireland, the Museum
of the Royal Irish Academy containing more than one thousand
of them. It is supposed that they were for personal use, and
may have been sewed on clothing to serve as ornaments, or as
a protection against sword cuts.
There is also a large ring, 4 inches across, which appears
to be made of jet.
In the collection there is a bronze crucifix ; it is 12 inches
high ; the figure which is 4 inches high seems quite archaic,
but the cross looks rather modern.
There are a few more objects of bronze in this interesting
collection, which may be briefly named : — two bronze spurs ; a
bronze smoking pipe ; a bronze or brass cup, egg-cup shaped,
4 inches high ; a bronze boss z\ inches in diameter ; a circular
spoon or ladle, 4 inches across, and a few things that were
48 Objects comprised in Lord Dcr amoves Recent Donation.
probably for domestic use, such as buckles, etc.
I should say that there are also a few objects of stone,
pottery, etc., apparently from Egypt, Greece, or other Eastern
countries, and there is a fine black stone adze, probably from
New Zealand.
Part IT. — Geological.
By S. A. Stewart, F.B.S.Edin.
The geological specimens in the Deramore collection are
numerous and varied. There are specimens from several
iormations, mainly of the Secondary or Mesozoic Period. A few
of the fossils are of species which are found in the Carboniferous
rocks, but the greater part come from the Cretaceous and
Liassic formations. There are a good many Ammonites, some
of them very good examples, especially those from the Lias.
Two of the Liassic oysters are remarkably fine, as are also some
of the bivalves from the chalk. One very fine palate or crushing
tooth is also from the chalk — presumably English. There are
some small pieces of silicified wood, and also a number of rock
specimens, and minerals, but not being furnished with localities
these are much less instructive than would otherwise be the
case. This remark applies also to the fossils. As to them we
can fix the genera under which they must be placed, and with
a little trouble the specific names may be ascertained. In many
cases the locality of their origin may be inferred with strong
probability, but without entire certainty on this point the value
of fossils is much diminished. The necessity of attention to
this matter of indicating on each specimen the locality whence
it came deserves to be impressed very strongly on all collectors.
49
NOTES ON SOME CLAY CONCRETIONS FROM
THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY, U.S.A.,
By W. Swanston, F.G.S.
{Abstract.)
In introducing this remarkable series of concretionary
nodules I should state that, as I have not personally collected
them, I am unacquainted with such details of their occurrence
as I should have been glad to bring before the meeting. They
were collected near Hartford, U.S.A., in beds of the Triassic
series. Nodules and concretions of similar character occur in
most sandstone and clay deposits irrespective of geological age.
We may therefore safely infer that, under similar conditions,
their mode of formation will be somewhat alike. The following
appears imder the heading " Concretions " in an authority
consulted. " Concretions are nodules, balls, or irregular
masses which occur scattered through the body of the rock, and
consist of mineral matter which was formerly diffused through
the material of the rock. Some are crystalline, as gypsum in
clay ; others may have mternal radiating structures, as iron
pyrites in shale, etc. Fantastically shaped concretions are not
uncommon in fine clays, and are known as 'fairy stones' by the
country folk in some districts. They are produced by mole-
cular aggregations subsequent to the deposition of the strata,
whereby the substance of the rock is forced into spherules or
balls." Similar nodules, but of less delicate form and texture,
are occasionally found in stream courses cutting through the
new red sandstones of County Antrim, the softer body of the
rock having been removed by the action of the water, the .
concretions are found adhering to the sides of the miniature
canyons. The extremely delicate character of the examples
exhibited is doubtless due to the finer texture of the rocks in
which they were found. Their stratified appearance — which
5o Azotes on Some Clay Concretions.
is only external — is probably due to the different degrees of
hardness of the more minute strata of the beds in which they
are found, the more pervious strata allowing the seggregation
to push along their parallel lines, subsequent weathering giving
the strange resemblance some of them have to objects produced
on the lathe.
After an examination of the specimens a series was presented
by the reader to the Museum.
Kt
20th December^ igoo.
Mr. J. BROWN, President, in the Chair
SOME SIDE LIGHTS ON THE CHINA QUESTION,
By Rev. A. H. Crawford, M.A.
{Abstract)
The first portions of Mr. Crawford's paper were devoted to
the Chinese view of human Hfe. The general incapacity of
Chinese government, especially in regard to its foreign relations,
and the civilisation and religion of the country having been
very ably discussed, Mr. Crawford dealt with the recent Boxer
movement, which created such anxiety amongst the civilised
governments of the world. He said it was undoubtedly
patriotic, but in a limited sense of the word. Its aim was
negative — the ridding of the country of foreign influence. It
had nothing positive to suggest wiih a view to remedying the
acknowledged unsatisfactory condition of the country.
Amongst the causes which produced the revolt were to be
found the superstitious element and a long-continued drought
in the spring of the present year, which brought large numbers
of the population in the Northern Provinces to the brink of
starvation, and produced a widespread feeling of dissatisfaction.
A very important reason for the outbreak had been the aggres-
sive attitude of the various European nations. Unfortunately
we had got into the way of speaking of the " partition of
China,'' and of claiming " spheres of influence " in a way which
must have been very galling to any Chinese who were possessed
of the slightest spark of patriotism. Proceeding, Mr. Crawford
said they could not omit from the list of aggravating causes the
missionary problem. Although his testimony might be ruled
out of court as being ex parte, he thought it might be fairly
claimed for Protestant missionaries at least that they had not
sought to intermeddle with Chinese politics. In spite of the
52 Some Side Lights on the China Question.
magnitude of the outbreak, we must not for a moment imagine
that the whole of China was against us at this time. In
provinces where there seemed for a time to be a serious out-
break the motive was anti-dynastic rather than anti-foreign,
and since the time when the allies began to obtain the upper
hand in the North the source of danger had subsided. He for
one could not bring himself to believe in a ''yellow peril" as
an actual, practical menace to the world's peace. It must be
remembered what Sir R. Hart, in expressing grave fears on that
score, wrote but a few days after the raising of the siege of the
legations. It was not surprising that he should at such a time
have looked at things through dark spectacles. It should be
noted that combination had always been China's weak point,
and that, strong as the Boxer movement had been, it would
have been a mere rabble but for the adhesion of the Imperial
troops. It was now for the allied powers to take effective
measures for restricting the introduction of firearms into
China. Much, Mr. Crawford thought, had been learnt on both
sides, and if toleration was mixed with firmness and due regard
to justice they must all believe and hope that China would yet
take her place in the comity of nations, and that in time she
would become a source of strength, and not of danger, to the
whole civilised world.
The lecture was profusely illustrated by special limelight
slides and maps.
The hearty thanks of the society were accorded to Mr.
Crawford, on the motion of Mr. T. F. Shillington, J.P.,
seconded by Mr, F. R. Lepper.
Mr. Robert M. Young, B.A., M.R.I.A. (Hon. Secretary),
presented the Society with a well-executed portrait of Mr.
Robert Lloyd Patterson, D.L., F.L.S., who on several occasions
filled the position of its president.
The President acknowledged the receipt of the interesting
gift, and said it was most appropriate that the Society should
possess portraits of its presidents.
8th Ja7itcary, igoi.
Mr. J. BROWN, Presidrnt, in the Chair.
REPORT OF DELEGATE TO CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES' CONFERENCE, BRITISH ASSOCIA-
TION MEETING, 1900.
By J. Brown.
{Abstract)
As your delegate I attended both meetings of the Conference.
At the first meeting two resolutions on proposed changes in
the arrangement of the proceedings were negatived, but the
discussion threw light on the wishes of the delegates, implying
that they did not desire to hear papers at the conference, but
rather to discuss methods of procedure that might make local
societies successful. The question of the protection of copy
right of societies in their proceedings was brought up and
referred to the general committee.
At the second meeting, after hearing and discussing a paper
on '' Dew Ponds," the conference received the usual reports
from sections. Section C is anxious for co-operation of corres -
ponding societies in the work of the Geological Photographs
Committee and the Erratic Blocks Committee. Mr. Sower-
butts, representing Section E, made suggestions for more active
co-operation of corresponding societies. Mr. Hartland, repre-
senting section H, brought forward the request of the Anthro-
pological Photographs Committee for photographs of pre-
historic stone monuments, stone implements, primitive pottery, ,
and of objects connected with local superstitions. Such
objects were frequently met with in local museums. I am asked
to bring these requests before the Society, and I feel sure there
are many members competent to comply with them, I should
54 Report of Delegate to Corresponding Societies' Conference,
be glad to take charge of any photographs, and the names of
senders would be published in the annual report of the British
Association.
As items of general interest to our members, T may mention
that our distinguished fellow- member, Dr. J, Larmour, presided
over Section A, and delivered a characteristic address-
Professor John Perry, another distinguished student of Q.C.B.,
now President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, also
took an active part. Professor Letts, who is making the new
Queen's College Laboratory the home of important original
research, read several papers, and I had the honour of exhibit-
ing the viagraph (including the usual striking diagram of the
Lisburn Road) at the Lord Mayor's conversazione and before
Section G, where there was also read a paper by Professor Hele
Shaw on "Tractive Force on Roads." Subsequently the
Association appointed a committee to further investigate this
question. As your President I was honoured by a request to
act as first spokesman of the deputation to invite the Associa-
tion to Belfast in 1902. Professors Letts and Symington and
Mr. W. Gray added their promises of welcome, in which I
doubt not the city will generously bear us out."
IRISH RAILWAYS AND THE STATE.
By LYNDEN M^CASSEY, C.E., B.A., LL.B., B.L.,
Lecturer Railway Department, London School of Economics.
{Abstract.)
The relations that should exist between railways and the
State possess great commercial and political importance. Rail-
ways may be privately or State owned, and four relations are
found — railways privately owned and subject to or free from
the control of the State, as in England and America, and rail-
ways State owned and worked by the State or by private in-
dividuals, as in Prussia and France respectively. For the
distinction, the Continental disposition to leave everything to
the State, as compared with the Anglo Saxon inclination to
give private enterprise full sway, really is the explanation.
In Ireland railways are privately owned, but State con-
trolled. That control is directed to construction, public safety,
public convenience, and rates. As regards the first three sub-
jects mentioned, the control is perhaps too effective ; the real
question is that of rates. There exists a maximum schedule
of goods rates in excess of which Irish railways may not charge.
But the limits are rightly high, and the companies do not now
charge anything like full rates. Railways do not try to in-
crease profits by raising rates, but by lowering them and so
swelling their traffic. Nor can you limit dividends. If you do
you make it to the advantage of a company to do a small
business at a high rather than a large business at low rates.
All proposals for nationalisation are grounded on the in-
efficiency of the present system of control, and on the defects
in management of Irish railways. As the latters' profits are
not excessive, their charges are not either. The average divi-
dend paid in 1900 on the capital invested was only 3.9 per
cent. Rates certainly are not unreasonable. Eggs are carried
from Gahvay to London for |d per dozen, fish from |d and
56 Jrish Railways and the State,
|d per lb., according to the class. Special trains are given to
the fish traffic for consignments as low as 20 tons.
Increase in train mileage represents increase in public
facilities, and in respect of increase in passenger and goods
train mileage Irish railways are i per cent, and 8 per cent,
respectively ahead of English railways, while the tonnage and
number of passengers increased by 21 per cent, and 28 per
cent., which compares very favourably with England. The
corresponding receipts only increased by 17 per cent, and 13
per cent. Irish railways therefore do not seem to be neglecting
the public. The recent amalgamations will be a benefit,
working expenses will be reduced ; competition in Ireland is
impossible, and itself would merely result in amalgamation or
the pooling of traffic. Dissatisfaction with Irish railways is
therefore unreasonable ; the requirements of Ireland are
served ; to provide facilities in excess would be financially im-
possible.
Defects in private management are not the cause of State
management of railways on the Continent. There the Govern-
ments had generally to construct railways themselves in the
absence of effective private enterprise, or they acquired private
lines merely to consolidate their military strength. In France
unimpared company monopoly has been the price of State
control ; in Belgium the efficiency of the State railways is due
to their long competition with once privately-owned railways.
I^ates founded on ' cost of service' is the motto on which every
Government started business. The theory proved unworkable,
and Governments had, like companies, to charge ' what the
traffic would bear.' The latter principle makes to a large ex-
tent the advancement of railway prosperity involve the ad-
vancement of the district served.
Governments cannot manage commercial undertakings well.
They do not reduce rates, except on popular agitation. The
history of the Post Office proves this : penny postage and six-
penny telegrams were the outcome of great pressure.
Irish trade particularly needs careful nursing. That, we
Irish Railways and the State. 57
could not trust the State to do. The purchase of Irish rail-
ways would be a financial impossibility for Ireland itself to
stand. England would scarcely contribute. Although nation-
alisation is inadvisable, the relations between the State and
Irish railways may be improved. At present the Board of
Trade compels a Hne in Connemara to be as substantially con-
structed as a line in London, without regard to the probable
traffic. So, too, with regard to safety appliances, a line in
Galway must be as perfectly signalled and equipped as a line in
England with heavy traffic. This all involves a heavy sinking
of unremunerative capital, and is not business. ' As the traffic,
so the road,' the principle in America, is founded on common
sense. The procedure for acquiring land for railways is more
expensive in Ireland than in England. A landowner in Eng-
land gets one hearing before an arbitrator or a jury ; in Ireland
he gets three. The costs on acquiring a single acre often
amount to two or three times the value of the land. The State
should perfect their present S3^stem of control by cheapening
the procedure of the Railway and Canal Commission Court,
entirely out of the reach at present of humble litigants.
,^ Future railway extension in Ireland must depend on the
State, which in the past has adopted a restrictive policy.
Baronial guarantees are wrong. If a district cannot support a
railway, to tax it for the support will be a burden. Free grants
or cheap loans to judiciously located lines — not to lines con-
structed merely to give employment — would promote railway
extension. Railways the subject of State aid at present are
limited to light railways, but the construction of light railways
has shown how much the State can do to open up and develop
Ireland.
Mr. Isaac J. Murphy said he had very seldom heard a lecture
of the kind with the leading ideas of which he was in such
absolute agreement. This was a subject on which he had a
considerable amount of information, and, in these days when
the old principles of Cobden and Bright on free trade and pri-
vate enterprise were supposed to be exploded, he was glad to
58 Irish Railways and the State.
hear those sound principles so clearly and strongly enunciated
by Mr, Macassey.
Mr. Robert Dunwoody thought a change in the heads of
departments and the directorate on some of the Irish railways
would be one of the very best things that could happen.
There had been a great improvement in recent years in the
management of some of their local railways, and he instanced
the Great Northern in particular. He knew of one industry
that had been immensely helped by the generous way in which
Mr. Plews, the manager of that line, had helped it.
Professor Fitzgerald sympathised especially with that part of
the paper which pointed out the annoyance caused by applying
the same elaborate system of signalling to small lines over
which there ran two or three trains per day as was applied to
lines which had trains running every two minutes.
Mr. John Carson said he would have been glad if Mr. Ma-
cassey had gone a little further than he had. Ireland was a
very poor country, and required Government aid, especially in
the important matter of her railways. He thought the manage-
ment of some of cur lines could be very greatly improved, and
he suggested that excursion trains at cheap fares should be run,
say, two days per week, between Belfast and Dublin and Dublin
and Belfast, in order that the people of the metropolis and the
people of the Northern capital might become better acquainted
with each other. Intercourse between the two cities should
certainly be encouraged. Mr. Macassey had not in his paper
dealt with the subject of electrical lines. In the Isle of Man
the electric system, as far as passenger traffic was concerned,
had worked well, and he did not see why it should not be ap-
plied to goods traffic as well. He thought the Bangor and
Holywood line should be worked by electricity instead of
having fifty-ton engines employed. The system on this line
should be made more like a tramway system with, say, a ten
minutes' service.
Mr. H. Leslie Thomas was in favour of State-owned railways.
They were a success in India, Egypt, and Belgium, and he did
Irish Railways and the State. 59
not see why they should not be a success in Ireland. Germany
failed because she neither left this matter to private enterprise
nor took it entirely over.
The Post Office would not be nearly so well managed in
private hands. There is, for instance, much to be desired in
the present management of the telephone. In the hands of
Government the service would be better and cheaper. The
tendency at present was in favour of State aid being given, not
only to railways, but to every large industry that was a neces-
sity to the general public. He thought electrical traction
would be safer and cheaper than steam traction.
Mr. Walter Bailev said he was surprised to find that no one
present had made a serious suggestion that the State ownership
of Irish railways would be a benefit to the country at large. He
was under the impression that the State purchase of Irish rail-
ways was one of the strongest planks in the platform of many
gentlemen in Belfast to-day. He thought, however, that most
people believed that private enterprise was, upon the whole,
far better than the State working of Irish or any other rail-
ways. The subject of the price to be paid for Irish railways,
should the Government think the scheme feasible, was one of
the greatest circumstance, and on it a great deal might have
been said, but the point had not been raised. Indeed, the dis-
cussion had been of a very cursory description, and he did not
wish to trouble the meeting with statistics on that particular
point.
On the motion of Dr. Redfern, seconded by Mr. Adam
Speers, Holyvvood, the hearty thanks of the meeting were ac-
corded to Mr. Macassey.
6o
Sih February^ IQOI.
Mr. J. BROWN, President, in the Chair.
The President moved the following resolution : — " That the
members of this Society desire to express their deep sorrow at
the death of her Majesty Queen Victoria, their sense of the
great loss thereby sustained by the British nation, and to tender
their most humble and loyal duty to his Majesty King Edward,
with the fullest confidence that he will worthily occupy the
high place of her late revered Majesty."
Mr. Robert Young, J. P., seconded the resolution, which, on
being put, was passed unanimously, the audience standing.
COLOUR.
By Professor W. B. Morton, M.A.
{Abstract.)
The subject of colour had been selected as lying in the
borderland between science and art, in the hope of interesting
the many members of the Society who were artistic in their
tastes. The discussion would be limited to the treatment of
colour as a sensation, and would leave untouched the purely
physical side of the question. The origin of all the colour in
nature was found in the composite nature of white light. In
illustration of this, experiments were shown with a spectrum
thrown on the screen. The colours of transparent bodies were
due to the fact that they absorbed some of the constituent rays
of white light, and allowed the rest to pass. Opaque coloured
bodies absorbed some rays, and scattered the rest back from their
surfaces. The colour shown by any surface must, therefore,
ColoiLV. 6 r
depend on the quality of the illumination. This was illustrated
by holding different coloured papers in different parts of the
spectrum, and also in the pure yellow light of a sodium flame.
All the various tints and shades could be got from the separate
spectrum colours by altering either their intensity or their
purity, with the exception of purple tints, for which it was
necessary to mix the extreme colours of the spectrum. In very
bright light colours tend to become yellowish ; \\\ dim light,
such as moonlight, the bluish colours are alone visible.
The laws of mixture of colours were then explained and
illustrated experimentally by making coloured patches on the
screen overlap, and by whirling rapidly parti-coloured discs.
The results obtained had to be distinguished from those got by
mixing pigments, and led to the assumption of red, green and
violet as the primary colour sensations. The treatment of the
rather complicated facts of colour-mixture was rendered easy
by the use of a colour diagram in the form of a triangle, with
the primary colours at its angles. Attention was drawn to the
unique position occupied by green, and the artistic consequences
of this. Specially important from the artistic point of view
was the grouping of colours into complimentary pairs, which
combine to give white or grey — e.g..^ blue and yellow, green
and purple, red and greenish-blue. The phenomena of con-
trast depended directly on these groupings. They might be
explained as an error of judgment on the part of the eye, the
standard of white being affected by the prevailing colour.
Thus in a prevailing yellow illumination the standard of white
would be displaced towards a yellowish tint, and surfaces which
were really grey would look to have the complementary colour
blue. This was illustrated by the well-known effects of
coloured shadows, seen, for instance, in a room lit by both
ordinary and incandescent gas burners. In general, coloured
objects seen on an extended coloured background had their
true colours mixed with that complementary to the back-
ground. A number of instances were shown in which two
rings, cut from the same coloured paper, but pasted on back-
62 Colour.
grounds of different colours, looked of entirely different shades.
The effect was best seen when the colours were made paler by
covering with a sheet of white tissue paper. It was shown that
phenomena of this kind gave a clue to the explanation of the
fact that certain pairs of colours " go badly together."
The lantern was manipulated by Messrs. John Wylie, B.A.,
and T. B. Vinycomb, B.A., upon the capable performance of
whose duties in this respect the lecture in considerable degree
depended.
Professor Redfern commented upon the brilliance and in-
structiveness of the lecture, and moved that the best thanks of
the Society be accorded to Professor Morton for having
delivered it.
Rev. Robert Workman seconded the motion, which was
supported in warm terms by Mr. William Workman, Mr.
George Coulter, Mr. William Gray, M.R.I.A., and passed by
acclamation.
Professor Morton briefly acknowledged the vote of thanks.
63
5th March, IQOI.
Sir JAMES HENDERSON, D.L., in the Chair.
SCENERY AND ANTIQUITIES OF SLIGO,
CONNEMARA, AND CLARE.
By Seaton F. Milligan, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.
{Abstract.)
The Chairman said probably every one present had already
heard Mr. Milligan describe the scenery of what they all
believed to be the finest country in the world, and consequently
it was unnecessary to use many words in introducing him on
that occasion. A lecture on the scenery of the West of Ireland
was very appropriate, because in the coming season they wanted
to attract as many visitors to Ireland as possible so as to benefit
the country. He was of opinion that the Irish Tourists'
Association reached the zenith ot their success last April, when
Queen Victoria, the greatest and most important lady in the
British Empire, visited Ireland ; but they should not slacken
their efTorts in developing the tourist traffic as much as pos-
sible in future. It was a matter of regret that the King and
Queen could not visit the country this year for reasons which
weighed with all of them, but it was their hope that next year
they would have the pleasure of welcoming their Majesties.
The Lecturer said — It is admitted by well-informed people
that Ireland is one of the most healthful and picturesque coun-
tries in Europe, but its charms had remained hidden, and its
beauties were only known to those who had ample means and
time to explore them. The most interesting places and the
finest scenery are situated in remote parts difficult of access and
expensive to reach.
This drawback has been removed in recent years by the
64 Scenery and Antiquities of
opening of new lines of railway and the erection of comfortable
and commodious hotels in the centres where the best scenery is
situated. Tourists and visitors in search of health, possessed
of moderate means, can visit these hitherto exclusive districts
at a comparatively small outlay. The railway from Galway to
Clifden has opened up the district of Connemara. The exten-
sion of the railway from Westport to Mallarany and the Sound
of Achill has made that island quite accessible with all its
wealth of chflF and mountain scenery, and its invigorating
breezes fresh drawn from the Atlantic. Further south the West
Clare Railway opens up in County Clare a most charming and
interesting district — viz., Lahinch, Miltown Malbay, and Kil-
kee. The hotel and golf links at Lahinch, overlooking Lis-
canor Bay, are attracting quite a crowd of tourists. Nature
has made Kilkce one of the finest, if not the very finest,
watering-places in Europe, where the great Atlantic rolls in
on its gently-sloping silver strand or dashes with thundering
force on its huge cliffs, carrying spray and foam upwards over
their topmost summit to be carried landward on the gale for
miles. County Clare is comparatively unknown to North of
Ireland people. It lies away in the South-West, out of the
beaten track of travellers, and until quite recently was most
diflficult of access. Since the opening of the Balfour railways
this remote district has become much better known. Lis-
doonvarna, in North Clare, is noted for its sulphur, iron, and
magnesian spa, which is said to equal any in England. We
can reach these places by various routes — by rail from Athenry
to Ennis, and thence by the narrow guage to Kilkee, or to
Ennistymon and thence by coach to Lisdoonvarna. I went
straight, via Galway, thence across the bay by steamer to
Ballyvaughan, and public car, fare one shilling. The steamer
goes three days a week, and it is the most direct route. From
Lisdoonvarna to Ennistymon is nine miles, fare by public car
IS 6d ; you can take train from thence to Kilkee, or stop at
Lahinch for the golf links. In July last I spent a week at
Lisdoonvarna with the Royal Society of Antiquaries, who held
Sligo, Connemara and Clare dz,
their summer meeting there. I next proceeded to Kilkee, and
finished up by returning to Gahvay by rail, and from thence
to Recess in Connemara. Recess is an extremely good centre
from which to explore Connemara, and the hotel there is owned
and managed by the railway company, who have done every-
thing possible to attract visitors to it.
I will now refer to the western seaboard of Ireland, and
describe as briefly as possible some of the sights that will meet
the traveller coming from Sligo in the north-west to he reaches
Kilkee in the south-west. The people who inhabit these parts
of Ireland are bilingual, and speak Irish and English, the former
from choice and the latter from necessity. These people are
most interesting to meet and speak to, the older people are
conversant with the habits and customs of the ancient Celtic
race, and relate old stories and folk tales, and croon you some
of the ancient airs that we are now trying to write down and
preserve from being entirely lost. Through Mayo, Galway and
Clare the old manners and customs can be studied, which are
surely and slowly dying out through the increased contact with
visitors and tourists. The sublime cliff scenery of Achill and
Clare can now be visited with comparatively little fatigue, as well
as the rivers, lakes, and bens of Connemara. The Midland Great
Western Railway runs right across the centre of Ireland from
Dublin to Galway, and from thence through Connemara to
Clifden, the capital of that district. From Athlone, almost the
centre of Ireland, it extends through Roscommon and Mayo to
Westport, and thence to the Sound of Achill, and to Ballina
and Killala. Here on the line at Mallarany the railway com-
pany have erected a fine and commodious hotel on a site com-
manding a view of Clew Bay. The tourist visiting Connemara
and Achill will be delighted with many miles of the grandest
and most picturesque lake and mountain scenery in the United
Kingdom. The panoramic view of Killary Bay for eight miles,
with its wild, romantic mountains towering into the sky, and
the volcanic-like " Mweelrea " (2,688 feet) at the entrance, can-
not be surpassed. The wild grandeur of Kylemore Pass and
66 Scenery and Antiquities of
Lake, with the "Twelve Bens" (2,000 feet) in the background,
is unrivalled. The silvery lakes — Glendalough, Derryclare,
Inan — teem with salmon and trc>ut, and offer inexhaustible
sport. The seacliflFs and headlands of Clifden and Achill,
washed by the broad Atlantic, are grand and wild. Clew Bay,
comprising an area of 28 square miles, studded with over 100
islands, aflFords from Croagh Patrick (2,500 feet) one of the
rarest panoramic views in the world, not excepting the
Thousand Isles of the St. Laurence. Lough Corrib, 18 miles
long, is a small, fresh-water, inland sea. The venerable ruins
of Cong Abbey are not only beautiful, but traditional and
legendary. Loughs Conn and CuUin, the former eight miles
long, affords views that are the real of the extravagant scenic
artist's ideal — wild foreground, water-jutting headlands, backed
by numerous lines of hills and high mountains. Lough Gill
and Hazlewood Demesne afford a change from the wild and
romantic to the wooded class of scenery, still, however, blended
in the background with desert-looking, serrated mountains.
To the scenic tourist, the health-seeker, the angler, the sports-
man, the botanist, the geologist, the archaeologist, the artist,
or the pedestrian, the attractions offered by the Western High-
lands are unrivalled, with the additionalcharmof being in parts
unexplored. Its streams and waters are as pure as its breezes
wafted in by the Atlantic. No barriers on its rivers stop the
fish from running up from the sea, nor does any product of
manufacture poison them. The coracle skims over its bays and
inlets, reaping the harvest of the deep. The western peasant
believes in home manufacture, as he and his family produce
almost all they require of food and clothing, and are technically
educated to an extent that the peasant of the North is not-
They spin, weave and dye the wool of their sheep, knit their
hosiery, make their shoes, coracles, and many other articles.
They are good builders of walls without mortar, and frequently
erect their own dwelling-houses. Nature provides for these
western districts many things that in our cities could not be
procured at any cost. Scientists state that ozone is produced
Sh'go^ Connemara and Clare. 67
when the waves of the sea are dashed and split up against the
cliff. No place known to me are the waves so smashed up into
what I may term waterdust as along the coast of Achill and
Clare. Here the greatest production of ozone in Europe is
constantly in operation. We have a nature's own factory for
the production of the most life-sustaining and health-giving
air in the world. No such invigorating supply is produced on
any part of the coast of the Riviera, where people flock for
health, whilst the temperature along this western county is
very equal and mild all the winter through. The breezes from
the gulf stream so temper the air that fuchsias grow into great
trees and bloom in mid-winter. I have seen at Kilkee the
Atlantic stirred up by a western gale, particles of white foam
flying high up in the air and carried inland for a great distance
out of sight. We will show views of Kilkee in fine weather,
and also the wave effects during a gale ; but no views can do
justice to the grandeur and sublimity of the scene during a stiff
gale from the west. We think that the health-giving and in-
vigorating properties of the air at Kilkee are not sufficiently
known to the public or the medical profession. The out-door
life now recommended in case of lung disease where the air is
pure should be tried in some of the sheltered valleys of the west
coast ; there the force of the wind would not be felt, but where
its purity would remain unimpaired.
COUNTY SLIGO.
Our tour naturally divides itself into three parts — Sligo,
Connemara, and Clare. If we start from the north-west at
Sligo, we find it has a class of scenery peculiarly its own. It
differs entirely from Connemara and Clare. It has fine moun-
tain ranges, beautiful lakes, with well wooded islands, and
picturesque fishful rivers. Its fields are green and fertile, its
valleys and hill slopes are well wooded, giving a richness and
warmth to the scenery not found elsewhere in the west. The
farm houses are comfortable, clean, and well kept, so that no
one would imagine this to be in the poor Ireland so often
68 Scenery and Antiquities of
pictured. It differs widely from the districts in Mayo and
Galvva}^, both in its appearance and people. Many Crom-
wellian soldiers were settled in County Sligo as the border
county of Connaught. They were mostly of English descent,
and they introduced improved methods of farming, which are
visible to the present day. Lough Gill, close by Sligo town,
is a charming lake five miles long, by about a mile and a half
wide. It contains several well wooded islands, and the ruins
of an ancient Celtic Church on one. It is surrounded on
almost every side by high mountains, which give it quite the
appearance of Killarney, but on a smaller scale. The arbutus
grows in Hazlewood Demesne on the northern side of the lake,
the hills of Cleveragh, overlooking lake and river, are also finely
wooded. There is a holy well and altar at Tober Nalt on the
margin of the lake, where a pattern is held on the last Sunday
in July called Garland Sunday. The river Garvogue, which
discharges the surplus waters of the lake, is the earliest salmon
river in Ireland, as fishing commences on the ist of January,
when the fish are found to be in prime order. The Owenmore
that empties into Ballysodare Bay very close to the Sligo
river, strange to say, is fully three months later. The rapids
and falls of the latter river at Ballysodare are very fine, par-
ticularly when the river is in flood. For several hundred yards
the rapids extend from the bridge towards the sea, and finally
tumble over a fine fall, and are lost in the bay. Glencar Lake,
on the northern side of Sligo, some ten miles distant, lies right
under the Benbulbin Mountains ; it contains two crannoges, or
artificial islands, which in ancient times were used as strong-
holds. Bronze and stone implements have been found in
them, also great quantities of bones of the red deer, ox, goat,
and other animals. There is a celebrated waterfall at Glencar,
with the peculiar feature that when the wind blows strong
from a point in front of it the water seems to rise up the face
of the mountain and is lost in spray. The visitor to Glencar
can return to Sligo by the village of Drumcliff, founded by St.
Coiumba. It possesses a beautiful sculptured cross and a por-
Sligo^ Connemara and Clare. 69
tion of a round tower. The ancient church has disappeared,
but the cross and round tower point to the antiquity of the
place. Close by this village is the charming district of Lisadell,
and the seat of Sir Henry Gore Booth, Bart. This district is
noted for ancient forts, cashels, cromleachs, giants' graves, and
other interesting objects of ancient times. In one day the
traveller can visit Glencar, Drumcliff, and Lisadell, returning
to Sligo same evening. Another interesting tour from Sligo
is to Carrowmore, to see the cromleachs and stone circles ;
thence to the Glen, and finally to Knocknarea. Driving as far
as Primrose Grange School, where a twenty minutes' climb
will bring us to the summit, 1,078 feet above sea-level. It lies
exactly between the bays of Sligo and Ballysodare, and com-
mands a most extensive view across Donegal Bay and south-
wards to the Curlews. The greatest cairn in Ireland crowns
its summit, called Mescaun Maeve, supposed to have been
erected about the period of the Christian era, in memory of
Maeve, Queen of Connaught. Close by the river side in Sligo
town are the ruins of the abbey founded about the year 12^2
by Maurice Fitzgerald, for the Order of Dominicans. This
Maurice, who was Lord Justice of Ireland at this time, was the
ancestor of the Leinster Fitzgeralds, now represented by the
Duke of Leinster. A drive around the lake should not be
missed. It passes around the southern side, reaching the little
town of Dromahaire, and returning back by the Enniskillen
Road. The ruins of the Franciscan monastery of Creevelea can
be included on the way back, as well as the great prehistoric
sepulchral monument in the deerpark, known as the Irish
Stone Henge. We next proceed to County Mayo, on our way
to Connemara. We can go by two routes — take train via
CoUooney and Claremorris for Westport, or by long car from
Sligo, via Ballysodare and Dromore West, for Ballina, from
which a short train journey reaches Westport. This drive
enables us to see the rapids and falls of Ballysodare and the in-
teresting scenery by Dromore West until we cross the river
Moy at Ballina, which divides Mayo from County Sligo. The
7© Scenery and Antiqtnties of
Moy is a hue salmon river, and Lough Conn is also close by,
where there is extremely good fishing. In the vicinity of
Ballina there are several places of great antiquarian interest.
Rosserck and Moyne Abbeys and the Round Tower of Killala;
a circular drive from Ballina will take in all three. The place
where the French landed in 1798 is pointed out about three
miles from Killala. We can proceed by train direct to West-
port via Manulla junction from Ballina.
ACHILL ISLAND.
Westport is situated at the head of Clew Bay, and is the
most convenient place from which to visit Achill Island, or
start for Connemara. It is a very picturesque town, with a
river running through the centre of it, and trees planted on
either bank, which has a very pretty effect in summer. Lord
Sligo has a seat quite close, and the entrance gate opens from
the town ; the demesne, which is very extensive, should be
visited, and many fine views of Clew Bay may be had from it.
We proceed by rail from Westport to Mallarany, where the
railway company have erected a fine and commodious hotel.
We can visit from Mallarany all the places of interest in Achill,
going by rail to Achill Sound, taking a car there, and driving
to the various places, returning again to Mallarany by last
train in the evening. We may, after seeing all the places of
interest at or near Mallarany, proceed to Dugort, where Mr.
Sheridan, the popular proprietor of the Slievemore Hotel, can
put us up most comfortably, and also guide us to every spot of
interest in the island. The population of this interesting
island in 1891 was 4,677. Tillage on a small scale and fishing
are the only employments of the people. The distance from
Dublin to Achill Sound, where the line terminates, is 187^
miles, the extension from Westport to the Sound is 26^ miles.
The Sound is a narrow strait connecting Clew and Blacksod
Bays. A bridge now crosses the Sound, opening in the centre
on a swivel to allow small vessels to pass, and is a great con-
Sh'go, Connemara and Clare. 71
venience to all going to or from the island. The bridge was
built mainly through the efforts of Mr. John G. Porter, of
Lisbellaw, County Fermanagh, who contributed about one-
third of its total cost. Achill is about 15 miles long by 11
broad, and is the largest island off the Irish coast. It has very
fine cliffs and seal caves. Croghaun is 2,192 feet high, present-
ing a magnificent section to the Atlantic. Slievemore is
2,204 feet high. The village of Dugort at its base contains the
hotel, church, police barracks, and principal buildings. From
Dugort all the sights are easily reached, the ascent of Slieve-
more and Crogham, the seal caves, and cliffs of Menawn, the
cathedral, rocks, and the native village of Keel. There is a
fine strand near this village, extending for about three miles,
and close by the village of Slievemore are the remains of many
objects of antiquarian interest. Dugort is about nine miles
from the sound, and cars run in the tourist season on arrival of
the trains. From the summit of Croaghhaim a magnificent
sea clift, only equalled by Slieve League in Donegal, a most ex-
tensive view can be obtained either inland towards Westport
and Connemara, or seaward towards Clare Island and the other
islands scattered along that portion of the Atlantic seaboard.
CONNEMARA.
Leaving Achill we return to Westport, which is the starting
place for Connemara. We take our seat on the tourist car for
Leenane, by the lovely Erriff Valley, through which the Erriff
River, a fine trout and salmon stream, flows into Killary
Harbour. We stop at the Leenane Hotel, from which a series
of excursions may be taken. There is fine lake, river, and sea
fishing to be had here, some free and also at a moderate rental
by the day or week. For those fond of mountaineering there
are several most interesting excursions — the ascent of Leenane'
Mountain (at the foot of which the hotel is situated), which
rises 1,404 feet, and commands a splendid view of the twelve
Bens, Killary Harbour, and the lakes and rivers of Connemara,
the Delphi pass, and the ascent of Mweelrea, which lies along
72 Scenery and Antiquities 0/
the northern side of the Killary, rising to a height of 2,688
feet, can be made from Leenane. If I were asked to describe
the scenery of this district around Leenane in as few words as
possible, I would reply, huge mountains dotted all round, con-
nected by deep, dark valleys, through which lakes wind, and
from which rivers flow to other lakes or to the sea. Many of
the mountains are bare rock, others clad in heather, and
vegetation very sparse. Interesting excursions can be made
from Leenane as a centre by car, boat, or small steamer, and
the tourist car from Clifden to Westport passes the door.
Leaving Leenane by the tourist car for Clifden, we pass by
Kylemore and Letterfrack. Kylemore Lake and Castle, the
property of Mr. Mitchell Henry, is a charming place, its natural
beauties being developed by all that good taste and money
could do. Letterfrack is a well-to-do village, founded by a
Quaker gentleman, who has done a great deal to found indus-
tries and improve the locality. There is a comfortable hotel,
owned by Mrs. O'Grady, in the village. Renvyle Hotel is
about five miles from here. The house was the family mansion
of the Blake family, who some twenty years ago turned it into
a hotel to provide accommodation for those coming here for
fishing, shooting, and sea bathing. It is exceedingly comfort-
able, homely, and well-kept. Renvyle is an extremely good
centre from which to explore this district. From Letterfrack
to Clifden occupies one hour and a half to drive. It is the
capital of Connemara, built on rising ground overlooking a
beautiful inlet of the sea called Ardbear Harbour. Clifden is
built on the property of the D'Arcy family ; population, about
one thousand. From Clifden we may drive to Roundstone, or,
if we are interested in angling, can go by rail to Recess. At
Recess the Railway Hotel, which is owned by and under the
management of the Midland Railway Company, is adjacent to
the Recess Station on the Galway and Clifden line. The
hotel, which is furnished with every modern comfort and
convenience, occupies a picturesque situation in the midst
of the well-known lake district of Connemara. It is
SHgo^ Connemara and Clare. 73
sheltered from the north-easterly winds by the Maam Turk
Mountains, and from its position it affords magnificent views
of the famous Twelve Bens. When stopping at Recess we
observed the anglers had all well -filled baskets on their return,
principally salmon and trout. The climate is very mild in
winter, so that it should be a good winter resort for invalids
who could enjoy a soft, balmy air in mid-winter coming direct
oft the Gulf Stream, which flows along the coast. When finally
leaving Recess a minutes' walk brings us to the special hotel
platform, where our luggage has preceded us, and from whence
we take train to Galway, which we reach in about two hours.
ARRAN ISLANDS.
Galway city is now so well known that it will be unnecessary
to dwell on the various places of interest still remaining from
bygone days. The Airan Islands, which we reach by steamer
from Galway, have also become much better known since the
visit of the Royal Society of Antiquaries in 1895. They issued
a very fully illustrated handbook, giving copious illustrations
and descriptive sketches of all places of interest in the islands.
These islands possess a special charm, no matter how often
visited; they contain the finest specimens of prehistoric Pagan
forts in Europe — viz.. Dun Angus, Dun Oghill, and Dhu Caher
in the north island, and Dun Connor, situated on the summit
of the middle island. Arran of the Saints contains as well
many examples of our earliest churches — the Seven Churches,
or Temple Brecan, and Temple Mac Duach, on the north side
of Arranmore ; on the south side is Temple Benen and
Monaster Kieran, together with the remains of a round tower.
On the shore of the bay at Killeany is Arkin Castle, or Crom-
well's Fort, built during the time of the Protector and gar-
risoned by his troops. There is plenty of material on the •
islands to employ the visitor for a week, and accommodation
may be had at the Atlantic Hotel, Kilronan. The cliffs cf
Moher and the coast of Clare can be distinctly seen from the
islands on a clear day. The steamer from Galway goes daily
74 Scenery and Antiquities of
in the summer months, and takes three hours to reach Kil-
ronan pier. The Irish language is that commonly used by the
people amongst themselves, but most of the young people can
speak English as well. Many rare ferns grow on the islands,
including maiden hair and royal tern
COUNTY CLARE (LISDOONVARNA.)
We went from Galway to Lisdoonvarna by the direct route
across the bay by steamer to Ballyvaughan, which lies on the
opposite or Clare side of the bay ; from here we afterwards
drove by the public car to Lisdoonvarna. Ballyvaughan is the
best and nearest point from which to visit the celebrated ruins
of Corcomroe Abbey. A great battle was fought in this
locality in the year 13 17, when many of the O'Briens fell, and
were buried within the Abbey. The drive from Ballyvaughan
goes through the Shale district, across the high hills, by the
well-known Corkscrew Road. On reaching the summit a fine
view of the Bay of Galway may be obtained, with the ancient
city of the tribes and a great rocky amphitheatre lying in the
foreground of the picture close to us. The visit of the Royal
Society of Antiquaries here took place in July, 1900. The
party numbered almost 100, and though it was the busy season
they all managed to get comfortably provided for amongst the
various hotels. The town is situated about 600 feet above sea
level on a limestone subsoil, within three miles of the Atlantic.
The air is very bracing, and the spa is said to equal any in
England. The Gowlan river flows through the place in a deep
gorge or ravine which it has cut in the course of ages through
the rock. The principal sulphur spa is situated at the foot of
the hill from the Queen's Hotel at one side, and the Eagle and
Atlantic View on the other. There is a pump house built
over the spring close by the river side. The water is pumped
up through glass-lined pipes, and supplied to visitors at a very
moderate charge. The following ate amongst some ot the
places visited during our s<-ay at Lisdoonvarna — Ballinalackin,
a 15th century tower belonging to the O'Brien's. It is situ-
Sligo, Connemara and Clare. 75
ated on the top of a high rock, which is perpendicular on two
sides. The cHffs of Moher extend for a distance of about seven
miles along the coast of Clare, the most prominent points of
which are Slievenageeragh, 668 feet high ; Ailnasharragh. the
fool's clifiF, 603 feet ; O'Brien's Tower, 58;' feet ; and the Hag's
Head (in Irish Cearn, Calliach) 407 feet. From the cliffs of
Moher a most glorious view may be had of the cliffs them-
selves, as some portions project from which a view may be ob-
tained. You can see towards the north Innishmaan, crowned
with the great fort of Pun-Connor, The Bens of Connemara ;
southward Liscanor Bay, the spire of Miltown Malbay behind
Spanish Point, Caherrush, Mutton Island, the bold head of
Boltard, and Loop Head. And on a clear day the mountains
of North Kerry may be seen, and inland Bureen, Elva, Callan,
and the distant peak of Telegraph Hill, 1,746 feet high, at the
remote end of Clare. The cliffs derive their name from an
ancient stone fort or caher which stood on the top of the cliffs,
but now dismantled. Leaving the cliffs of Moher after lunch-
ing, we drove downhill by the village and ruined castle of Lis-
canor, passing by St. Bridget's Holy Well, where the scene of
the picture for " The Blind Girl at the Holy Well" was taken.
We stopped to examine the ancient Church of Kilmacreehy,
standing on the shore of Liscanor Bay. A little further round
is the village of Lahinch, and the Norwegian-built Golf Hotel,
similar to Rosapena, where you will find the finest i8-hole golf
links in Ireland, two miles long and a mile and a half broad.
These various places were all included in a circular drive from
Lisdoonvarna, returning there in time for dinner. Another
day's excursion was to the ancient Cathedral Church of Kil-
fenora, where there is a very fine sculptured high cross ; from
thence to a fine stone fort, or caher, called Ballykinvarga. The
walls of it are from 12 to 15 feet thick, built in three concentric
sections, like the coatings of an onion. For external defence
a very fine chevaux-de-frise extends to a distance of 100 feet
from the wall of the fort. The entrance is by a single door-
way, with a stone lintel, seven feet long. The wall stands at
7 6 Scenery and Antiquities of
present from 12 to 16 feet high. A fine and never-failing
spring of water near the entrance suppHed the fort. It has
never been tampered with by any restorer, and is a good
example of a pre-historic fort. After leaving Ballykinvarga,
we returned homeward, calling on our way at the ancient
castle of Leemaneagh. It consists of a tall tower, built in 1480,
to which a large Tudor house was attached a century later.
This castle belonged to a branch of the O'Brien family of Clare.
A gateway and arch have the arms of Conor O'Brien, dated
1643. Many other places possessing both historic and pre-
historic interest are situated within reach of Lisdoonvarna.
The examples we have referred to may suffice to point out
what an interesting antiquarian centre it is, in addition to the
curative properties of its famous spa.
KILKEE TO LOOPHEAD.
We left for Ennistymon, where we were fortunate in seeing
an extremely fine waterfall under favourable conditions. The
river was in flood, and the mass of water was enormous,
sufficient to drive several factories and light the town by
electricity. We took the train from here on the West Clare
line for Kilkee. Time will not permit us to speak of the many
interesting places on our way. Our time is all too limited for
Kilkee and vicinity. After seeing all the watering places of
Ireland, none of them can approach Kilkee for magnificent
cliff scenery, wave effects, or the extreme purity of its air. The
town is built around a horseshoe-shaped bay, called Moore
Bay. It is about one mile around. The old portion of the
town, where the shops, telegraph, and post office, banks, and
other public buildings are is on the eastern side ; also the rail-
way station. The water flows in from the Atlantic over a
ledge of rocks that breaks the force of the waves approaching
the strand, which has a gentle slope over a floor of fine, firm
silver sand. It is sheltered from the north by the lofty cliff of
George's Head. Outside the town, both north and south, are
great sea cliffs, against which the huge Atlantic billows strike
Sligo^ Connemara mid Clare, 77
with a force we have never seen equalled elsewhere. During
the season the strand at Kilkee presents a very lively sight. It
is dotted with bathers and bathing boxes, which are drawn
backward and forward to suit the tide by donkeys, whilst
cricket and tennis may be seen in progress at the same time.
The esplanade is protected from the sea by a very thick, low
wall, that does not rise high above the road, and which forms a
convenient place for people to sit upon whilst looking out to
sea. From the fact that the force of the waves is broken before
they reach the strand by the Duggerna and Edmond rocks, it
is perfectly safe for ladies and children to bathe there, whilst
the gentlemen have a spring board and iron ladders further
round towards the west where they can have a plunge in deeper
water. There are also pools left by the receding tide to suit
bathers who wish to get a plunge at a moderate depth in
safety. Walking towards the west end the road leads up over
a green sloping hill covered with short crisp grass. Diverging
oflF this road we come to the cliffs which continue for a long
distance towards the south. There are caves in the rocks
along the shore that can be entered when the tide is out.
Many varieties of shell fish may be collected here, also dulse,
and Carrigeen moss. The latter when boiled forms a jelly,
which is very nutritious, and said to be good for weak lungs.
Large quantities of it were used in 1846 during the famine, by
which many were saved from starvation. Further along the
strata is quite horizontal, and you can descend to the sea level
by natural steps from layer to layer. Proceeding still further
south, the rocks again become perpendicular and much higher.
There is a puffing hole here, which acts when the wind blows
the sea in from the west. The water is forced up to a great
height, and in falling again in spray, if it is sunshine, all the
prismatic colours are shown, which adds to the beauty of the'
scene. Towards Bishop's Island is the amphitheatre, so called
from its crescent shape. The waves here during a western gale
are magnificent, and strike the rocks with thundering force,
rising in spray occasionally to their highest summit to be blown
7 8 Scenery and Antiquities oj
in foam landward on the gale. There is a cave here extending
backward for 60 feet and 30 feet wide at the entrance.
Mackerel is the principal fishing, which are cured and exported
to America. Herrings, haddock, whiting and cod are also
plentiful In addition to its good fish supply, it is well provided
in the season with excellent mutton, and a plentiful supply of
fowls, which the peasants bring to the doors of the various
lodges for sale. Board and lodgings can be had at the best
hotels at £'i per week, and apartments with cooking and
attendance can be had at a reasonable rate. There is a good
bath house where hot and cold sea water baths may be had.
The roads are good for cycling, and most attractive scenery all
the way to Loop Head, a distance of some 15 miles. Return
journey may be made by Carrigaholt, situate on the north side
of the Shannon estuary. It has the additional advantage of a
water supply of the purest and coolest from a holy well, the
patron saint of which is Senanus, or St. Senan, as he is some-
times called. There is a little distance further off a second holy
well called Tober Kee, after the saint who gave his name to
Kilkee. It is a picturesque sight to see the people with pitchers
of water on their heads and others praying around the well.
On the east end of the town there is an ancient chambered rath
surrounded by a moat about twenty feet broad. In a field at
the rere of Moore's Hotel there is a fallen cromlech, whilst on
Bishop's Island there is an ancient beehive oratory. All the
way on the Atlantic side of the peninsula, which extends from
Kilkee to Loop Head, are a series of most interesting views of
cliffs and headlands and sea caves, and huge rock monoliths
standing up isolated in the water, and defying all the fury of
the Atlantic. Dunlicky Castle is an object of great interest.
Built on a promontory, which is joined to the land by a very
narrow neck, in ancient times it was impregnable. The natives
have a legend that it was owned by pirates, who decoyed
vessels in here, and had an armed sloop in hiding to fall on the
hapless vessel when it came in. A mile beyond Dunlicky is
the pretty fishing village of Goleen. Standing above Goleen
Sltgo, Connemara and Clare. 79
is the lofty Knockmagarron Hill, 410 feet above the sea, and
formerly used as a signal station. The natural bridges of Ross
are the next objects of interest, situated near to the village of
that name. There are two bridges ; the largest is about 45
feet in length, 30 feet broad, and three feet in thickness. The
layers of rock are horizontal ; the bottom of the span is about
40 feet above low water. Two very beautiful arches, called the
cathedral arches, may be seen close by. Reaching Loop Head,
the lighthouse should be visited for the extensive view that it
commands. Leap Head, now Loop Head, took its name from
the extraordinary leap of the great Irish hero Cuchullin, who,
to escape a too importunate lover, leaped the chasm separating
the head from the cliff adjoining. The lady leaped it success-
fully, but in returning to follow him she fell and was killed.
We have now reached a point north of the great estuary of the
Shannon, and can return by a diflFerent route, calling at the
ancient Castle of Carrigaholt, thence to Kilrush, Scattery
Island, with its round tower and ancient churches, the abode of
St. Senan. The group of ruins are extensive, embracing an
early Irish church, a round tower, and cathedral of the middle
ages.
I have now briefly attempted to describe some of the beauties
of Ireland lying along its western seaboard, which gives a very
imperfect idea of the reality. We will now proceed to illus-
trate what we have been describing with photographs, the
majority of them never before exhibited in Belfast, and some
of those taken at Kilkee during a storm show wave effects that
could not be described by any words of mine.
The views were then thrown on the screen and much ap-
preciated, the lantern being skilfully manipulated by Mr. F.
M'Gibney, of Messrs. Lizars.
Mr. Garrett Nagle, R.M., moved a hearty vote of thanks to
Mr. Milligan for his most interesting and charming lecture,
which he was sure would long be remembered by all who had
had the pleasure of listening to it. To himself it had, indeed,
been a special pleasure, for he was born and brought up in the
8o Scenery and Antiquities of
South of Ireland, and the pictures and the descriptions of them
had brought before his mind famihar scenes. They must all
feel grateful to Mr. Milligan for his efforts to bring the scenery
of Ireland under the notice of the people of England and
Scotland and foreigners.
Mr. John Carson seconded the motion.
The motion was passed by acclamation, and appropriately
conveyed to the chairman.
Mr. Milligan, in replying, said he felt greatly indebted to
Mr. Nagle for his kind words, and he assured them that he
took a delight in increasing an interest in their country.
Dr. Moran moved a vote of thanks to vSir James Henderson
for presiding.
Mr. Wm. Gray, M.R.I. A., seconded the motion, and after
alluding in appreciative terms to the chairman's interest in the
well-being and progress of their country, joined with him in
the hope that the King and Queen would visit them next
year.
The vote was passed with great heartiness, and the com-
pliment suitably acknowledged,
2nd Aprils igoi.
Mr. J. BROWN, President, in the Chair.
Mr. George Goffey, M.R.I.A., read a paper on
THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND THE DAWN OF
ART,
Illustrated by a Special Series of Lantern Slides of Paleolithic
Implements, etc.
Officers and Coimcil of Management for 1901-1902.
JOHN BROWN.
"^ice-'g'resibents :
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d. i WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l., f.l.s. | ROBERT YOUNG, c.b., j.p.
,^ott- "ircasutrer :
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
Jjon. (iLibrarittn :
JOHN H. DAVIES.
^on. gccretarg :
ROBERT M. YOUNG, b.a., j.p., m.k.i.a.
Council :
JOHN BROWN.
JOHN H. DAVIES.
PROFESSOR M. F. FITZGERALD, b.a., m.i.m.e.
ANDREW GIBSON, f.r.s.a.
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d., pkbsident q.c.b.
JOHN HORNER, m.i.m.e.
SIR OTTO JAFFE, j.p.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN, m.e.i.a., f.r.s.a.
R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l., j.p., f.l.8.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
THOMAS F. SHILLINGTON, j.p.
WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
JOSEPH WEIGHT, f.g.s.
ROBERT YOUNG, j.p., c.e.
R. M. YOUNG, B.A., J.P., M.R.I.A.
SHAREHOLDERS.
\^ Denotes holders of three or more Shares.']
*Alexander, Francis, b.e., Belfast
AUworthy, Edward, Ardgreenan, Cavehill Road, do.
Anderson, John, j.p., f.g.s., East Hillbrook, Holywood
Andrew, John J., l.d.s., r.c.s. Eng., University Square, Belfast.
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong, Thomas, jun, Donegall Square West, do.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, do.
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, do.
Barbour, James, j.p., d.l., Ardville, Marino, Holywood.
Beattie, Rev. A. Hamilton, Portglenone.
Bigger, Francis J., m.r.l.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast.
Bland, Robert H., j.p., Lisburn.
Bottomley, Henry H., Belfast.
Bowman, Davys, Chichester Street, do.
Boyd, William, Great Victoria Street, do.
Boyd, William Sinclair, Ravenscroft, Bloomfield, do.
Braddell, Edward, St. Ives, Malone Park, do.
Brett, Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, do.
Brett, John H., C.E., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Bristow, James R., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.
Brown, John, Longhurst, Dunmurry.
Brown, William R. (Representatives of), Belfast.
Bulloch, Alexander, Eversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burnett, John R., Elmwood Avenue, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., m.a., m.d.. Lower Crescent, do.
Calwell, Alex. M'D,, do.
Calwell, William, m.a., m.d,, College Square North, do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Carlisle, A. M., Elmwood House, do.
Shareholders.
^3
Carr, A. H. R., Waring Street, Belfast.
Carson, John, Walmer Terrace, Holywood.
♦Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor.
Christen, Madame, Carnbinn, Whitehouse
Clark, George S., Dvmlambert, Belfast.
Clarke, E, H.. Notting Hill, do.
Coates, Victor, J.P., d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry.
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p,. Queen's Elms, Belfast.
Combe, George, Cranethorpe, Strandtown.
Crawford, William, Mount Randal, Belfast.
Crawford, William, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown.
Cunningham, Professor Robert O., m.d., f.l.s.,
F.G.S., Mountpellier, Malone Road, Belfast.
Davies, John H., Castle Street, Lisburn.
*Deramore, Lord, p.l. (Representatives of)
Dods, Robert, b.a., St. Leonards, Newcastle.
*DonegaI, Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast.
*Downshire, Marquis of (Reps, of), The Castle, Hillsborough.
Drennan, W. H., Wellington Place, Belfast.
Duffin, Adam, ll.d., University Square, do.
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park (Reps, of), Ballywalter.
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast.
Ewart, Fred W., Derryvolgie, Lisburn.
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., m.a., j.p., Glenmachan
House, Belfast.
Faren, Wm., Mountcharles, do.
*Fenton, Francis G., London.
Ferguson, Godfrey W., C.E., Donegall Park, Belfast.
Finlay, Fred. W., j.p., Wolfhill House, Ligoniel.
Finlay, Robert H. F., Cavehill Road, Belfast.
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc, Kelvin House, Botanic
Avenue, Belfast.
84
Shareholders.
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., b.a., m.i.m.e., Assoc.
M.I.C.E., Eglantine Avenue,
Belfast.
*Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), do
Gibson, Andrew, f.r.s.a.i., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, Catherine, Mountpleasant, do.
Gordon, Robert W., j.p. (Reps, of), Bangor.
Graham, Thomas, j.p., Holywood.
*Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d., m.r.i.a.
(Representatives of), Broughshane.
Gray, William, m.r.i.a , Glenburn Park, Cavehill Road, Belfast.
Greer, Thomas, j.p., m.r.i.a., Seapark, Carrickfergus.
*HalI, Frederick H.. Waterford.
Hamilton, Rev. Thos., d.d., President, Queen's College, Belfast.
♦Hamilton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, W., do.
Henderson, Miss Anna S. (Representatives of), do.
Henderson, Sir James, a.m., j.p., d.l., Oakley, Windsor
Park, do.
Henderson, Mrs. Charlotte (Reps, of), Clarges Street, London.
Henry, R. M., m.a , Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
Herdman, John, d.l., j.p., Carricklee House, Strabane.
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, j.p., Rosavo, Cultra.
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House, Belfast.
Hind, John, junr., Clifton Park Avenue, do.
Hodges, Miss, Wellington Place, do.
Hogg, John, Academy Street, do.
Horner, John, m.i.m.e., Chelsea, Antrim Road, do.
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.L., Orangefield, do.
•Hughes, Edwin, j.p., Dalchoolin, Craigavad.
Hyndman, Hugh, ll.d., Windsor, Belfast.
Inglis, James, j.p., Abbeyville,
Whiteabbey.
Shareholders. 8 5
Jackson, A. T., c.e., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgie
Avenue, Belfast.
Jaflfe, Sir Otto, j.p.. Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey.
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Dalguise, Monkstown, Dublin^
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, Belfast.
Kidd, George, j.p., Lisnatore, Dunmurry.
*Kinghan, John R., Altoona, Windsor Avenue, Belfast.
Kinnaird, George Y., Malone Park, do.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, Mrs., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast,
Larmor, Joseph, m.a., f.r.s., St. John's College, Cambridge.
Leathem, Dr. R.R., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast.
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecumbe,
Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down.
Letts, Professor E.A., ph.d., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra.
Lindsay, Professor James A., m.a., m d.. College Square
East, Belfast.
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House, do.
Lytle, Joseph H., j.p., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.l., m.i.c.e , Stanley House,
Holywood.
Mackenzie, John, c.e., Strathavon, Lisburn Road, Belfast.
*Macrory, A. J. (Representative of), do.
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonville, do.
Malcolm, Bowman, m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim Road, do.
Maxton, James, m.i.na., m.i.mar.e., Kirkliston Drive,
Bloomfield, do.
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens, Belfast.
Milligan, Seaton Forest, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a., Bangor.
Mitchell, Robert A., ll.b., t.c.d., Marmont, Strandtown.
Montgomery, Henry C, Bangor,
86
Shareholders.
Montgomery, H. H., Knock, Belfast.
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.t... Ballydrain House, Dunmurry.
Moore, James, The Finaghy, Belfast.
Morton, Professor W. B., m.a., NottinghiU, do.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, Belfast.
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p., Tudor House, Holywood.
*Murphy, Isaac James Armagh.
•Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast.
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone, Belfast.
*Musgrave, Henry, Drumglass, Malone, do.
Musgrave, Sir James, Bart, d.l., j.p., Drumglass, Malone, do.
MacAdam, Robert (Representatives of), do.
•M' Bride, Henry James, Hyde Park, ?v1allusk, do.
M'Bride, Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
*M'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London.
*M'Cammon, Lieut. -Col. Thomas A., Woodville, Holywood.
M'Cance, H. J., j.p., d.l. (Representatives of),
Larkfield, Dunmurry.
M'Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart., j.p., d.l. (Reps, cf),
MacCoU, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, Belfast.
MacCormac, John, m.d., Victoria Place, do.
M'Cormick, Hugh M'Neile, Ardmara, Craigavad.
*M'Cracken, Francis (Representatives of),
M'Gee, James, Woodville, Holywood.
M'Gee, Samuel Mackey, University Street, Belfast.
Macllwaine, John H., Bangor.
M'Kisack, H. L., m.d.. College Square East, Belfast.
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p.. Queen's Elms, do.
M'Neill, George, Beechleigh, Malone Road, do.
M'Knight, John P., Nevara, Chichester Park, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Holywood.
Nicholson, Henry J., College Square North, Belfast.
O'Neill, James, m a.. College Square East,
*0'Rorke, Ambrose Howard, Dunratho,
do.
Craigavad.
Shareholders. 87
Park, Rev. Wm., m.a., Somerset House, University St., Belfast.
Patterson, Edward Forbes, Bangor.
Patterson, Mrs. Isabelle, Bonn, Germany,
Patterson, John, Windsor Avenue, Belfast.
Patterson, Richard, j.p., Kilmore, Holywood.
*Patterson, Robert Lloyd, j p., d.l., f.l s.. Croft House, do.
Patterson, Robert, m.b.o.u., Malone Park, Belfast.
Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a,, Garranard, Strandtown.
Patterson, William H. F.,,Stalheim, Knock, Belfast.
Pirn, Edward W., j.p., Elmwood Terrace, Belfast.
Pirn, Joshua, Slieve-na-Failthe, Whiteabbey.
*Pirrie, Elizabeth, Newrastle-on-Tyne.
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.e., m.r.i.a., National Library, Dublin.
Purser, Prof. John, ll.d., m.r.i.a., Queen's College, Belfast.
Rea, John Henry, m.d., University Street, do.
Rea, William R., Gardha, Fortwilliam Park, do,
Reade, Robert H. S., j.p., d.l., Wilmont, Dunmurry,
Riddell, Samuel, Beechpark, Belfast.
Robertson, William, j.p., Netherleigh, Strandtown, do.
Robinson, John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc. Royal Academical
Institution, do.
Shilhngton, Thomas Foulkes, j.p., Dromart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, Felix Booth, Queen Street, do.
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a.. j.p., d.l., Hopefield, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, m.d., f.r.c.s. Eng., Howard St., do.
Smith, John, Castleton Tetrace, do.
Smyth, John, m.a., c.e., Milltown, Banbridge.
Speers, Adam, b.sc, Riversdale, Holywood.'
Steen, William C, m.d., Windsor Crescent, Belfast.
Steen, William, b.l.. Northern Bank, Victoria Street, do.
Stelfox, James, Oakleigh, Ormeau Park, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do,
88 Shareholders.
*Tennent, Robert (Representatives of), Rushpark, Belfast.
*Tennent, Robert James (Representatives of), Rushpark, do.
Thompson, S. B., Short Strand, do.
Torrens, Mrs. Sarah H. (Representatives of), Whiteabbey.
*Turnley, John (Representatives of), Belfast.
Walkington, Mrs. (Representatives of), Thornhill, Malone, do.
Walkington, Thomas R., Edenvale, Strandtown, do.
Wallace, John, Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Ward, PVancis D., j.p., m.r.i.a., Ivydene, Malone Park, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, j.p., f.s.a., Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard T., Knock, do.
Whitla, Prof. William, m.d., j.p.. College Sq., North, do.
Wilson, James, m.e., Oldforge, Dunmurry,
Wilson, John K., j.p., Donegall Street, Belfast.
Wilson, Walter H., Belvoir Park, do.
*Wilson, W. Perceval, do.
*WolfF, G. W., M.P., The Den, Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, Drummena, Bladon Park, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, ma., Rubane House, Glastry.
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a.. The Manse, Newtownbreda.
*Workman, Thomas, j.p., Craigdarrah (Reps, of), Craigavad.
Workman, William, Nottinghill, Belfast.
Wright, James, Lauriston, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, c.e., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, b a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
HONORARY MEMBER-
Duflferin and Ava, k.p.. The Marquis of, Clandeboye, Co. Down.
Annual Subscribers.
HONORARY ASSOCIATES.
89
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Belfast.
Stewart, Samuel Alex., f.b.s. Edin., Belfast Museum, do.
Swanston, William, f.g s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Tate, Prof. Ralph, f.g.s., f.l.s , Adelaide, South Australia.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, Belfast.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast.
Northern Banking Co., Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
York Street Spinning Company, Ltd., do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.
Allan, C. E., Stormount Castle, Dundonald.
Boyd, John, Cyprus Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast.
Brown, G. Herbert, j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay.
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast.
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Cleaver, A. S., b.a., Dunraven, do.
Davidson, S. C, Sea Court, Bangor.
Fulton, G. P., Howard Street, Belfast.
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace, do'.
Green, Isaac, Ann Street, do.
Hanna, J. A., j.p.. Marietta, Knock, do.
Hazelton, W. D., Cliftonville, do.
Higginbotham, Granby, Wellington Park, do.
96 Annual Subscribers.
Hutton, A. W. Chichester Street, Belfast.
Jones, R. M., m.a.. Royal Academical Institution, do.
Kelly, W. Redfern, m.i.c.h., f.r.a.s., Dalriada,
Malone Park, do.
Lynn, William H., Crumlin Terrace. do.
Macassey, Lyndon, c.e., b.a., ll b., Holywood.
Malone, John, Brookvale House, Cliftonville, Belfast.
M'Laughlin, W. H., Brookville House, do.
Redfern, Prof. Peter, m.d., f,r.c.s.i.. Lower Crescent,
do.
Scott, Conway, c.e., Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
Stephens, S. Holywood.
Swiney, J. H. H., b.a., b.e., Bella, Vista, Antrim Road, Belfast.
Tate, Alexander, c.e., Rantalard, Whitehouse,
Thompson, John, j.p.. Mount Collyer,
Turpin, James, Waring Street,
do.
do.
do.
^i|U0i[t and pr04i|[|dmp
BELB^,A.ST
iTURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSionsr iQoi-isoa.
BELFAST:
PRLNTED BY ALEXR. MAYNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STREET
(PRINTKRS TO QUKEn's COLLEGE.)
1902.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Annual Report ... ... ... ... . ... 1
Balance Sheet .. ... ... ... 7
Donations to Museum ... ... ... ... . 8
Books Received ... .. ... ... '■>
The Belfast Municipal Institute: Its Aims and Aspirations — F. C.
Forth, Assoc. R.C.Sc.I. .. .. ... . 18
Respiration — Joseph liarcroft, M.A. ... ... ... ... 26
Notes on I^ocal Survivals of .Ancient Harvest Customs . 32
The Northern Blackwuter : Its Scenery, .Antiquities and Battlefields —
John J. MarshaU. .. .. ... . ... 34
The Irish Industrial Awakening — Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.I. A. .. 36
Report of Delegate to Corresponding Societies' Conference, British
Association Meeting, 1901— J. Drown, F.K.S. ... ... 36
The Mourne Scheme for the Supply of Water to the City of Belfast —
John L. Macassey, C.E. ... . ... ... 38
List of Office Bearers ... ... .. ... .. 39
List of Shareholders and Subscribers ... .. ... 40
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
EST.A.BLISI3:E1ID 1821.
SHAREHOLDERS.
1 Share in the Society costs £7.
2 Shares ,, costs £14.
3 Shares ,, coats £21.
The Proprietor of I Share pays 10s. per annum : the proprietor of 2
Shares pays o shillings per annum ; the proprietor of 3 or more Shares stands
exempt from further payment.
Shareholders are only eligible for election on the Council of Management.
MEMBERS.
There are two classes — Ordinary Members who are expected to read
Papers, and Visiting Members who by joining under the latter title, are
understood to intimate that they do not wish to read Papers. The Session for
Lectures extends from November in one year till May in succeeding one.
Members Ordinary or Visiting, pay £1 Is. per annum, due 1st November in
eafh year.
Each Shareholder and Member has the right of personal attendance at all
meetings of the Society, and of admitting a friend thereto ; also of access to
the Museum and Library for himself and family, with the privilege of granting
admission orders for inspecting the collections for any friend not residing in
Belfast.
Any further information can be obtained by application to the Secretary
It is requested that all accounts due by the Society be sent to the Treasurer.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily from 10 till 4 o'clock.
Admission for Strangers, 6d. each. The Curator is in constant attendance, and
will take charge of any Donation kindly left for the Museum or Library.
Belfast Batural Ibietor^ ant) pbilosopbical
Society.
ANNUAL REPORT, 1902.
■:o:-
The Annual Meeting of Shareholders of the Society was held
on 3rd July, in the Belfast Museum, College Square North.
Mr. John Brown, F.R.S., President, occupied the chair, and
amongst those present were — Messrs. R. Lloyd Patterson, D.L.;
R Patterson, F.Z.S., M.R.T.A.; John Horner, M.I.M.E.; Joseph
Wrigh, F.G.S.; W. Swanston, F.G.S.; S. F. Milligan, M.R.I. A.;
W. Gray, M.R.I.A.; R. Dod, J.P.; Conway Scott, C.E.; J. E.
Magill, A. Kinnaird, William Faren, Isaac W. Ward, and
Davys Bowman.
The Hon. Secretary (Mr. Robert M. Young, B.A.) read the
Annual Report which contained the following : —
The Winter Session was opened in the Museum on loth
December, 1901, when an address was kindly given by Mr.
Francis C. Forth, Assoc. R.C.Sc.L, Principal of the Municipal
Technical Institute, Belfast; subject — " The Municipal Technical
Institute, its Aims and Aspirations."
The Second Meeting was held on 6th January, 1902, when
Mr. Joseph Barcroft, M.A., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge,
gave a lecture on "Respiration," illustrated by experiments.
On the 4th February the Third Meeting was held, when Mr.
John M'Kean contributed " Notes on Local Survivals of
Ancient Harvest Customs,'' with specimens ; and Mr. John
2 Annual Meeting.
J. Marshall lectured on " The Northern Blackwater : its
Scenery, Antiquities, and Battlefields," illustrated by special
lantern views.
The Fourth Meeting was held on 5th March, when Mr.
Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.I. A., gave a popular lecture, fully
illustrated ; subject — " The Irish Industrial Awakening." The
chair was occupied, in the absence of the President, by Sir R.
J. M'Connell, Bart., and the proceeds were devoted to the
reduction of the debt owed by the Causeway Defence Fund.
The Closing Meeting was held on the 8th April. Mr^ John
L. Macassey, C.E., read a paper ; subject — " The Mournc
Scheme for the Supply of Water to the City of Belfast," illus-
trated by special lantern views.
The President also gave an account of the meeting of
delegates to the British Association in Glasgow.
The meetings were less in number than usual, mainly owing
to the renovation of the Museum building, which delayed the
opening of the session. There was a satisfactory attendance of
the members and general public at all the meetings, and several
of the papers submitted were subsequently favourably referred
to and discussed in the local Press. The number of societies
holding their meetings in the Museum shows no diminution.
As usual, the attendance of the public was very large at Easter,
when the Museum was opened at a nominal charge.
As will be seen from the Hon. Treasurer's Statement 01
Accounts, duly audited by the Local Government Board's
Auditor, a reduction of balance has been caused by the special
expenses involved in renovating the Museum premises. This
will, however, be partially met by subscriptions given by
members towards this purpose.
Owing largely to the zealous efforts of Mr. Robert Patterson,
F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., a considerable sum has been contributed by
friends of the Society with a view to place the collections of
objects of natural history on a satisfactory footing. Old and
worn-out examples in the Thompson collection of Irish birds
will be replaced by new specimens, partly presented by local
Annual Meeting. 3
collectors, and the balance acquired by purchase. Your council
have arranged, as intimated in their last report, for the renewal
where required, of other collections, including local geology,
conchology, and antiquities. Everything will be completed in
time for the meeting of the British Association in September
next. The painting of the interior of the Museum has caused
an amount of extra work in taking down such specimens as
are displayed outside the cabinets, and cleaning and replacing
them. This prevented, to some extent, attention being paid
to other portions of the collections, not only during the
improvements, but for some time after. Subsequently the
revision of the MacAdam collection of local fossils has been
proceeded with. This collection is an extensive one. It was
accumulated at very great expense and labour by the late Mr.
James MacAdam, F.G.S., and contains many specimens ot
species which have been only rarely or not at all obtainable by
recent geologists. It is the most complete collection of Irish
cretaceous fossils ever miade by one individual. Amongst
many other good things the type specimen of Loricula Alaca-
dami has been recovered. As far as can be ascertained at
present, this is unique. Your Council took advantage of the
inquiry held in Belfast by the Royal Commission on University
Education in Ireland to present a memorial to them on the 5th
April, setting out their views on the question of the teaching
of natural history in Queen's College, and advocating increased
facilities in that direction. Your Council received with deep
regret the announcement of the death of the Marquis of
DufFerin and Ava, the only surviving honorary member of the
Society. Several members of Council represented the Society
at his funeral.
A list of donations to the Museum, and of the publications
received in exchange from home and foreign societies, will be
printed with the present report.
Your council desire to express their best thanks to the local
Press for their reports of the various meetings.
The following members retire from office, and offer themselves
4 Annual Meeting.
for re-election : — S. F. Milligan, John Brown, Andrew Gibson
William Swanston, and W. H. F. Patterson.
The Hon. Secretary stated that he had received a letter from
the Hon. Treasurer, who apologised for his inability to attend
the meeting. The Statement of Accounts showed a balance of
£iG i6s. yd. in favour of the account.
The Chairman, in moving the adoption of the report, said
perhaps the most important matter contained in it was with
regard to the renovation of the collections and the painting of
the Museam. This was undertaken with the object of making
the premises as presentable as possible in view of the approach-
ing visit of the British Association to Belfast. Owing to the
zealous efforts of Mr. Robert Patterson a considerable sum of
money had been collected, but he did not think that Mr.
Patterson was yet satisfied, and he would be glad to receive
further donations. They would see that a beginning of the
work had been made as regards the collection of birds. Un-
fortunately Mr. Robert Patterson was not on the council, but
especially since he was devoting so much time and talent to
the Museum it was very desirable that he should be on it,
and if there had been an opportunity they would have been
glad to have co-opted him. There was, however, still an
opportunity of electing him, and they thought it best to leave
the matter to that meeting. The Statement of Accounts
showed that the balance had decreased, but indeed he was
surprised it had not decreased more, because of the expense
incurred in the renovations already mentioned.
Mr. John Horner seconded the adoption of the report.
Mr. R. Lloyd Patterson, drew attention to the paragraph in
the report in which there was an allusion to the renovation of the
natural history collections. This was partly the outcome of a
report which he and his nephew Mr Robert Patterson, were
asked to make a year ago. They had reported on the
specimens, many of which were in a bad condition, and some
of them worthless. After some little time the usual difficulty
presented itself to the Council. That was the difficulty about
Anmcal Meeting. 5
funds, as it was only with the most rigid economy they could
keep their expenditure within their income. A certain
member of the Society offered a donation of £10 to start a
substantial fund for this work, and his nephew took up the
matter energetically, and was able to raise a sum of money by
which the collection of birds would be entirely renovated and
a general rearrangement of the collections made, which would
bring them up to date, so that by the avoidance of unnecessary
duplications a large amount of space would be saved and room
made for other specimens. He thought attention should be
drawn to the matter, so that, in view of the approaching visit of
the British Association, they should have the place in as good
order as possible. He was afraid that owing to the generosity
of Sir Wm. Whitla, who was defraying the cost of the erection
of a Medical Institute, they would lose the Medical Society as
tenants, and consequently they would lose the rents which
that eminent and learned body had up to now paid to them.
He expressed the hope that there would be a general " beating
up " for new members and new shareholders, and that they
would not experience the discomforts of a diminished income,
which at the present moment was staring them in the face.
The report was unanimously adopted.
Mr. Patterson also mentioned a suggestion which had been
made to him as to the desirability of holding their meetings in
the afternoon instead of in the evening. This practice was
followed in London and many other places.
Several members spoke against such a change being made,
and, as the feeling of the meeting was evidently against it, the
suggestion was not adopted.
Mr. Wm. Gray proposed that Mr. Robert Patterson be
elected on the Council. He said that Mr. Robert Patterson was
a young man, who had inherited the traditions of his family in
the investigation of natural history, and he was one of the
most active and successful, as well as most modest, member of
their community.
Mr. R. Young seconded the proposition.
6 Annual Meeting.
Mr. George Horner proposed that the five retiring members
of the Council be re-elected.
Mr. R. Young seconded.
A ballot having been taken, the Chairman declared that the
following gentlemen had been elected on the Council : —
Messrs. R. Patterson, John Brown, William Swanston,
W. H. F. Patterson, and S. F. Milligan.
Mr. Conway Scott proposed a vote of thanks to the Chair-
man for presiding. He congratulated him on being elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society, and hoped he would be elected
president of that body.
Mr. Wm. Gray, in seconding the motion, said it was a great
honour to Belfast when an amateur, as their Chairman, by his
original research, should obtain a distinction which some of
their biggest Professors did not. They ought to be proud of
their President, as he was a representative of the traditions of
the old Natural History Society of Belfast, which was the first
established in the kingdom seventy years ago.
The motion having been unanimously passed, the Chairman
briefly returned thanks. He said he prized very nmch the
honour which had been conferred upon him, and it was made
doubly pleasing by the many kind words of congratulation
that he had received, none of which he valued more than
those offered by that Society.
The election of Office-Bearers for the ensuing year was then
proceeded with in Committee. The following were elected : —
President, John Brown, F.R.S. ; Vice-Presidents, Robert
Young, J. P., C.E.; William Swanston, F.G.S. ; R. L. Patterson,
D.L., F.L.S.; Rev. T. Hamilton, D.D., LL.D., President
Queen's College ; Hon. Secretary, R. M. Young, J.P., M.R.I. A.;
Hon. Treasurer, W. H. F. Patterson ; Librarian, J. H. Davies.
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DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, 1901-1902.
From Mr. Granby Higginbotham.
Cast of a fossil brachiopod shell {Spirifer disjunctd) from
Silurian rocks at Tintagel, Cornwall. Similar specimens
are sold there as fossil butterflies.
From Representatives of Mr. J. S. Alexander, D.L.
A singular stone implement found in the River Bann, at Port-
glenone.
From Miss M. E. Reid.
Three butterflies from the Argentine Republic, South America.
From Miss Duffin.
A cabinet of marine and freshwater shells, minerals, etc., Native
and Foreign.
From Mr. R. Welch.
A series of shells of Limnea peregra^ var. lactistris, from the
Bann River at Toome, also specimen of the coralline
strand at Greatman's Bay, Co. Galway.
From Mrs. Coulter.
A collection of marine shells gathered near Bangor, Co. Down.
From Mr. Victor Coates, D.L.
A Royal seal which was attached to a patent.
From Mr. S. A. Stewart, F.B.S., Edin.
A number of Cretaceous fossils from Chalk and Greensand rocks
of Antrim and Derry.
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, ist MAY, 1901, till
:sT MAY, 1902.
Adelaide. — Transactions of the Royal Society of South
Australia. Vol. 25, parts i and 2, 1901.
The Society.
Basel. — Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Basel. Vol. 13, part 2, 1901, and Sachregister,
1 875-1 900. The Society.
Belfast. — Report and Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists'
Field Club. Ser. 2, vol. 4, part 7, 1902.
The Club.
Bergen. — Bergens Museums Aarbog, parts i and 2, 1901.
Meresfauna, part i, 1901. Aarsberetning for
1901 ; and Crustacea of Norway. Vol. 4, parts
I and 2, 1901, and 3 — 6, 1902.
Bergen Museum.
Berlin. — Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu
BerHn. Vol. 28, parts, 4 — 10, 1901.
The Society.
Bremen. — Abhandlungen vom Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein
zu Bremen. Vol. 15, part 3, 1901, and vol.
17, part I, 1 90 1. The Society.
Breslau. — Zeitschrift fiir Entomologie vom Verein fiir Schjes-
siche Insektenkunde zu Breslau. New series,
part 26, 1 90 1. The Society.
Brighton. — Annual Report and Abstracts of Papers of Brighton
and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society, 1901. The Society. •
Brooklyn. — Science Bulletin of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts
and Sciences. Vol. i, No. i, 1901.
The Institute.
Brussels. — Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique.
Vol. 45, 1 90 1. The Society.
lo Books Received.
Brussels. — Annales de la Societe Royale Malacologique de
Belgique. Vol. 35, 1901. The Society.
Buffalo. — Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences.
Vol. 7, No. I, 1 90 1. The Society.
Buenos Ayres. — Comunicaciones del Museo Nacional de
Buenos Aires. Vol. i, Nos. 8 — 10, 1901.
The Director.
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol.
30, parts, 3 and 4, 1901 ; vol. 31, parts, i — 3,
1901 ; vol. 32, parts i and 2, 1899 ; vol. 33,
part 2, 1 90 1, and vol. 34, part i, 1901. Also,
Palseontologia Indica, new series ; vol. i, part
3, 1901 ; and General Report for year 1900-
190 1. 2 he Director of the Survey.
Cambridge. — Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society. Vol. 11, part 3, 1901, and part 4,
1902. The Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology. Vol. 36, Nos. 7 and 8, 1901 ; vol. 37,
No. 3, 1901 ; vol. 38, 4 Nos., 1900-1902, and
vol. 39, No. I, 1 90 1. Also Report of the
Keeper for the year 1 900-1 901. The Keeper.
Cassel. — Abhandlungen und Bericht (46) des Vereins fiir
Naturkundezu Kassel, 1901. The Society.
Christiania. — Forhandlinger, I. Videnskabs Selskabet I.
Christiania, for year 1900.
The Royal Norske Frederiks University.
Cincinnati. — Reproduction Series, Bulletin No. 2 of the Lloyd
Library, 1901. Mycological Scries, No. i,
1902, and Mycological Notes by C. G. Lloyd,
No. 5, 1900, and Nos. 6 — 8, 1901.
The Messrs. Lloyd.
Colorada Springs. — Colorado College Studies, vol. 9, 1900.
Colorado College Scientific Society.
Books Received. ii
Columbus. — Bulletin of Ohio State University, series 5, No. i,
1900, and series b, No. i, 1901.
The University.
Dantzic. — Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Danzig. New series, vol. 10, parts 2 and 3
1 90 1- The Society.
Dublin.— Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, series 2,
vol. 7, No. 8, 1900, and Nos. 9 — 13, 1901 ; also
Scientific Proceedings. New series, vol. 9,
part 3, 1900, and part 4, 1901. The Society.
,, Report of the Director of the Institutions of Science
and Art. 1901 ; also Directory of the Royal
College of Science, session 1901-1902.
The Technical Instruction Department.
Edinburgh. — Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society, 129th
session, 1901. The Society.
Emden. — Jahresbericht der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Emden, 1899-1900. The Society.
Genoa. — Rivista Ligure di Scienze Letture ed Art. Anno 23,
fasc. 2 — 5, 1901, and anno 24, fasc. i, 1902.
The Society.
Glasgow. — Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow.
Vol. II, part 2, 1900. The Society.
„ Transactions of the Natural History Society of
Glasgow. New series, vol. 6, part i, 1901.
The Society.
„ Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glas-
gow. Vol. 32, 1 90 1. The Society.
GoRLiTZ.— Abhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
zu Gorlitz, vol. 23, 1901. The Society.
GoTHENBERG. — Gotcborg's Kungl. Vetenskaps Och Vitterhets
Samhalles Handlingar for 1898 — 1901.
The Society.
12 Books Received.
Hamburg. — Verhandlungen [des Naturwissenschaftlichen Ver-
eins in Hamburg. Series 3, vol. 8, 1901, and
vol. 9, 1902 ; also Abhandlungen, vol. 16, part
2, 1 90 1. The Society.
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen — Karpathen Vereins, 28th
year, 1901. The Society.
Indianopolis. — Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science
for 1 900. The Academy.
Kharkow. — Proceedings of the Societie des Sciences Physico-
Chimiques, of the University of Kharkow.
Part 27, for 1899. The Society.
Lausanne. — Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles, vol. 36, No. 138, 1900, and vol. 37,
Nos. 139 — 142, 1 901. Also Observationes
Meteorologiques, 1901. The Society.
Lawrence. — Bulletins of the University of Kansas. Vol. Q,
Nos. 3 and 4, 1900, and vol. 10, Nos. i and 2,
1 901. The U7iiversity.
Leipsic. — Mittheilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig,
for 1900 ; also Wissenschaftliche Veroflfent-
lichungen, vol. 5 and Atlas, 1901.
The Society.
,, Sitzungbeiichte der naturforschenden Gesellschaft
zu Leipzig, 26th and 27th years, 1 899-1 900.
The Society.
London. — Report of the seventy-first Meeting of the British
Association, Glasgow, 1901.
The Association.
,, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London. Vol. 47, parts 2 — 4, 1901, and vol.
48, part T, 1902. Also Lists of Fellows of the
Society, and of the Geological Literature
added to the Library in 1900. The Society.
„ Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, Nos. 142
— 145, 1901, and 146 and 147, 1902.
The Society.
Books Received. 13
London. — Transactions of the Zoological Society of London,
vol. 16, parts 2 and 3, 1901, and part 4, 1902 ;
Also Proceedings, vol. i, parts i and 2, 1901,
vol. 2, part I, 1 901, and part 2, 1902.
The Society.
Madison. — Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts and Letters. Vol. 13, part, i, 1901,
The Academy.
„ Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey.
Bulletin 7, part i, 1901. The Director.
Madras — Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum. Vol.
3, No. 3. 1 901, and vol. 4, No. 2, 1901 ; also
Catalogue of Prehistoric Antiquities. 1901, and
Administration Report for 1900-1901.
The Superintendent.
Manchester. — Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society.
Vol. 16, Nos. 10 — 12 ; Vol. 17, Nos. i — 3, 1901 ;
and Supplement to vol. 13, 1901. The Society.
„ Transactions of the Manchester Geological
Society. Vol. 27, parts i — 7, 1 901, and parts 8
and 9, 1902. The Society.
Marseilles. — Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Vol. II, fasc. I — 9, n.d. The Librarian.
Melbourne. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
New series, vol. 13, part i, 1900, and part 2,
1901 ; also vol. 14, part, i, 1901. The Society.
Mexico. — Boletin Mensual del Observatorio Meteorologico
Central de Mexico, July, 1900 — July, 1901.
The Director.
„ Boletin del Observatorio Astronomico Nacional de
Tacubaya. Vol. 2, No. 7, 1901 ; and Anuario
22,1901. The Director.
Milwaukee. — Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History
Society. New series, vol. i, No. 4, 1901.
The Society.
14 Books Received.
Minneapolis. — Bulletin of the Minnesota Academy of Natural
Sciences. Vol. 3, No. 3, 1901. The Academy.
Missoula. — Bulletin of the University of Montana. Biological
series, No. i, 1901. The University.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo.
Vol. 3, parts 20 and 21, 1901, and vol. 4, parts
19 — 22, 1 90 1. The Director.
Moscow. — Bulletin of the Society of Naturalists of Moscow.
Nos. 3 and 4, 1900 ; Nos. i and 2, 1901 ; and
Nos. I and 2, 1902. The Society.
Nantes. — Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
I'Ouest de la France. Vol. 10, parts 3 and 4,
1900, and series 2, vol. i. parts i and 2, 1901.
The Society.
New York. — Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Vol. 13, parts 2 and 3, 1901 ; vol. 14, part i,
1901 ; and Memoirs, vol. 2, part 3, 1901.
The Academy.
,, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.
Vol. 23, Nos. 2 — 5, 1 90 1. The Society.
Nottingham. — Report and Transactions of the Nottingham
Naturalists' Society for 1900 1 901.
The Society.
Odessa. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of New Russia.
Vol. 23, part I, 1899, and part 2, 1900 ; also
Mathematical Memoirs, vol. 19, part 2, 1899.
The Society.
Osnabruck.— Fourteenth Jahresbericht des Wissenschaftlichen
Vereins zu Osnabruck, 1901. The Society.
Ottawa. — Annual Report of the Geological Survey of
Canada. New series, vol. 11, and Maps.
General Index to the Survey Reports from
1863 to 1884. Also Canadian Birds, part i,
1900. The Director of the Survey.
Books Received. 15
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of
Sciences. Vol. 53, parts i and 2, 1901.
The Academy.
„ Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society. Vol. 11, Nos. 165 and 166, 1901 ; also
Memorial Volume, vol. i, 1900. The Society.
Pisa. — Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pro-
cessi Verbali. Vol. 12, March — July, 1901,
and vol. 13, November, 1901. The Society .
Portland, Maine. — Proceedings of the Portland Society of
Natural History. Vol. 2, part 5, 190T.
The Society.
Rochester, N.Y. — Proceedings of the Rochester Academy of
Science. Vol. 4, pp. 1—64, 1891.
The Academy.
Rome. — Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Vol. q,
semestre 2, fasc. 4 — 6, 1900 ; vol. 10, semcstre
I, lasc. 7, 8, 9, II, 12, 1901 ; semestre 2, fasc.
I — 10 and 12, 1901 ; vol. 11, semestre i, fasc.
I — 6, 1902 ; also Rendiconto dell' Adunanza
Solenne del, June 2, 1901. The Academy.
,, Bolletino della Societa Zoologica Italiana, series 2,
vol. 2, fasc. 1—6. 1 90 1. The Society.
,, Journal of the British and American Archaeological
Society of Rome, vol. 3, No. 3, 1901.
The Society.
San Francisco. — Proceedings of the California Academy of
Sciences, series 3, Geology, vol. i, No. 8, 1900,
and Zoology, vol. 2, Nos. 3 and 5, 1900.
The Academy.
St. Louis. — Twelfth Annual Report of the Missoura Botanical
Garden, 1901. The Director.
Stav ANGER. — Stavanger Museum Arsberetning for 1900.
The Museum Trustees.
Stettin. — Bericht der Gesellschaft fiir Volker-u, Erdkunde zu
Stettin, 1 90 1. 2 he Society.
1 6 Books Received.
Stirling. — Transactions of the Stirling Natural History Society,
for 1 900- 1 901. The Society.
Stockholm. — Handlingar of the Royal Swedish Academy, new-
series, vol. 33, 1900 ; vol. 34, 1 901. Bihang,
vol. 26, parts I — 4, 1901. Ofversigt, vol. 37,
1900, and Lefnadsteckningar, vol. 4, part i,
1899, and part 2, 1901. The Academy.
Sydney. — Science of Man (Journal of the Royal Anthropolo-
gical Society of Australasia), new series, vol. 4,
Nos. 2 — 12, I90i,and vol. 5, Nos. 1 and 2, 1902.
The Editor.
Tokyo. — Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur
und Volkerunde Ostasiens. Supplement, 1901.
The Society.
ToPEKA. — Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science.
Vol. 17, 1901 The Academy.
Toronto. — Transactions of the Canadian Institute. Vol. 7,
part I, No. 13, 1 901. I'he Institute.
Upsala. — Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the Uni-
versity of Upsala. Vol. 5, part i. No. 9, 1901.
The University.
Vienna. — Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Geo-
logischen Reichsanstalt. Nos. 4 — 18, iqoi,and
Nos. I and 2, 1902. The Society.
„ Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Koniglichen Zoo-
logisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Vol.
51, 1 901. The Society.
Washington. — Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the
Smithsonian Institution. Vol. i, 1900.
The Director.
„ Year-book of the United States Department
of Agriculture, 1900, and North American
Fauna, Nos. 20 and 21, 190T.
The Secretary 0/ the Department,
Books Received. 17
Washington, — Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, part I, 1898, and
Eighteenth Annual Report, parts i and 2, 1899.
The Director of the Bureau.
,, Twentieth Annual Report of the United States
Geological Survey, parts 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7, 1900,
and 3, 4, 6 and 6 continued, 1901. Also
Monographs, vols. 39 and 40, 1900, and volume
of Maps. Bulletin of the Survey, Nos. 163 —
176 ; and Preliminary Report on the Cape
Nome Gold Region, 1900. The Director.
„ American Monthly Microscopical Journal. Vol.
22, Nos. 1 — 7, 1 90 1. The Editor.
„ Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washing-
ton. Vol. 13, 1900, and pp. i — 178. 1900-
1901- The Society.
, Second Report of the United States Board on
Geographic Names, 1901 ; and Special Report
on Philippine Names, 1901. The Secretary.
„ Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, for
1898-99. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions: vols. 42 and 43, 1901. Annual Reports
of the United States Museum for 1897, 1898,
and 1899. Proceedings of the United States
National Museum, vol. 22, 190c ; and Bulletin,
No. 50, part I, 1 901.
The Smithsonian Institution.
Zurich. — Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
in Zurich, parts 3 and 4, 1901 ; also Neujahres-
blatt, 103 and 104, 1901 and 1902.
From Mr. R. Lloyd Patterson, D.L., F.L.S.— Journal of
the Linnean Society (Botany). Vol. 35, No.
243, 1901.
From Mr. F. B. Simms. — A bound volume of the Proceedings
of Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
Society, and seven unbound parts.
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSION, 1901-1902.
^oth December, 1901.
Mr. J. Brown, President, in the Chair.
THE BELFAST MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL
INSTITUTE : ITS AIMS AND ASPIRATIONS.
By F. C. Forth, Assoc. R.C.Sc.I.
{Abstract.)
In the course of his remarks, Mr. Forth stated that as early
as the year 1807 a meeting was held in Belfast for the
furtherance of instruction in Science and Technology. At a
more recent period, viz., in the year 1883, the Royal Commission
on Technical Education had held an enquiry in Belfast as to
the facilities provided for technical instruction. Extracts read
from the report of the Commissioners went to show that ihe
educational facilities provided in the city were at that period in
a very unsatisfactory state.
to
CO
Belfast Municipal Technical Institute : 1 0
The lecturer then reviewed the steps which had led up to the
recent revival of interest in technical instruction, beginning by
referring to the labours of the Recess Committee. He then
detailed the steps that had been taken for the development of
the Municipal Technical Institute scheme, and stated that the
classes recentl)' established had been largely availed of, and that
the numbers in attendance were well above the estimated
numbers.
Reference was then made to the imperfect accommodation
which is at present available for the majority of the classes, and
the proposals with regard to the new Technical Institute were
explained, the remarks being illustrated by reference to views
of the proposed new building, the views being projected on the
screen by means of the optical lantern. The perspective view
of the building is shown in fig. i, and the ground plan in fig. 2.
The dual character of the Institution was dwelt upon, the
explanation being given that there would be a Day Department
and an Evening Department. The functions of these
Departments were outlined, and explanations supplied as to
the training which would be imparted to the students in the
respective departments. Special emphasis was laid on the fact
that it was necessary to adapt the courses of study to the
industrial requirements of the City, care being taken that as
far as possible the instruction should be well balanced. It was
explained that students trained in this way would be fitted to
take up situations as foremen and managers, and to fill other
like positions of responsibility.
It was stated that the building is intended to be erected
on a site bordered by College Square North and College Square
East. Various details in regard to the areas of the building,
the style of architecture, the position of the entrance hall,
vestibule, corridors, classrooms, and the departmental accommo-
dation were then supplied.
Mr. Forth next proceeded to discuss the question of the
supply of suitably prepared students for the Institution, stating
20
Belfast Municipal Technical Institute :
'VIDUALS
30O
»1
»*J
*>
k
::>
k
k
to
Cj
Uj
k
5
INDIVIDUALS
^30.0
17
KEY
<i.
TOTAL
MEN ■
WOMEN
'7/y^7y-
13.
ALL COLUMMS MCASCfPeo
mOM rue BASC LINE .
2S0
Hif
.S^
n'^ '^ '-"^ 17 '8 /9 2021 Z2Z3242S2ti7U23303/32 333*
"AGES" D/AORAM."
VERHCAL SCALE =40 INOI\//DUALS f>£fi INCH.
Fig. 3-
Its Aims a}id Aspirations. 21
that these would have to come from the National Schools and
Secondary Schools. He drew attention to the inadequacy of
the training given in the Primary Schools, and offered the
opinion that some facilities should be provided for higher
primary instruction, suggesting that four or five schools might
be established in special districts of the City to deal with
children who had passed beyond the sixth standard of the
ordinary National School. He explained that scholorships
would be available, giving admission to the Day Department
of the Technical Institute, and stated that Free Studentships
admitting to the Evening Department were already in
operation.
Referring to the existing Evening Department he mentioned
that over ■ three thousand * tickets for evening courses of
instruction had been issued, and that over two thousand t
tickets had been issued for single lectures.
It was shown by means of a diagram (figure 3) that the
students were not of immature age, as was sometimes
imagined, but that the proportion of those eighteen years of
age and over, to those under eighteen years was as five is to
two.
He spoke of the fear that had been expressed that the
Technical Institute might prejudically affect some of the
existing institutions, and said that, in his opinion, this fear was
unfounded. He also deprecated the unnecessary duplication of
courses of study. He pointed out the economy resulting from
the co-ordination of institutions running on similar lines
instancing the various institutions which had been recently
merged in the Technical Instruction Scheme. The lecturer
stated that his main fear was not that overlapping would take '
place, but that the chief difficulty would be found in filling up
the hiatuses in the present education system. By means of a
* Now (April 1902) over 4,000.
■f Now (April 1902) over 4.500.
22
Belfast Municipal Technical Institute .
f'.
TICESHIP
J
EVENING SCHOOLS fOR SCIENCE ART
COMMERCIAL AMD TECHNICAL SUBJECTS
CONDUCTED «YTHS TECHNICAl. INSTRUCTION COMMITIEC
16 YEARS AMO UPWARDS
— t ~"
EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS
12 TO 16 YEARS
^
ELEMENTARY DAY SCHOOLS
6 TO 14 YEARS
DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE
CORRELATION or EDUCATION
Fig. 4.
Its Aims and Aspirations. 23
diagram (fig. 4) projected on the screen, he then illustrated an
educational programme showing a direct connection between
the Primary Schools and the Municipal Technical Institute and
the University.
Mr. R. H. S. Reade proposed a hearty vote of thanks to Mr.
Forth for his very able lecture. Although Belfast had been
slow to assimilate the idea of the necessity of technical in-
struction, he thought from what they had heard that they
might be satisfied that it had embarked on the course in a
right spirit, and that the work would be done properly under
the guidance of Mr. Forth. He had proved that evening that
he had grasped the whole subject of education, and showed
them that technical education was only a part of the great
system of education in the country, which ought to be co-
ordinated, and that technical instruction should form an
outgrowth from it. He had brought under their survey the
whole system of education, which he (Mr. Reade) believed was
bound to be taken up and re-organised if they were to hold
their place with the other nations of the world.
Professor FitzGerald, in seconding the motion, thought the
Technical Instruction Committee was to be congratulated upon
the vanishing cf a large amount of obstruction which at one
time existed in the city — and he thought in the Corporation—
to counting many of those subjects as technical at all. It was
supposed then that technical instruction must necessarily be
confined absolutely to trade instruction, without teaching
anything in the matter of scientific subjects. With regard to
Mr. Forth's remarks in regard to primary schools, he did not
know what powers the Corporation possessed as to constituting
themselves managers under the National Board of any model
schools which might be established in the city. But now that
the Corporation had made a start in the matter of technical
education, after a delay of seventeen years, they would have to
do more. He had long ago advocated the establishment of a
system of evening continuation schools by the Corporation, and
24 Belfast Mnnicipal Technical Institute :
was glad to find that it seemed likely that what would be, in
effect, such a system, was now under consideration.
Sir James Henderson endorsed all that had been said by Mr.
Forth, who, he thought, had hit the weak spot in our
educational system. Something was required between the
national school and the higher educational establishments
in the future. With regard to the Technical School in
Belfast, the large sum of ;^85,ooo would be necessary
to put the building into the from which had been so
admirably described by Mr. Forth, therefore the Committee
were compelled to ask the ratepayers for id in the £\, which
would bring them ^^5,000. At the present time this sum,
together with the ;^io,ooo which they were receiving from the
Department of Technical Instruction in Dublin, was the annual
amount available for technical education in Belfast. The
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society was deserving
of the highest praise for allowing them the privilege of hearing
that lecture, which would be of great assistance in spreading
technical instruction in Belfast.
Sir Olto Jaffe considered that at an early period they would
see a fair amount of progress in Belfast as a result of their
efforts. The Corporation in selecting Mr. Forth as the
principal of the new school had got one of the best officers they
could have obtained for this department.
Dr. M'Keown said in the matter of primary education he
saw little hope of any great improvement so long as they had
such a Board of National Education as existed at the present
in Dublin. It was his firm conviction that until the people
took the control of education into their own hands it would never
be right. They wanted in a city like Belfast a board representing
the people for the purpose of regulating this primary education.
Now, many of the schools from a sanitary point were unfit for
occupation by children. He believed that the time would
come when the Corporation would have to build schools of
their own, and not allow them to be appendages to any Church
whatever. A teacher in a primary school was an important
Its /!ms nnd Aspirations. 25
individual, and until his position was elevated and he was
removed from being the slave of the manager, matters never
would be right. Although teachers are paid by the State,
many of them were slaves to the managers, which should not
be the case. They wanted a proper guiding liand to undertake
the co-ordination of primary, secondary, and university
education. Coming to the matter of technical education, it
was well to point out that at the present time there was a
Commission of Inquiry sitting in this country inquiring into
technical education, and it was a very extraordinary body.
The Irish members of that Commission, who sat recently in
Dublin, and took evidence on technical education, were
excellent men in their own way, but there was not one
of them who was fit to deal with technical education, and only
one known to have had a scientific education. That solitary
individual was a pathologist, not likely to have much knowledge
of trade and industry. He would not like to say much about
their finding on technical education, but he did know a
remarkable fact, that two gentlemen who could have given
valuable evidence, and who tendered it, had not yet been
examined. It was to be hoped their evidence would be taken
at a later sitting.
Mr. William Gray, was of the opinion that the prospects
were exceedingly encouraging, judging by the number of
pupils who were coming forward, and they trusted that the
anticipations of Mr. Forth would be fully realised. The time
had come when they ought to take some positive steps in
Belfast to improve the primary education of the rising
generation.
Dr. MacCormac held that teaching results would accrue
mentally to those attending the continuation schools.
The Chairman then put the motion, which was passed by
acclamation.
r:
26
6/// January^ 1902.
Professor Redfekn, M.D., F.R.C.S.I., in the Chair.
RESPIRATION.
By Joseph BARCKor^T, M.A.
{Absiract.)
Mr. Barcroft said that on a previous occasion he had the
pleasure of addressing the Belfast Natural History and
Philosophical Society upon a subject which, among physical
phenomena, has always been of peculiar interest to himself —
namely, " The Properties of Liquid Surfaces." The interest of
such a subject as that seemed, however, to fade before the
fascination possessed by even the simplest process of living
matter. There is a subtlety about the secret of life, an
uncertainty as to whether the chemical changes which take
place in living matter are governed by the laws which are
enunciated in the laboratory that make the study of the
functions of living matter especially alluring.
On occasions the physical and chemical properties of living
matter seem to be exactly the opposite of those displayed by
that which is inanimate. He would take two examples.
There could be no greater travesty of their ordinary ideas than
that water should flow upwards, yet when they got into the
domain of life they saw trees one hundred, two hundred feet
high, and in the fine tubes composing the wood of those trees
they knew that the sap is continually ascending.
Drawing attention to the burning of a match, the lecturer
proceeded to say that the wood was decomposing with evolution
Respiration. 27
of heat, and the soHd material was being oxidised and dissipated
into the air as aqueous vapour and carbonic acid gas ; but could
they, he asked, reverse the process, and, by supplying the
necessary heat, make wood out of carbonic gas and water ?
That would be like expecting water to flow up a hill, for the
laboratory rule is that chemical changes are such as to produce
heat and do not take place in the opposite direction. Yet this
is exactly how the wood has been made ; the tree has silently
absorbed these very substances and built them up into wood.
Of the ordinary functions which living bodies perform, the
one which is most nearly understood is respiration, and therefore
he had chosen it for the subject of that night's lecture.
Respiration in its most superficial sense means the breathing in
of pure air, and the exhalation of impure air. But they might
give a larger meaning to the word. He had alluded to a
burning match, and said that the wood of this match was being
oxidised by oxygen drawn from the air, that it emitted heat,
and that the substance got dissipated. The same process, he
pointed out, is taking place continually in every part of the
human body. When he moved his finger some oxygen was
used up and some carbonic acid gas and water were parted with ;
the oxygen was breathed in by the lungs, the carbonic acid and
water would in due time be breathed out by them. The
problem was to investigate the processes by which the oxygen
of the inspired air is carried to the hidden recesses of the body,
and those by which the carbonic acid is carried from the tissues
to be cast out into the air of the lung.
They would observe on the screen a slide representing
human blood ; it was made up of numerous corpuscles which
float in a clear fluid. Each of these corpuscles is a sort of
submarine boat plying between the lungs and the tissues, and,
at every journey it takes in a cargo of oxygen at the lungs,
which it unloads on reaching the small blood vessels of a
nmscle or other tissue. The corpuscle is composed largely of a
red material — haemoglobin — to which the colour of the blood
is tiue. This red material has the power of absorbing oxygen
(.
28 Respiration.
when exposed to the atmosphere. There are other substances
such as pyrogaUic acid which do the same, but the red substance
of the blood differs from pyrogallic acid in the fact that when it
is exposed to an atmosphere devoid of oxygen it disgorges all
the oxygen which it has previously absorbed.
The lung is an apparatus for exposing an immense surface of
blood to the air. While thus exposed each corpuscle takes up
its cargo of oxygen, and then gets propelled with extreme
rapidity in the blood stream to some indigent muscle or nerve
which has used up all the oxygen that it possesses. Here, not
being surrounded by oxygen, the corpuscle gives up its store of
that gas just as a wet sponge-rag would yield up its store of
water when removed from a damp to a dry atmosphere.
It was formerly a matter of great labour, involving the use
of large quantities of blood, to demonstrate the relative amounts
of oxygen in blood going to and comiing from the lungs, but
recent researches had made it so simple that he could easily
show them how much oxygen the blood loses at its ports of
call.
He had compared the colourless fluid portion of the blood
to a waterway, and he could press the comparison a stage
further. The clear fluid part is more than a medium for carry-
ing the corpuscles — it serves to flush out every piece of muscle
and nerve and bone. Each of these accumlates its little store
of carbonic acid as it does its work, but this gas si exceedingly
soluble in water, and so as fast as it is produced it gets caught
up in the colourless part of the blood and carried to the lungs.
A pint of water would absorb about a pint of carbonic acid
gas. If the solution be shaken up with air the water would
lose carbonic acid till both the air and the water contained the
same percentage of the carbonic acid. He had almost said
that that was an illustration of how the blood lost its carbonic
acid in the lung ; that an immense surface of blood was con-
tinually circulating through the lung separated only by the
thinnest of membranes from the air in that organ ; that it
tended always to share its carbonic acid equally with the air,
Respiration. 29
but that, as the air was always changing, it never had time to
obtain as much carbonic acid as the blood would give up, and
so a continual stream of carbonic acid passed from the blood
to the air in the lung.
But he must pause, for whilst many distinguished physio-
logists would endorse such a statement, there were others who
considered that they were confronted at that point with a
paradox of life such as he had already mentioned; that in the
ordinary way after the blood has given up its quotum of
carbonic acid the living wall of the lung exerts an influence on
the blood which no dead membrane could exert, and makes the
blood concede yet further stores of carbonic acid to the air,
thus enormously increasing the efficiency of the respiratory
apparatus. The point is one of great interest to physiologists,
and it is one on which much careful work has been done.
While the matter remains unsettled it would ill befit him to
express an opinion upon il, in view of the fact that some of the
most recent and telling researches on the subject have been
those of Dr. John Haldane and Professor Lorrain Smith in
the laboratory of Queen's College, Belfast.
Professor Lorrain Smith said their Secretary had asked him
to move a vote of thanks to Mr. Barcroft for his interesting
lecture, but he would preface his remarks by a promise to and
no more details to the many facts Mr. Barcroft had put before
them. He himself had followed the lecture with the greatest
interest, and he was sure this had also been done by everyone
present. As one whose duty it was to lecture and experiment
at the same time, Mr. Barcroft had managed to get through a
subject which was perplexity itself with wonderful rapidity.
The success with which he had carried out the experiments at
the end of the bench, where he had been engaged analysing
the blood from oxygen, was remarkable. It was not so very
long ago since it took a large part of a day to carry out an
experiment of that sort, but Mr. Barcroft had shown them that
night that this observation can now be carried out with the
30 Respiration.
simplest possible apparatus with perfect accuracy and great
rapidity. The method was new, and the easy way in which it
could be carried out gave rise to great hopes in the medical
profession that they would be able to apply this method to the
human body both in health and disease. He had great
pleasure in moving that vote of thanks to Mr. Barcroft for his
lecture.
Professor Thompson, in seconding the motion, said Mr.
Barcroft had handled an exceedingly difficult subject with
great skill. He came to Belfast with the reputation of being
a neat and skilful experimenter, and he had very successfully
maintained that reputation. He had indeed a very difficult
subject to make clear to them, but he had managed to make
clear to everybody in the room what the essential features o^
respiration are. He (Professor Thompson) had great pleasure
in seconding the motion.
The Chairman, in putting the motion to the meeting
said they had come there that night to learn something of
respiration, and they had not been told what sort of process it
was, but they had been made to see it. Every step of the
process had been shown them most successfully, and not one
tittle of the experimental truth had in any degree failed. As
they came there that night to learn something of respiration,
he would advise them when they went to their respective
homes to take a sheet of paper and jot down the particulars of
the facts shown them, and in that way they would remember,
have before them, an account of respiration such as, he
ventured to say, they had never had before, and were not
likely to get again for a long time. The various demonstrations
had been most admirable, complete, and perfect. It was rarely
indeed they found when a series of experiments had to be
performed that some little thing did not go wrong, but
nothing of the sort had happened that night from start to
finish. He trusted that in the study of physiology, which is
becoming an experimental science for the purpose of the
investigation of the process of life, Mr. Barcroft would not only
Respiration. 31
have a happy year, but that he would continue a great number
of years to teach as he had taught them that evening.
The resolution was heartily passed.
Mr. Barcroft, in acknowledging the compliment, said he
wished to thank the mover and seconder of the motion for
their kind words, and the members of the audience for the
patient way in which they had listened to that subject, which,
as Professor Lorrain Smith had stated, was complicated. He
also thanked Professor Thompson for having put his laboratory
at his disposal for the purpose of having the experiments
prepared.
32
a^th February^ 1902.
Mr. J. Brown, President, in the Chair.
NOTES ON LOCAL SURVIVALS OF ANCIENT
HARVEST CUSTOMS.
By John M'Kkan.
The Hare, Churn or Collya.
This Harvest custom is widely spread over the North-East
corner of Ireland. When the corn is being cut the last handful is
plaited up as shown in this specimen. Then the harvesters all
gather round and proceed as follows : —
They either stand about 9 feet off and throw their sickles in
turn at it until it is cut down, or each is blindfolded in turn,
advances towards it, and has one cut at it with a scythe till it
is mown down. Or again, each pulls up a root in turn till all
the roots are pulled up.
Two other modes, obviously degenerate forms are to cut it
with the scythe or the machine without any ceremony.
In those cases where the ceremony still survives, the
harvester who cuts the ears or the harvester who pulls the last
root is honoured in different ways. Generally he gets the first
drink at the harvest-home, which is everywhere called the
'' churn." Near Glenarm, he or she hangs the " hare," as it is
there called, over the doorway and has a right to kiss the first
person of the opposite sex who enters. In one part of Armagh
Local Survivals of Ancient Harvest Customs, 33
the reaper's hand is crossed with silver. Near Keady, in days
gone by, the successful person led the " churn " or harvest
dance.
The " churn " is kept for the whole year or even longer
where the custom still lingers strongly. This specimen is one
of three got at one farm, but more usually the custom has
decayed and the churn is kept only for a short time. In one
place the " churn " is said to guard one's store, but as a rule the
country folk give no reason for the custom except sometimes a
vague idea that it is lucky.
The three names which I have given are not all used
together. The name "churn" is by far the commonest, the
name " hare" I have found only in the glens, the name "collya "
only in Armagh. It is worth noticing that the name " churn "
is applied to the harvest-home even in places where the queue
of oats has a different name.
I have found the custom both in the extreme north and
south of Antrim, in Down about Newtownards and perhaps
near Newcastle, and in north Armagh. In fact I have found it
everywhere where I have been able to search for it. I have
also heard vague accounts of such a custom in Tyrone but the
accounts are not accurate enough to mention.
The " churn " should be compared with customs like the
English " Kernababy," and the Scotch kern-maiden, and a host
of other examples given in Mr. J. G. Frazer's " Golden Bough."
The same authority, vol. ii, p. 269 (second edition), mentions
exactly the same custom in Ayrshire and Galloway where the
plait is called the Hare.
34
THE NORTHERN BLACKWATER : ITS SCENERY,
ANTIQUITIES AND BATTLEFIELDS.
By John J. Marshall.
{Abstract.)
AIr. Marshall introduced his subject by stating thai in the
history of all countries rivers had ever played an important
part, whether as waterways to bear the argosies of commerce
upon their breast or as the fitting theatre of events exercising
a decisive influence on the nation's future. The rivers of
Europe recalled to memory many historic scenes enacted on
their banks, and to Ulstermen the Blackwater was ever associ-
ated with the memories of the brave O'Neills, and in later
years with Charlemont and Grattan. Though the stately
ruins of no cloistered abbey were reflected in Blackwater's
wave, yet sacred legends and hallowed associations were con-
nected with the stream from the dawn of Christianit}' in Erin,
while earlier still the cairn on the summit of Knockmany,
overlooking the fort of Rathmore, carried them back to Ireland's
heroic age. Rathmore, in Magh-Lemna, as it was usually
called, to distinguish it from the Rathmore in County Antrim,
was the great fort situated in the Palace grounds at Clogher,
and, according to the annalist, was dug by " Baine, daughter
of Seal," the date being early in the second century. The
lady was buried on the summit of the adjoining hill of
Knockmany; hence its name. There was also in this district
the remains of Aughentaine, another interesting Plantation
castle, noteworthy as the birthplace of William Montgomery,
author of the Montgomery MSS. The next important place
on the river was the town of Aughnacloy, founded by the
Moore family. Here Wolfe Tone passed a night on his way as
a prisoner from Derry to Dublin in 1798. Tynan, so long
associated with the name of Dr. Reeves and also famous for its
Northern Blackivater : Its Scenery^ Antiquities, Battlefields. 35
stone crosses, next claimed attention, as well as Tynan Abbey,
the picturesque residence of Sir James H. Stronge ; while on
the opposite bank of the river stood Caledon, with its memories
of Sir Phelim O'Neill and the days of 1 641, with many a
stirring tradition of fight and foray in still earlier times, when
it was a residence of the O'Neills. Continuing down the river,
the Battleford Bridge was reached. It was here that in 1646
the Scots' army, under Munro, was defeated by Owen
Roe O'Neill, and driven with great slaughter across the
Blackwater. One of the most important places in Ulster
during the latter part of Queen Elizabeth's reign was
Porlmore, or the Fort of Blackwater, erected as a curb on
the power and independence of O'Neill. It was taken
and retaken several times, and it was in order to effect its relief
that the celebrated battle of the Yellow Ford was fought in
1598, in which the English army suffered a crushing defeat at
the hands of O'Neill and Red Hugh O'Donnell. It was finally
allowed to fall into decay when Charlemont was erected by
Lord Deputy Mountjoy, the modern castellator of Ulster, in
what he considered to be a more suitable place. From
Charlemont onward the river flowed through fertile pasture
lands unmarked by any object of interest until it discharged its
waters into Lough Neagh, some seven miles farther down, at
the village of Maghery. At this point the river divided into
two branches, forming a delta known as Derrywarrgh Island.
On this island, if so it might be termed, there stood a chimney
and part of a gable, being the only remaining portions of the
Fort of Blackwater at the river foot, which was planted there
during the rebellion of 164 1 as a check on the garrison of
Charlemont.
The lecture was illustrated with upwards of seventy limelight
views, specially taken by Mr. Marshall, and shown by Mr.
M'Gibney, of Messsrs. Lizars.
A hearty vote of thanks to the lecturer brought the meeting
to a close.
36
Ith Marchy 1902.
Sir R. J. M'CoNNELL, Bart., in the Chair.
THE IRISH INDUSTRIAL AWAKENING.
By Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.I. A.
A POPULAR lecture, illustrated by Lantern views ; the proceeds
were devoted to the reduction of debt of the Causeway Defence
Committee.
%th April.
Mr. J. Brown, President, in the Chair.
REPORT OF DELEGATE TO CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES' CONFERENCE, BRITISH
ASSOCIATION MEETING, 1901.
By J. Brown.
As your delegate I attended both meetings of the Corresponding
Societies' Conference, and now beg to offer a very brief report
referring merely to the chief points brought forward, and
leaving the further elucidation of even these to be looked for
in the full report issued by the Association. At the first
meeting, Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., presided, and m his
Report of Delegate^ ^c. 37
address dealt chiefly with the importance of the Registration of
Type Specimens in Local Museums in order that reference to
such specimens might be readily attainable by those interested
in the particular domain of science to which they belonged.
After a long discussion, the Chairman called on the
Rev. J. O. Bevan to open the subject accepted of him by the
Corresponding Societies' Committee for discussion at this
Conference: — ''That the Committees of the Corresponding
Societies be invited to lay before their members the necessity
of carrying on a systematic survey of their counties in respect
to ethnology, ethnography, botany, meteorology, ornithology,
archaeology, folklore, etc."
The discussion resulted in the appointment of a small
Committee, whose report, as follows, was adopted at the second
Conference.
" The following provisional list of subjects, together with the
names of some of the Societies which have already done work
in connection therewith, and the names of persons who would
be willing to receive communications thereon is recommended
by the Conference of Delegates for adoption by the Correspond-
ing Societies' Committee of the British Association, and to be
issued by them lo the Correspondmg Societies in the hope that
those Societies not already engaged in similar work may take
part in so much ot it as comes within their scope, in order
that the work may be extended over a wide area, and be done
as far as possible upon a uniform system.
"Registration of Type Specimens," Dr. A. Smith Woodward.
" Coast Erosion," Mr. W. Whitaker.
" Record of Bore Holes, Wells, and Sections," North of
England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, and
Prof. J. H. Merivale.
" Tracing the Course of Underground Water," Yorkshire
Geological and Polytechnic Society, and Mr. A. R. Dwerry-
house.
"Erratic Blocks," Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, and Pro-
fessor P. F. Kendall.
38 Report of Delegate^ &c.
" Geological Photographs," Belfast Naturalists' Field Club,
and Professor W. W. Watts.
" Underground Fauna," Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.
" Variations in the Course of Rivers and Shape of Lakes,''
Dr. H. R. Mill.
'' Archaeological Survey by Counties " Woolhope Field Club,
and Rev. J. O. Bevan.
" Ethnographical Survey," Anthropological Institute.
*' Botanical Survey by Counties," Mr. W. G. Smith.
" Photographic Record of Plants," Mr. A. K. Coomra-
Swamy.
Professor H. M'Leod, on behalf of Section B, said they had
nominated a Committee to register the Scientific Chemists who
are at work in Manufactories, and would be glad of assistance
in finding out the names of such persons.
Section C (geology) again asks for Geological Photographs
and information regarding erratic blocks.
Section H (Anthropology) wants records of the survival of
primitive customs, industries, appliances, etc.
Section K (Botany) would be glad to receive specimens of
blue-green algae of various conditions for examination, also
photographs of bctanical interest.
THE MOURNE SCHEME FOR THE SUPPLY OF
WATER TO THE CTfY OF BELFAST.
By John L. Macassey, C.E.
i^atural Itstorg & pijilosapljical Soctetg.
Officers and Council of Management for 1 902-1 903.
■g'resibenf :
JOHN BROWN, F.R.S
"§)ice-"^rcsi6cnfs :
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.u., ll.d. i WM. SWANSTON, f g.s.
R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l., f.l.s. | ROBERT YOUNG, c.e., j p.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
JOHN H. DAVIES.
^on. gecrciarp :
ROBERT M. YOUNG, b.a., j.p., m.r.i a.
Council :
JOHN BROWN, F.R.S.
JOHN H. DAVIES.
PROFESSOR M. F. FITZGERALD, b.a., m.i.m.e.
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d., pkesidknt g.c.b.
JOHN HORNER, m.i.m.e.
SIR OTTO JAFFE, or.p.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN, m.r.i.a.. f.k.s.a.
SIR R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l., j.p., f.l.s.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
THOMAS F. SHILLINGTON, j.p.
WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
JOSEPH WRIGHT, f.g.s.
ROBERT YOUNG, j.p., c.e.
R. M. YOUNG, B.A., J.P., M.R.I.A.
ROBERT PATTERSON, f.z.s., m.b.o.v.
SHAREHOLDERS.
[* Denotes holders of three or more Shares~\.
*Alexander Francis, b.e,, Belfast
Allvvorthy, Edward, Ardgreenan, Cavehill Road, do.
♦Anderson, John, j.p., f.g.s., East Hillbrook, Holy wood
Andrew, John J. l.d.s., r.c.s. Eng., University Square, Belfast
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong, Thomas, jun., Donegall Square West, do.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, do.
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, do.
Barbour, James, J.p., Ardville, Marino, Holywood
Beattie, Rev. A. H. Hamilton, Portglenone
Bigger, Francis, J., m.r.i.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast
Bland, Robert H., j.p., Lisburn
Bottomley, Henry H., Belfast
Bowman, Davys, Upper Arthur Street, do.
Boyd, William, Great Victoria Street, do.
Boyd, William Sinclair, Ravenscroft, Bloomfield, do.
Braddell, Edward, Wilmington Square, Eastbourne
Brett, Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, Belfast
Brett, John H., C.E., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Bristow, James R., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.
Brown, John, Longhurst, Dunmurry
Brown, William K. (Representatives of), Belfast
Bulloch, Alexander, Eversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burnett, John R., Elmwood Avenue, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., m.a., m.d.. Lower Crescent, do.
Calwell, Alex. M'D., do.
Calwell William, m.a., m.d.. College Square North, do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
CarHsle, A. M., Elmwood House, do.
Shareholders.
4'
Carr, A. H. R.. Warinpr Street, Belfast
Carson, John, Walmer Terrace, Holywood
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor
Christen, Madame Rodolphe, Carnbinn, Whitehouse
Clark, George S., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., Netting Hill, do.
Coates, Victor, j.p., d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p., Queen's Elms, Belfast
Combe, George, Cranethorpe, Strandtown
Crawford, William, Mount Randal, Belfast
Crawford, William, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown
Cunningham, Professor Robert O., m.d., f.l.s.,
F.G.S., Montpellier, Malone Road, Belfast
Davies, John H., Parkmount, Lisburn
*Deramore. Lord, d.l. (Representatives of)
Dods, Robert, b.a., St. Leonards, Newcastle
•Donegal, Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast
*D()wnshire, Marquis of (Reps, of), The Castle, Hillsborough
Drennan, W. H., Wellington Place, Belfast
Duflfin, Adam, ll.d., Dunowen, Cliftonville do.
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park
(Representatives of).
Ballywalter
Belfast
Lisburn
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road,
Ewart, Fred W., Derryvolgie,
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., m.a., j.p., d.l., Glen-
machan House, Belfast
Faren, Wm., Mountcharles, do.
*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
Ferguson, Godfrey W., c.e., Donegall Park, Belfast
Finlay, Fred W., j.p. Wolfhill House, Lio-oniel
Finlay, Robert H. F., Cavehill Road, Belfast
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc, Kelvin House, Botanic
Avenue, Belfast
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., b.a., m.lm.fj., Assoc.
M.I.C.E., Eglantine Avenue, do.
42
Shareholders.
Foster, Nevin Harkness, Hillsborough. Co. Down
*Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), Belfast
Gibson, Andrew, f.r.s.a.i., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, Catherine, Mountplcasant, do.
Gordon, Robert W., j.p. (Representatives of), Bangor
Graham, Thomas, j.p., Holywood
*Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d.,m.r.i.a.
(Representatives of; Broughshane
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Cavehill Road, Belfast
Greer, Thomas, j.p., m.r.i.a., Seapark, Carrickfergus
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton. Rev. Thos., d.d.. President, Queen's College, Belfast
*Hamilton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of),
Harland, W.,
Henderson, Miss Anna S., (Representatives of),
Henderson, Sir James, a.m., j.p., d.l., Oakley, Windsor
Park,
Henderson, Mrs. Charlotte (Reps, of) Clarges Street,
Henry, R. M., m.a.,
Herdman, John, j.p., d.l , Carricklee House,
*Herdman Robert Ernest, j.p., Rosavo,
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House,
Hind, John, junr., Clifton Park Avenue,
Hodges, Miss
Hogg, John, Academy Street,
Horner, John, m.i.m.e., Chelsea, Antrim Road,
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.l., Orangcfield,
*Hughes, Edwin, j.p., Dalchoolin,
Hyndman, Hugh, l.l.d., Windsor
do.
do.
do.
do.
London
Belfast
Strabane
C ultra
Belfast
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Craigavad
Belfast
Inglis, James, j.p., Abbeyville,
Whiteabbey
Jackson, A. T., c.e., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgie
Avenue, Belfast
Jaffe, Sir Otto, j.p., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey
Shareholders.
43
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Dalgaise, Monkstown, Dublin
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, Belfast
Kidd, George, j.p., Lisnatore, Dunmurry
*Kinghan, John R.. Altoona, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Kinnaird, George Y., Malone Park, do.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, Mrs., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Larmor, Joseph, m.a., Sec. r.s., St. John's College, Cambridge
Leathem, Dr. R. R., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecumbe,
Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down
Letts. Professor E. A., PH.D., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra
Lindsay, Professor James A., m.a., m.d., College Square
East, Belfast
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House, do.
Lytle, Joseph H., j.p., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.l., m.i.c.e., Stanley House,
Holywood
Mackenzie, John, c.e., Strathavon, Lisburn Road,
*Macrory, A. J., (Representative of),
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonville,
Malcom, Bowman, m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim Road^
Maxton, James, m.i.n.a., m.i.mar.e., Kirkliston Drive,
Bloomfield,
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens,
Mayes, William, 5 Mount Pleasant,
Milligan, Seaton Forest, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.,
Mitchell, Robert A., ll.b., t.c.d., Marmont,
Montgomery, Henry C,
Montgomery, H. H., Strandtown,
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.l., Ballydrain House, Dunmurry
Moore, James, The Finaghy, Belfast
Belfast
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Bangor
Strandtown
Bangor
Belfast
44
Shareholders.
Morton, Professor, m.a., Nottinghill, Belfast
Mullen, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park do.
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p., Tudor House, Holywood
*Murphy, Isaac James, Armagh
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone do.
*Musgrave, Henry, Drumglass, Malone, do.
Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., d.l., j.p., Drumglass, Malone, do.
MacAdam, Robert (Representatives of) do.
M'Bride, Henry James, Hyde Park, Mallusk, do.
M'Bride, Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
*M'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London
*,VI'Cammon, Lieut. -Col. Thomas A. (Representatives
of) Woodville, Holywood
M'Cance, Miss Charlotte Gcorgianna, Larkfield, Dunmurry
M'Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart, j.p., d.l. (Representatives
of)
MacColl, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, Belfast
MacCoimac, John, m.d., Victoria Place, do.
M'Cormick, Hugh M'Neile, Cultra House, Holywood
*M'Cracken, Francis (Representatives of)
M'Gee, James, Woodville, Holywood
M'Gee, Samuel Mackey, University Street, Belfast
Macllwaine, John H., Mornington Park, Bangor
M'Kisack, H. L., m.d.. College Square East, Belfast
M 'Knight, John P., Nevara, Chichester Park, do.
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p., Queen's Elms do.
M'Neill, George, Beechleigh, Malone Road, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Holywood
Nicholson, Henry J., College Square North Belfast
O'Neill, James, m.a., College Square East do.
O'Rorke, Ambrose Howard (Representatives of)
Dunratho Craigavad
Orr, Hugh L., Woodstock Road, Belfast
Park, Rev. Wm., m.a., Somerset House, University St., Belfast
Shareholders. 45
Patterson, Edward Ferrar, Bangor
Patterson, Mrs. Isabella, Bonn, Germany
Patterson, John, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Patterson, Richard, j.p., Kilmore, Holy wood
*Patterson, Robert Lloyd, j.p., d.l., f.ls.. Croft House, do.
Patterson, Robert, m.r.i a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u., Malone Park, Belfast
Patterson, William H., m.r.i. a., Garranard, Strandtown
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Knock, Belfast
Pirn, Edward W., j.p., Elmwood Terrace, do
Pim, Joshua, Slieve-na-Failthe, Whiteabbey
*Pirrie, Elizabeth, Newcastle-on-Tyne
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.e., m.r.i. a., National I-ibrary, Dublin
Purser, Prof. John, ll.d., m.r.i.a., Rathmines Castle, do.
Rea, John Henry, m.d., University Street, Belfast
Rea, William R,, Gardha, Fnrtwilliam Park, do.
Reade, Robert H. S , j.p., d.l., Wilmont, Dunmurry
Riddell, Samuel, Beechpark, Belfast
Robertson, William, j.p., Netherleigh, Strandtown do.
Robinson, John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc, Royal Academical
Institution, do.
Shillington, Thos. Foulkes, j.p., Droinart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, Felix Booth, Queen Street, do.
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a., j.p., d.l., Hopefield, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, m.d., f.r c.s. Eng., Howard St., do.
Smith, John, Castleton Terrace, do.
Smyth, John, m.a., c.e., Milltown, Banbridge
Speers, Adam, b.sc, Riversdale, Holywood
Steen, William C, m.d., Windsor Crescent, Belfast
Stcen, William, b.l.. Northern Bank, Victoria Street, do.
Stelfox, James, Oakleigh, Ormeau Park, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
*Tennent, Robert (Representative of), Rushpark. do.
46 Shareholders.
*Tennent, Robert James (Reorescntatives of), Rush-
park, Belfast
Thompson, S. B., Short Strand, do.
Torrens, Mrs. Sarah H. (Representatives of), Whiteabbey
*Turnley, John (Representatives of), Belfast
Walkington, Miss Jane A., Wolsley Villas, Malone Park, do.
Walkington, Thomas R., Edeiivale, Strandtown, do.
Wallace, John, Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Ward, Francis D., j.p., m.r.i.a., Ivydene, Malone Park, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, j.p., f.s.a., Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard T., Knock, do.
Whitla, Prof., Sir William, m.d., j.p., College Sq., North, do.
Wilson, James, m.e., Oldforge, Dunmurry
Wilson, John K., j.p., Donegall Street, Belfast
Wilson, Walter H., Belvoir Park, do.
*Wilson, W. Perceval, do.
*WolfT, G. W., M.P., The Den, Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, Drummena, Bladon Park, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, ma., Rubane House, Glastry
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., b.d., The Manse, Newtownbreda
♦Workman, Thomas, j.p. (Representatives of), Craig-
darragh, Craigavad
Workman, William, Nottinghill, Belfast
Wright, James Lauriston (Representatives of), Derry-
volgie Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, F.G.S., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, c.e., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
Annual Subscribers.
47
HONORARY ASSOCIATES.
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Belfast
Stewart, Samuel Alex., f.b.s. Edin., Belfast Museum, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd.,
Northern Banking Co., Ltd.,
Ulster Bank, Ltd.,
York Street Spinning Company, Ltd.,
Belfast
do.
do.
do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.
Allan, C. E. Stormont Castle, Dundonald
Boyd, John, Cyprus Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast
Brown, G. Herbert, j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Cleaver, A. S., b.a., Dunraven, do.
Davidson, S. C, Sea Court, Bangor
Fulton, G. F., Howard Street, Belfast
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace, do.
Green, Isaac, Ann Street, do.
Hanna, J. A., j.p.. Marietta, Knock, do.
48 Annual Suhscrihers.
Hazelton, W. D., Cliftonville, Belfast
Higginbotham, Granby, Wellington Park do.
Hutton, A. W., Chichester Street, do.
Jones, R. M., m.a., Royal Academical Institution, do.
Lynn, William H., Crumlin Terrace, do.
Macassey, Lyndon, c.E., b.a., ll.b., Holywood
Malone, John, Brookvale House, Cliftonville, Belfast
M'Laughlin, W. H., Brnokville House, do.
Redfern, Prof. Peter, m.d., f.r.c.s.l, Lower Crescent, do.
Scott, Conway, c.E., Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
Stephens, S., Holywood
Storrar, W. Morrison, l.r.c.p., Mountcharles, Belfast
Swiney, J. H. H., b.a., b.e., Bella Vista, Antrim Road, do.
Tate, Alexander, c.e., Rantalard, Whitehouse, do.
Thompson, John, j.p., Mount Collyer, do.
Turpin, James, Waring Street, do.
c|l0rt Mil lr0r^^^injgs
BBLF^^ST
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSIOnsr 1902-1903.
BELB^AST :
PRINTED BY ALEXR. MAYNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STREET
(printers to quekn's college.)
1903.
CONTENTS.
Annual Report
Balance Sheet
Donations to Musaum ...
Books Eeceived
The Liquefaction of Gases — J. Brown, F.R.S.
Recent Fishery Research — Professor Gregg Wilson, .D.Sc
Evidence of the Caves — R. J. Ussher, J. P.
Heredity in its Relation to the Nervous System — John M. MacCormac
M.D., L.R.C.P. &S. Edin. ...
The Micro-Fauna of the Boulder Clay— Joseph Wright, F.G.S.
Notes on Some Igneous Rocks in Down and Antrim — Miss Mary K
Andrews ...
Note on Some Experiments on Irish Stone for Street Paving — H. Gullan
The Armada Wrecks on the Irish Coast — Rev. W. S. Green, M.A.
Note on Some Effects of the Cyclone of February 27 — R. Welch
A Lost Principle in Art — George Coffey, M.A., M.R.I. A.
List of Office Bearers ...
List of Shareholders
1
8
9
12
21
30
35
41
47
51
57
59
63
64
68
69
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
EST-A-BLISHEID 1821.
CONSTITUTION.
The membership of the Society consists of Shareholders in the Museum,
Annual Subscribers (Associates), Honorary Members and Honorary Associates.
Shares in the Museum cost £7 each. A holder of one Share paj-s an
annual contribution of ten shillings ; a holder of two Shares (in one certificate)
an annual contribution of five shillings ; while a holder of three or more Shares
(in one certificate) is exempt from annual payments. Shares on which the
annual payments as above are in arrear are liable to forfeiture. The Council
retain the right to decline to consolidate two or more share certificates into one
certificate.
Annual Subscribers (Associates) pay £1 Is. (one guinea) due 1st November
in each year in advance.
A General Meeting of Shareholders in the Museum is held annually in
May or June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to receive the Report of the
Council and the Statements of Accounts for the preceding year, to elect
members of Council to replace those retiring by rotation or from other reasons,
and to transact any other business incidental to an annual meeting. Share,
holders only are eligible for election on the Council.
The Council elect, from among their own number, a President and other
officers of the Society.
Each Member has the right of personal attendance at the ordinary lectures
of the Society, and has the privilege of introducing two friends for admission to
such ; and he has also the right of access to the Museum and Library for
himself and family residing under his roof, with the privilege of granting
admission ciders for inspecting the collections in the Museum to any person not
residing in Belfast or within five miles thereof. The session for lectures
extends from November till May.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily for the admission of
visitois, for such hours as the Council may from time to time decide ; tl^e
charge for admission to non-members is sixpence each. The Curator is in
constant attendance, and will take charge of any donation kindly presented to
the Museum or Library.
Any further information required may he obtained from the Honorary
Secretary.
Belfa6t Natural Ibistor^ anb pbilosopbical
Society.
:o:
ANNUAL REPORT, 1902-3.
■:o:-
The Annual Meeting of the Shareholders of this Society was
held on 31 d July, 1903, in the Belfast Museum, College Square
North. The chair was occupied by Mr. John Brown, F.K.S.
(President), and there were also present — Sir Robert Lloyd
Patterson, D.L., F.L.S.; Professor Johnson Syminjjton, M.D.,
F.R.S.; Rev. Lamont Orr, Dr. John MacCormac ; Messrs.
George Kidd, J.P.; Robert Young, J.P.; R. M. Young, J. P.,
M.R.I.A., Hon. Secretary ; Joseph R. Fisher, B.L.; W. Gray
M.R.I. A.; R. Patterson, M.R.I.A., F.Z.S.; John Smyth, M.A
Nevin H. Foster, John Horner, Isaac W. Ward, W H. F.
Patterson, Hon. Treasurer.
The Hon. Secretary having read the notice convening the
Meeting, submitted the Annual Report as follows : —
"The Council of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophica
Society desire to submit their Report of the working of the
Society during the past year. The Winter Session was opened
in the Museum, on the 5th November, 1902, when the
President, Mr. John Brown, F.R.S., gave an opening address
taking a^ his subject ' The Liquefaction of Gases,' illustrated
by numerous experiments. The Second Meeting was held on
2nd December, when Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc, kindly
delivered an address on ' Recent Fishery Research,' illustrated
by special lantern slides. The Third Meeting (a special one)
>vas held on 17th December. On this occasion xMr. Richard J
2 Anntial Meeting.
Ussher, M.R.I.A., Waterford, gave a lecture, subject ' Evidence
of the Caves,' illustrated by lantern views. On the 6th January)
1903, the Fourth Meeting was held, when Dr. John MacCormac
lectured on the subject of ' Heredity in its Relation to the
Nervous S3^stem,' illustrated by specially prepared lantern
slides. The Fifth Meeting took place on the 3rd February,
when two papers were read. i. 'The Micro-fauna of the
Boulder Clay, with some Remarks on the Movement of Glaciers,
illustrated with tables, diagrams, and lantern slides, by Mr.
Joseph Wright, F.G.S. II. ' Notes on Some Igneous Rocks in
Down and Antrim,' illustrated by specimens, slides, and
microscopic sections, by Miss Mary K. Andrews. The Sixth
Meeting was held on the 3rd March, when Rev. W. Spotswood
Green, M.A., kindly gave an illustrated lecture, subject ' The
Armada Wrecks on the Irish Coast.' The Seventh Meeting
took place on the 7th April, when Mr. George Coffey, M.A.,
M.R.I. A,, kindly lectured on ' A Lost Principle in Art,'
illustrated by a special series of lantern views of ancient and
mediaeval buildings. At all these meetings the attendance of
members and of the general public showed no diminution, and
several of the lectures were the subject of reference and
discussitin in the Press.
Owing to the erection of the new Medical Institute, our
Society has lost the Ulster Medical Society as tenants. This
is to be especially regretted, as the relations between the two
Societies have been uniformly harmonious. The room which
was occupied by them has been taken by the Belfast Naturalist
Field Club for the purpose of a library and meeting place for
members. The other societies holding their meetings in the
Museum continue to do so.
The attendance of the general public has been, as usual,
very large at the Easter holidays, when the Museum was
opened at a nominal charge, and no damage was done to the
collections.
As will be seen by the Hon. Treasurer's Statement of
Accounts, duly audited by the Local Government Board's
Annual Meeting. 3
Auditor, a satisfactory balance remains after paying all expenses.
This, however, it must be borne in mind, results from the
thoughtful generosity of the local committee of the British
Association, who decided to pay to the Society the balance of
the general fund raised for last year's meeting.
Mainly as a result of the suggestions made by Professor
Gregg Wilson in his lecture on ' Recent Fishery Research ' on
2nd December, a meeting of representatives of our own Society,
the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club, and the Queen's College
was convened by your Secretary on the i6th December to
consider the advisability of the establishment of a marine
biological laboratory. As a result the Ldster Fisheries and
Biology Association has been established, with Mr. Robert
Patterson, M.R.I.A., F.Z.S., as its Honorary Secretary and
Treasurer. Already good work has been done, and much
interest aroused for its future welfare.
The natural history collections in the Museum have received
a great amount of attention during the year, and the much-
needed work of revision and rearrangement has to a large
extent been carried out by a number of volunteer experts.
The Irish fossils, which form a large and valuable series, have
been taken off the old tablets and remounted on a new system
by Mr. W. Svvanston, and now make a most effective display.
The important set of County Down graptolites is not yet in
place, but is being renamed and classified by Professor Lapworth
and will then form a standard collection of the Irish species of
these ancient fossils.
The collections representing Irish vertebrate zoology have
been taken in hand effectively by Mr. Robert Patterson. Old
and imperfect specimens have been replaced, and those retained
carefully cleaned, adding much to the brightness and attractive-
ness of the rooms. Seven drawers of bitds' eggs have been'
classified and mounted on the modern system by Messrs. Nevin
H. Foster and John Cottney. Many clutches of eggs, hitherto
absent or imperfectly represented, have been added, and there
is now a complete series of the eggs of Irish nebting birds.
4 Annual Meeting.
The Rev. W. F. Johnston and Mr. H. Lamont Orr have
done much work in supplying, arranging, classifying, and
mounting the collections of native insects. Some of the
groups are fairly well represented, especially coleoptera, but
large gaps still remain. It is to be hoped that some of these
will ere long be closed up.
xMr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., took up the arrangement of the
Foraminifera. A large number of specimens were added by
him to the existing collection. All were re-mounted on the
most effective system known, and by Mr. Wright's kindness
the Museum now possesses a series of Irish Foraminifera, both
recent and fossil, more complete than that of any other
institution in the country.
There have been many valuable recent additions to the
Museum collections. The specimen of golden eagle from
County Donegal, presented by Sir James Musgrave, is note-
worthy by reason of the ever-increasing scarcity of this bird in
Ireland. Two case^ of salmon, pictorially mounted, presented
by Mr. Robert Patterson, are also specially attractive additions-
The collections generally have been removed from the cabinets
cleaned, and replaced, and the relabelling of the objects is now
being carried out by the assistant curator. Dr. A. Harris, of
Stewartstown, has kindly placed in the Museum on loan his
very valuable collection of Naga weapons and personal
ornaments of the hill tribes of India. These while they remain
will form an interesting and attractive exhibit. A list of
donations to the Museum and of the publications received
during the Session from the various societies with whom we
are in correspondence will be printed with the present report.
Five members of the Council retire from office as usual, of
whom four are eligible for re-election.
The Hon. Treasurer read the Statement of Accounts, which
showed that the year had commenced with a balance of
£\^ 1 6s. 7d., the total receipts being ^361 17s. 5d. The tw^o
principal items were bequests and donations, ^136 is., and
subscriptions, -£\\i ids. The expenditure for the year
Anmcal Meeting. 5
amounted to ^^303 4s. 5d., the balance in Treasurer's hands
being ^58 13s., while ^400 worth of the York Street Spinning
Company's Debenture Stock is still held by the Shareholders.
Professor Symington said that he had much pleasure in
moving the adoption of the Report and Statement of Accounts.
He need not say much, because it appeared to him that Report
generally was of a very satisfactory nature. During last winter
they certainly had a very excellent series of lectures, and he
was glad to hear that the valuable collection in the possession
of the Society was being taken good care of, and in many
respects rearranged and brought up to modern requirements.
Sir Robert Lloyd Patterson expressed his pleasure in
seconding the resolution. He need not take up much of their
time, for in every way they considered the Rtport satisfactory.
He wished, however, to point out that but for the fortunate
circumstances of receiving a cousiderable sum from the local
committee of the British Association their finances would not
have been in the satisfactory condition they were. They could
not expect that item to arise again, and he would urge, as he
had done often before in that room, the importance of that
Society and the claims it has on public support, which claims,
he was sorry to say, were not recognized as the members felt
they ought to be.
The President said he ought to take this opportunity of
expressing the great regret which he was sure they all felt at
hearing of the death of one of their oldest members, Mr. Isaac
J. Murphy. At one time he was a very frequent attender at
their meetings, and gave many interesting lectures, while he
also presented to the Society considerable apparatus. They all
regretted very much that he had passed away.
In speaking of the Report, one of the things he was happy
to notice was the great preponderance of natural history papers.
Although he was not a naturalist himself, that was a naturalists'
society, and it was many years since they had so many, and so
good, papers on the subject. In former years it was left to the
engineers and other such people to save the Society from utter
6 Annnal Meeting.
extinction, so far as the reading of papers was concerned, by
bringing forward subjects in which they were interested.
A very important event in the past Session was the
nauguration of the Ulster Fishery and Biological Association,
which had largely emanated from Professor Gregg Wilson's
lecture on ' Fishery Research.'
It was satisfactory to see that donations still flowed in, and
almost seemed to increase through the kindness of the people
named in the Report. He was pleased to note also that others
had been kind enough to help them to rearrange the collection,
which was now in a much better state than it had been for a
long time ; the balance in hands was satisfactory, and altogether
he thought they might be congratulated upon having had a
prosperous year.
The Report and Statement of Accounts were then passed.
Mr. Robert Young suggested that it would be desirable to
send a letter of condolence to the family of the late Mr. Isaac
Murphy.
Sir R. Lloyd Patterson seconded, and the suggestion was
unanimously approved of.
The following gentlemen were elected to the Council of
Management for the ensuing year : — Rev. Dr. Hamilton
(President, Queen's College), Professor Symington, F.R.S.,
Professor Gregg Wilson, Mr. R. M. Young, J. P. ; and Mr. T. F.
Shillington, J.P.
Mr. Joseph K. Fisher said he had pleasure in rising to move
a vote of thanks to the President for his conduct in the chair
during his term of office. As a new member, he was not in a
position to speak with any amount of experience of Mr.
Brown's services in that particular capacity, but generally his
great scientific attainments and knowledge of business had
fitted him to carry on the invaluable work of that Society.
He (the speaker) would simply move that the best thanks of
the Society be given to Mr. Brown for his presidency during
the last three years.
Mr. William Gray, in seconding, said he thought it ought to
Annual Meeting. 7
be a great satisfaction to the citizens of Belfast to have amongst
th;;m a gentleman of Atr. Brown's attainments, and whose
family was connected with the material progress of the city ;
one who had distinguished himself by his original research.
As members of that Society, he thought they ought to be very
grateful indeed to him for applying his high attainments in
promoting the best interests of the Society.
The vote of thanks was heartily accorded.
Mr. Brown, in response, said that he was very much obliged
to the members for their kindness. Any work he had done for
the Society had been a labour of love, and he had only been
anxious that it should be on the right track, and productive of
good results. Although he was retiring from the office of
President, his interest in the Society would be just the same as
ever, and he hoped to do what he could for it in the future as
in the past.
The public meeting then terminated.
The following Officers of the Society for the year 1903-4
were elected at this and a subsequent meeting of the Council: —
President — Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S. ;
Vice-Presidents— Sir Robert Lloyd Patterson, D.L.,J.P.,F.L.S. ;
Wm. Swanston, F.G.S. ; Rev. T.Hamilton, D.D., LL.D., M.A.,
and Robert Young, J.P., C.E. Hon. Treasurer— W. H.F.Patter-
son. Hon. Librarian— J. H. Davies. Hon. Secretary— Robert
M. Young, J.P., M.R.LA.
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9
DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, 1 902-1903.
From Mrs. Carroll.
A mounted specimen of the Gannet {Sula alba).
From Mr. Robert Bell.
A fine specimen of Natrolite from Trap rock at Whitewell.
From Sir James Musgrave, D.L.
A mounted specimen of the Golden Eagle [Aqiiila chryscetos)
shot in County Donegal.
From Sir R. Lloyd Patterson, D.L., F.L.S.
A mounted specimen of the Crane {Grus cinerea).
From Mr. Robert Young, J.P.
Two vertebral joints of an Icthyosaiiriis from the Lias at
Woodburn, County Antrim.
From The Egypt Exploration Fund.
Numerous specimens of ancient pottery and other objects
obtained by recent researches and excavations at Abydos.
From Mr. Robert Patterson, M.R.LA., F.Z.S.
Two large specimens of Salmon {Sahno salar) from Glenarm
River, pictorially mounted in glazed cases ; also many
specimens of Irish birds, including the Common Buzzard
[Btiteo vulgaris)^ Redbreasted Merganser {Mergits serrator)^
and a Velvet Scoter [QZdemia fiisca) shot in Belfast
Lough.
From Mr. George A. CARRUTHiiRS, Weymouth.
Stem of a Cycad from the " Dirt Bed " at Portland, Dorset.
Portion of fossil tree stem from the Oolitic limestone of
Portland. Three gigantic Ammonites. Casts of oysters,
and of Trigonia, and of Cerithmm portlandicum from the
same bed. Two fossil oysters from the Oxford clay at
Weymouth, also specimen of crystallised carbonate of
lime.
10 Donations to the Museum.
From Messrs. J. P. Corry & Co.
Two planks of elm in which a stake of ash is included. The
stake had been fastened by pegs to the young elm tree,
and the elm has grown around the ash stake and completely
enfolded it.
From Mr. W. D. Barrett.
A specimen of lead ore {Galena) from Co. Kerry.
Fro7n Mr. R. M. Patterson.
A specimen of the gi-int puff bull {Lycoperdon giganteum).
From Mr. Charles Halliday, Banbridge.
One of the old six-barrelled revolver pistols.
From Mr. Victor Coates, D.L.
The Skin of a Vulture {Gypcetos mcridinnalis) from South
Africa.
From Mr. H. Marshall, Newry.
Preseived specimens of Otter, Woodpecker, Water Rail, etc.
From Mr. F. B. Simms.
Eggs of Gannet from the Bass Rock, and Eggs of Tern from
Copeland Islands.
From Mr. Wm. R. Sinclair.
Skin of a reptile {Iguana ?) from South Africa.
From Mr. James Sloan.
The upper stone of a Quern.
From Miss Rea.
A large collection of geological specimens.
From Miss M. K. Andrews.
A framed photograph of coast erosian at Cultra.
From Mr. Robert Welch.
A specimen of the curiously perforated limestone at Lough
Corrib.
Donations to the Miiseiitn. ti
From Mh. William Swanston, F.G.S.
A numerous series of fossil specimens.
From Mr. S. A. Stewart, F.B.S
Glaciated lim.estone from Castle Espie, and a number of fossils.
From Messrs. R. J. Ussher, Nevin Foster,
AND John Cottney.
A large number of eggs of Irish birds.
From Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S.
A large number of mounted specimens of Irish Foraminifera.
From Mr. Granby Higginbotham.
Specimen of a fossil plant from the Coal Measures,
12
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, ist MAY, 1901, till
1ST MAY, 1902.
Received from
Adelaide. — Memoirs of the Royal Society of South Australia.
Vol. 2, part I, 1902. Transactions, vol. 26,
parts I and 2, 1902.
Presented by the Society.
Basel. — Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Basel. Vol. 13, part i, 1901, and part 2, 1902 ;
vol. 14, 1901 ; and vol. 15, part i, 1903 ; also
Zur Erinnerung an Tycho Brahe, 1901.
The Society.
Belfast. — Catalogue of Early Belfast Printed Books, second
supplement to third edition.
The Linen Hall Library.
Bergen. — Bergens Museums Aarbog for 1902, parts 1 and 2,
1902, and part 3, 1903 ; also Crustacea of
Norway, vol. 4, parts 7 — 12, 1902, and parts 13
and 14, 1903. Bergen Alnseum.
Birmingham. — Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural History
and Philosophical Society. Vol. 11, part 2,
1902. The Society.
Boston, U.S. — Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural
History. Vol. 29, No. 15, 1900, Nos. 16 — 18,
1901, and vol. 30, Nos. i and 2, 1901 ; also
Occasional Papers, No. 6, 1901.
The Society.
Boulder, Colorado. — College Studies. Vol. i, Nos. i and 2,
1902 ; and Quarto Centennial Celebration of
Colorado Tfniversity, 1902.
Colorado University.
Books Received. 13
Bremen. — Abhandlungen vom Natarwissenschaftlichen Verein
zu Bremen. Vol. 17, part 2, 1903.
The Society.
Brrslau. — Zeitschrift fiir Entomologie vom Verein fiir Sclesiche
Insektenkunde zu Breblau. New series, part
27, IQ02. The Society.
Brighton. — Annual Report and Abstract of Papers of Brighton
and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society, 1902. The Society.
Brussels. — Anales de la Societe Royale Malacologique de
Belgique. Vol. 36, 1902. The Society.
BuHNOS Ayres. — Annales de Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.
Ser. 2, vol. 7, 1902. The Director.
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol.
33, part 3, 1902 ; vol. 34, part 2, 1902 ; vol. 35,
part 1, 1902. Palaeontologia Indica, ser. 16,
vol. 2, parts I — 3, 1902 ; and General Report
for 1 901 -1 902. The Direct jr of the Survey.
Cambridge. — Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society. Vol. 11, parts 5 — 7, 1902 ; and vol.
12, parts I and 2, 1903. The Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology at Harvard. Vol. 38, No. 7, 1902 ;
vol. 39, Nos. 2 — 5, 1902; vol. 40, Nos. 1—3,
1902 ; and Nos. 4 and 5, 1903 ; also Annual
Report, 1902. 7 he Keeper of the Mtiseinn.
Cassel. — Abhandlungen und Bericht (47) des Vereins fii
Naturkunde zu Kassel, 1902. The Society.
Cherbukg. — Memoires de la Societe Nationale des Sciences
Naturelles et Mathematiques de Cherbourg.
Ser. 4, vol. 33, fasc. 3, 1902. The Society.
Chicago. — Bulletin of the Chicago Academy of Sciences.
Vol. 2, Nos. 3 and 4, 1900. The Academy.
Christiania. — Forhandlinger i Videnskabs Selskabet i Chris-
tiania for year 1901.
The Royal Norske Frederiks University.
14 Books Received.
Cincinnati. — Bulletin of the Lloyd Library. Nos. 4 and 5,
1902. The Messrs. Lloyd.
Dantzic. — Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Danzig. New series, vol. 10, part 4, 1902.
The Society.
Davenport, Iowa. — Proceedings of the Davenport Academy
of Sciences. Vol. 8, 1901. The Academy.
Di;blix.— Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society.
Series 2, vol. 7, parts 14 — i6, 1902 ; vol. 8,
part I, iqo2 ; and vol. 9, part 5, 1903 ; also
Economic Proceedings, vol. i, part 3, 1902.
The Society.
Edinburgh. — Pioceedings of the Royal Physical Society.
Vol. 14, part 4, 1901. The Socety.
Ei.BERFELD. — Jahresbcricht des Naturvvissenschaftlichen Vereins
in Elberfeld. Part 10, 1903. The Society.
Emden. — Jahresbcricht der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Emden for 1900-1901. The Society.
Genoa. — Rivista Ligure di Scienze Lettere ed Arti. Ease.
2 — 6. 1902, and fasc. i, 1903.
The Society di Lctture e Conversazioni ed Art.
GiESSEN. — Thirty-third Bericht der Oberhessichen Gesellschaft
fiir Natur und Heilkunde, 1902.
Ihe Society.
Glasgow. — Transactions of the Natural History Society of
Glasgow. New series, vol. 6, part 2, 1902.
The Society.
,, Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow. Vol. 33, 1902. The Society.
Gothenburg. — Goteborg's Kungl Vetenskaps Och Vitterhets"
samhalles Handlingar. Part 4, 1898.
The Society.
Hamburg. — Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissen-
schaften. Herausgegeben vom Naturwissen-
schaftlichen Verein in Hamburg. Vol. 17,
1902] The Society.
Books Received. 15
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen — Karpathen Vereins. 29th
year, 1902. The Society.
KiEW. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of Kiew. Vol.
17, part I, 1901 ; and part 2, 1902.
The Society.
Lausanne. — Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles. Vol. 38, Nos. 143 — 145, 1902 ;
also Observationes Meteorologiques, 1902.
The Society.
Lawrence. — Bulletin of the University of Kansas, Science.
Vol. I, Nos. I — 4, 1902. The University.
Leeds. — Eighty-second Annual Report of Leeds Philosophical
and Literary Society, 1902. The Society.
Leipsic. — Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig,
1 90 1. The Society.
Lima. — Boletin del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas dei Peru.
Nos. I and 2, 1902. The Director.
London. — Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London. Vol. 58, parts 2 — 4, 1902 ; and vol.
59, part I, 1903 ; also List of Fellows, and
Geological Literature, 1902. The Society.
, Series of British Museum Guide Books as under.
Guide to Mammalia ; to Reptiles and Fishes ;
to British Echinoderms ; to Shells and Starfish ;
to Sowerby's Models of Fungi ; to the M}'Ce-
tozoa; to Coral Gallery ; to Fossil Reptiles and
Fishes ; to Fossil Invertebrata and Plants
(2 parts) ; Introduction to Study of Meteorites ;
to Study of Rocks ; to Study of Minerals ;
Guide to Mineral Gallery, and Students' Index
to the Minerals ; also ten pamphlets of Direc-
tions for Collectors. The Director.
Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. Parts
148 — 151, 1902 ; and 152 and 153, 1903.
The Society.
1 6 Books Received.
London. — Transactions of the Zoological Society of London-
Vol. 1 6, parts 5 — 7, 1902. Proceedings for
1901, vol. 2, part I ; and 1902, vol. i, parts i
and 2 ; vol. 2, part i ; also Index for 1 891 -1900.
The Society.
Madras. — Administration Report of the Government Museum
and Public Library, T901-1902.
The Superintendent of the Central Mnseum.
Manchester. — Journal of Manchester Geographical Society.
Vol. 17, Nos. 7 — 12, and Supplement, 1901 ;
vol. 18, Nos. I — 3, 1902, and Supplement for
1896. The Society.
,, Transactions of Manchester Geological Society.
Vol. 27, parts 10, II, 12, 13, and 17, 1902.
The Society.
„ Annual Report and Transactions of Manchester
Microscopical Society, 1 900-1 901.
The Society.
Marseilles. — Anales de la Facultc des Sciences de Marseille-
Vol. 12, 1902. The Librarian.
Melbourne. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
New series, vol. 14, part 2, 1902 ; vol. 15, part
I, 1902 ; and part 2, 1903. The Society.
Mexico. — Boletin del Instituto Geologico de Mexico. No. 15,
iqo2, and No. 16, 1902. The Institute.
„ Boletin Mensual del Observatorio Meteorologico
Central di Mexico. August till November,
1 901, and January, 1902. Informe (text and
atlas) 1901-1902. Anuario, No. 23, 1902.
The Director.
Milwaukee. — Bulletin of Wisconsin Natural History Society.
New series, vol. 2, No. 4, 1902.
2 he Society.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo.
Vol. 4, part I, 1902. Ihe Director,
Books Received. 17
Moscow. — Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of
Moscow. Nos. 3 and 4, 1902, and No. 3, 1903.
77/1? Society.
Nantes. — Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
rOuest de la France. Scries 2, vol. i, parts 3
and 4, 1 901 ; vol. 2, parts i and 2, 1902 ; also
Table des Matieres de la Premiere serie, 189 1
1900. The Society.
New York. — Annals of New York Academy of Sciences,
Vol. 14, part 2, 1902. The Academy.
„ Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.
Vol. 24, Nos. I — 5, 1902, and vol. 25, No. i,
1903. The Society.
Nottingham. — Report and Transactions of Nottingham
Naturalists' Society, 1901-1902.
The Society.
Odessa. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of New Russia.
Vol. 24, part I, 1901. The Society.
Ottawa. — Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology. Vol. 2,
part 2 (Fossil insects), 1900 ; vol. 4, part 2
(Palaeozoic Corals), 1901 ; and vol. 3 (quarto),
1902 ; also Catalogue of the .Vlarine Invertebrata
of Eastern Canada, 1901.
The Director of the Survey.
Padua. — Atti della Societa Veneto Trentina di Scienze Naturali.
Series 2, vol. 4, fasc. 2, 1902. The Society.
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of Philadelphia Academy of
Natural Science. Vol. 54, part i, 1902.
The Academy.
„ Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society. Vol. 41, Nos. 168 — 170, 1902.
The Society.
„ Ressources Vegetales des Colonies Francaises,
by Gustavo Niederlein, Chef de Department
Scientifique des Philadelphia Museums.
The Author,
k
i8 Books Received.
Pisa. — Atti della SocietaToscana di Scienze Naturali, Processa
Verbali. Vol. 13, January, iqoz — January,
1903. The Society.
Rome. — Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Vol. 11,
semestre i, fasc. 7 — 12, 1902 ; semestre 2, fasc.
I — 12, 1902 ; vol. 12, semestre T, fasc. i — 6,
1903 ; and Rendiconto dell' Adunanza Solenne
di 1st Guigno, 1902. The Academy.
,, Bollettino della Societa Zoologico Italiana. Series 2,
vol. 3, fasc. I — 3, 1902. The Society.
San Francisco. — Occasional Papers of California Academy of
Sciences, No. 8, 1901. Proceedings (Zoology),
vol. 2, Nos. 7 — IT, 1901 ; and vol. 3, Nos. i — 4,
1901-1902. The Academy.
St. Louis — Thirteenth Annual Report of Missouri Botanical
Garden, 1902. The Director.
Stavangfr. — Stavanger Museum Aarshefte for 1891.
The Museum Trustees.
Stettin. — Bericht der Gesellschaft fiir Volker und Erdkunde
zu Stettin, 1902. The Society.
Stirling. — Transactions of Stirling Natural History and
Archxlogical Society, 1902. The Society.
Stockholm. — Handlingar of the Royal Swedish Academy.
Vol. 35, 1902. Bihang, vol. 27, parts i — 4,
iqo2. Ofversigt, No. 58, 1901, and No. 59,
1902. The Academy.
Sydney — Science of Man (Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Society of Australasia). New series, vol. 5, Nos.
3 — 12,1901-1902. The Editor.
Tokyo. — Mittheilungen der Gesellschaft fiir Natur — und Vol-
kerunde Ostasiens. Vol. 8, part 3, 1902 ; and
vol. 9, part I, 1902 ; also Supplement, No. i,
1902, and Festschrift, 1902. The Society.
Toronto. — Transactions of the Canadian Institute. Vol. 7,
part 2, 1902, and Proceedings, vol. 2, part 5
1902. The Institute.
Books Received. 19
Upsala. — Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the Uni-
versity of Upsala. Vol. 5, part 2, No. 10, 1901.
The University.
Vienna. — Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Zoo-
logisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Vol.
52, 1902. The Society.
„ Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Geo-
logischen Reichsanstalt. Nos. 3—18, 1902,
and Nos. i — 4, 1903. The Society.
Washington. — Year-book of the Department of Agriculture,
1901, and North American Fauna, No. 22,
190-.
The Secretary of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture .
,, Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology. No. 26,
1 90 1. The Director of the Bureau.
„ Twenty-first Annual Report of the United
States Geological Survey, parts 5 and 7, and
Atlas, 1899-1900. Monographs, No. 41, 1902.
Bulletin of the Survey, Nos. 177 — 190, 1901-
19C2, and Nos. 192 — 194, 1902. Mineral
Resources of the United States, 1902. Recon-
naissances in Cape Nome Region, Alaska, 1901.
Also Geology and Mineral Resources of Copper
River District, Alaska, 1901.
The Director of the Survey.
„ Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution
for 1900 and 190T. Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge, No. 1309, 1901. Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, Nos. 1312 — 1314,
1902 ; also 1174 and 1259, 1902.
The Smithsonian Institution.
,, The American Monthly Microscopical Journal.
Vol. 22, Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 12, 1901, and vol. 23,
Nos. I — 4, 1902. The Publisher,
20 Books Received.
Washington. — Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washing-
ton. Vol. 14, pp. 179—204, 1902.
The Society,
York. — Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society
for 1902. The Society.
Zurich. — Vierteljahrsschrift der Natursforschenden Gesellschaft
in Zurich. Parts i and 2, 1902.
The Society.
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSION 1902-190 3.
5//? November^ 1902.
THE LIQUEFACTION OF GASES.
Inaugural Address by the President, J. Brown, F.R.S.
{Abstract.)
Before taking up the subject proper of my address, will you
permit me to express my very grateful appreciation of the
honour conferred upon my unworthiness by your Council in
electing me as your President for a third term ? There is no
honour which I value more highly, nor any commendations
which appeal to me more than such as come from our own
Society, in which I have for the last twenty years or more
taken a lively interest and an active part.
In dealing with the subject generally of liquefied gases in,
this place I feel that I have the privilege of entering on a field
made famous by the work of one of our own citizens in our
own town. I think it was my friend Professor Fitzgerald who
remarked that if the name of our city were to be mentioned
in any university in the civilised world the name of one man,
21 Mr. /. Broivn on
and one only, would be recalled by the word " Belfast." It
would not be a name connected with our boasted manufactures,
our great political lights, or our popular celebrities of any kind.
It would be the name of Thomas Andrews, the fame of whose
work on the continuity of the liquid and gaseous states is of
course world-wide.
Before Andrews's time, we find that in 1823 Faraday had
succeeded in liquefying chlorine, sulphuric acid, and some
other gases. Faraday, however, did not succeed in liquefying
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, &c.
In 1861 Andrews subjected these intractable gases to very
great pressure, also without success, but on more easily con-
densible gases his subsequent work had a value far exceeding
this in scientific interest.
In order to fix our ideas as to the conditions necessary for
the liquefaction of gases let me point as an illustration to the
homely matter of water boiling under ordinary conditions.
Evidently heat is required. It is the tendency of heat to
produce vapour or gas from liquid. Conversely we may
conclude it Is a tendency of cooling to produce liquid from a
gas or vapour like steam. Here, however, is only half the
matter. When water boils in ordinary conditions it is under
the atmospheric pressure of 151b. per square inch on its surface,
and the vapour rising from it has to lift this 151b. off before il
can form. As a matter of experiment we know that it will not
lift this pressure till the temperature is raised to 100 degrees C.
It would be natural to expect, however, that if we lift this
atmospheric pressure off by other means a less temperature
would suffice for converting the liquid into gas. We shall
therefore not be very much surprised to see water boiling and
freezing at the same time. Having exhausted the air from
above the water in a glass vessel, you see it boiling violently,
although quite cold enough to form ice, which is presently seen
on its surface.
From this experiment we draw the conclusion that the
essening of pressure tends to form gas from liquid, and
The Liquefaction of Gases. 23
conversely that increase of pressure would tend to form liquid
from gas. We also note incidentally that evaporation is here
also attended bv loss of heat, producing in this case actual
freezing of the liquid. Thus we see that the two conditions
tending towards liquefaction of gases are pressure and cold.
Before Andrews's time it was tacitly assumed that any defect
in one of these could be made up for by increasing the other.
If too little cold, more pressure would cause liquefaction.
Andrews, however, discovered that for each gas there was a
certain temperature above which no amount of pressure would
liquefy that gas. This temperature he called the critical
temperature for that particular gas. Below that temperature
and at a sufficient pressure, called the critical pressure, the gas
would liquefy with a decrease of volume. Above it no
liquefaction could be observed ; yet when not much above it
there was as the pressure increased a somewhat more rapid
decrease in volume, than would correspond with the behaviour
of what is called a perfect gas. Yet, again, when above the
critical point, and therefore in a gaseous state, the gas, when
reduced to about the volume which it would have occupied
when liquefied at a lower temperature, yielded only slightly to
further pressure. As regards its elasticity, it behaved then as
a liquid. These researches were carried out with carbonic acid
as an experimental agent, and in them is illustrated what
Andrews aptly called the continuity of the gaseous and liquid
states of matter. As he says, " From carbonic acid as a perfect
gas to carbonic acid as a perfect liquid the transition may be
accomplished by a continuous process."
Andrews, who began with an attempt, unsuccessful as it waS)
to merely liquefy the most refractory gases — oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, etc. — was thus led aside to a path rich in scientific
interest — perhaps richer even than that which he set out to
pursue. This was left to later investigators.
In 1877 Pictet achieved the liquefaction of oxygen by
combined pressure and cold, produced by elaborate and costly
machinery. A few days only after Pictet's success Cailletet
^4 ^'^'f'- !• Brown on
announced a similar achievement. Following oxygen, all the
other senses known at that period soon yielded likewise. About
the case of hydrogen it is true doubts and difficulties seem to
hang. At all events six years elapsed before Wroblewski and
Olszewski obtained hydrogen in the form of a static liquid,
and to collect liquid hydrogen in some quantity, as Professor
Dewar remarks, has taken twenty years from the date of
Pictet's experiments.
Though Siemens had suggested the principle earlier, it was
about 1895 that Linde, and also Hampson, devised perfect and
simple apparatus. It is true that others in the meantime were
approaching perfection, Dewar, for instance, having described
in 1886 an apparatus embodying this principle. The chief
difficulty is the production of a sufficient degree of cold.
Lowering of temperature is, in modern apparatus, attained by a
device which I shall try to explain in a simple way. In the
antique apparatus for obtainmg fire known as the fire syringe
(a specimen of which has been kindly lent us by Mr. Robert
May, whose interesting collection of antique candlesticks is at
present on view in the Free Library) heat is obtained by the
compression of air. The syringe consists of a strong brass
tube with an airtight plunger reaching nearly to the bottom of
the tube. On driving the plunger rapidly down, the air
beneath is so heated as to set fire to a piece of touch cotton
(cotton wool treated with saltpetre and sulphur or with solution
of phosphorous), which has previously been attached to the
end of the plunger. When the plunger is withdrawn the air,
which has been hot enough to set fire to our cotton wool, cools
again. To do so it absorbs heat. From this simple experiment
we conclude generally that air in expanding cools itself. Thus
by the device of first compressing air, and, as it were, squeezing
some of its heat out, and then allowing it to expand again, we
cool it below the temperature at which we started.
This is the first process in the air liquefying apparatus. Air
is compressed in water-cooled pumps to 120 atmospheres, say
i,70olb. per square inch, further cooled by passing through
The Liquefaction of Gases. 2^
coils of tube immersed in water, and finally allowed to escape
through a specially constructed valve, whereby in expanding it
cools itself further, though not enough tor the purposes of lique-
faction. For this there is necessary the so-called self-intensive
principle. Just before the air escapes by the valve it has to
pass through a coil containing very many turns of tube
contained in a non-conducting casing. Through this casing
and among the coils of tube the recently escaped and therefore
cold air circulates, imparting its cold to the coils, and therefore
to the compressed air circulating in them. We have thus a
continuous interacting process of cooling, by which in a short
time the air in the coils is reduced to a liquefying temperature.
This is the self-intensive principle used by Linde, Dewar,
Hampson, etc., for liquefaction of air, and finally by Travers for
liquefaction of hydrogen, a much more difficult matter.
It would be quite impracticable to keep liquid air in closed
vessels because of the enormous pressure that would result when
the liquid, by absorbing heat from the surrounding atmosphere
through the walls of the vessel, would evaporate and regain its
gaseous form. In an ordinary open glass vessel it evaporates in
time, of course ; but if we reduce the influx of heat by surround-
ing the vessel with a non-conducting envelope we may retard this
evaporation. The best non conducting envelope known is a
vacuous or highly-exhausted space, consequently what are
called vacuum jacketed vessels are employed — i.e., the glass
tube or flask containing the liquid is surrounded by a second
larger glass tube or flask, sealed on so that the interspace can
be exhausted of air. Through this space conduction of heat is
very slight. Radiation of heat into the vessel is prevented by
silvering the interior between the two vessels, and so reflecting
the heat rays that strike upon it. The invention of these
vessels is claimed by Professor Dewar.
For the opportunity of seeing and experimenting with
liquefied air we are indebted to the very great kindness of Mr.
Richard J. Moss, of the Royal Dublin Society, who with the
greatest cordiaUty acceded to a request from me for a supply of
26 Mr /. Broivn on
the liqi.id. On a former occasion when sending me a supply
for use in my own laboratory, Mr. Moss expressed a doubt if
the Dublin atmosphere would suit Belfast, but on this occasion
he expressed the conviction that an abundant supply of some
cooling medium will not be out of place on Guy Fawk.es Day
in the North. May I assure Mr. Moss, on your authority, that
it is not by any means out of place, and that we tender our
warmest thanks for this coldest of gifts ?
Liquid air is a clear, transparent fluid. The boiling point is
about 1 90° to 200° under atmospheric pressure. The experi-
ments that can be performed with liquid air depend chiefly on
the effects produced by this very low temperature. Poured
upon water, liquid air floats, forming a cup of ice, in which it
boils. Immersed in liquid air, mercur}' may be frozen, and
forms a mercury casting, which can be forged cold into a hook,
on which we may suspend a weight, till the warmth of the
surrounding atmosphere melts it into liquid drops, when the
weight of course fails. Alcohol may be frozen, ice hardened
till it is said to cut glass, and indiarubber becomes brittle like a
pipe stem. Sulphur, vermilion, and a solution of cobalt
chloride in alcohol lose their colours. The electric resistance
of metals is decreased manifold. Owing to the fact that the
nitrogen in air is more volatile than the oxygen, it evaporates
first, and in liquid air which has been standing some time the
residue is chiefly oxygen. On this account a process of obtain-
ing oxygen sufficiently pure for many purposes has been pro-
posed. To illustrate this a shaving splinter of wood burns up
brightly over such stale liquid air. Felt or cotton wool soaked
in the liquid burns with explosive violence. A jet of hydrogen
will burn under the surface of liquid oxygen. Liquid air has
been proposed as a carrier of power by using it to drive motors
of the steam engine type. Here is an illustration where a tube
of liquid air enclosed in an appropriate closed vessel gives off
air at sufficient pressure to drive the model engine, and on the
screen is a slide of a motor so driven. Here however con-
venient in some respects the process might be, the question of
The Liquefaction of Gases. i"]
economy comes in. On this point Dr. Hampson states that
lib. liquid air at id. will expand to 800 volumes at atmospheric
pressure ; lib. steam to 1,700 volumes. One pound steam can
be made under good conditions by the combustion of i-iolb. of
coal, or at a cost of i -120 of a penny, putting coal at 15s per
ton. Therefore the power contained in lib of liquid air at id
is, roughly speaking, equal to that contained in -^Ib. of steam at
i-240ths of a penny. Of course if liquid air could be produced
at i-240ths of its present cost, allowing for loss in carrying
about, it could very favourably compete with steam.
Some years ago a Mr. Tripper, of the United States, claimed
that he could make it for less than nothing. We have heard
nothing of Mr. Tripper lately.
Liquid air has also been proposed as a cooling agent. Much
tall talk was indulged in by the American Press in this
connection also. Hampson points out that liquid air would
have only i-ioth the cooling power of ice weight for weight,
and; as ice is usually less than id. per pound, the price of liquid
air, the inefficiency is so much the more evident. Liquid air
or oxygen as an explosive has been proposed. When mixed
with petroleum and infusorial earth it explodes violently.
Probably the difficulty of transporting it comes in the way here.
Liquid hydrogen in sufficient quantity to be properly
observed and investigated seems to have been first obtained by
Professor Dewar in 1898. It is a clear, colourless liquid, per-
fectly transparent, and about i-ioth the specific gravity of
water. It boils at — 250 deg. C, under atmospheric pressure,
or within 23 deg. of absolute zero. As a cooling agent, it will
lower temperature to within 13 deg. to 15 deg. of absolute
zero. Its critical temperature is — 240 deg., and critical
pressure 13*3 atmrspheres. Professor Dewar considers the
step from the liquefaction of air to that of hydrogen is re-
latively as great in the thermo-dynamic sense as that from
chlorine to liquid air. Some idea of the difficulty of its
production may thereby appear. The solidification of the
gases is the next step beyond liquefaction. Atmospheric air
zS Mr. J. Brown on
was frozen by Professor Dewar in 1893. A litre of liquid air
subjected to exhaustion in a silvered vacuum vessel yielded
about half a litre of a colourless, transparent solid, consisting of
a nitrogen jelly containing liquid oxygen. Solid oxygen is
obtained by subjecting liquid oxygen to cooling by immersion
of the tube containing it in boiling hydrogen. It is clear blue
ice. Solid hydrogen has been produced by the same kind 01
process. It is a transparent ice.
The really important uses of liquefied gases are comprised in
their application to low temperature research, providing as
they do a means of cooling other bodies hitherto unattainable.
We may glance at a general view of this part of the subject.
It was at first supposed from the change in the electric
resistance of metals produced at this temperature that all
metals would become perfect conductors at absolute zero.
Further cooling by liquid hydrogen showed, however, that a
certain amount of resistance would still exist at 0 deg. absolute.
Phosphorescence is much increased by the cold of liquid air,
and much more by that of liquid hydrogen. Chemical affinity
is almost abolished by cold. Potassium, which bursts into
flame on water, remains inert on liquid air or oxygen.
Fractionation by distillation at these low temperatures has
been effectively employed by Professor Ramsay and Dr. Travers
in 1S98 for the extraction from the atmosphere of the new
gases, krypton, neon, and xenon, following on the discovery of
argon in 1895 by Lord Rayleigh, and helium later.
In connection with the last mentioned, it is interesting to
recall how the name arose. In the spectroscopic examination
of the sun one line was observed which could not be detected
in any terrestrial substance. It was therefore supposed to be
peculiar to the sun, and so called the helium line. Subsequently,
however, it was proved to be like the other constituents of the
sun, terrestrial also, a gas more volatile than hydrogen, and
which has not yet been liquefied and solidified.
The influence of very low temperatures an the vital force of
living organisms has also been examined. The cold of liquid a;r
The Liquefaction cf Gases. 29
has no apparent effect on bacteria. After twenty hours at — 1 90
deg. no diminution in any of their powers was perceptible.
Phosphorescent organisms under alternate cooUng and thawing
showed a remarkable instance of suspension and renewal of
vital processes. Cooled down by liquid air, they became non-
luminous, but phosphorescence began again with its usual
strength when removed into ordinary conditions. In a paper
communicated to the Royal Society last August Dr. M'Fadyen
states that several forms of bacteria, including typhoid bacillus,
survived perfectly an exposure to — 190 deg. C. for six months.
Even at the temperature of liquid hydrogen ( — 252 deg.) these
much-enduring though minute organisms suffered no injury.
Professor Fitzgerald moved a hearty vote of thanks to the
President who, he said, had given them a most profitable
evening, and whose experiments with liquid air they had all
witnessed with wonder and delight. They all appreciated, too
Mr. Brown's tribute to Professor Andrews and his work. To
Dr. Moss, of Dublin, and to Mr. Brown's son who had acted so
efficiently as his assistant, their best thanks were also due.
Mr. R. M. Jones, in seconding the motion, said Mr. Brown,
in addition to being an eminent scientist, was one of the most
public-spirited men in Belfast. He had introduced them to
many new and interesting discoveries, including the motor-car,
wireless telegraphy, and that very ingenious invention of his
own for the improvement of our roads. That evening he had
introduced them to liquid air, and shown them some of its
marvellous properties, in addition to giving them a wonderfully
able and concise history of modern research in connection with
the liquefaction of gases.
The vote was passed by acclamation, and briefly replied to
by the President.
On the motion of Mr. W. S. Swanston, seconded by Mr.
Robert Patterson, authority was given to dispose of some
duplicate specimens in the Museum.
30
2nd December^ 1902.
PuoFiiSSOR Redfern, M.D., F.R.C.S.I., in the Chair.
RECENT FISHERY RESEARCH,
By Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc.
{Abstract.)
Professor Wilson said the subject of sea fisheries ought to
be an interesting one to every member of a British audience.
He wanted to remind them that the British fisheries were
worth a great deal of money. They yielded the fishermen
something like _;^io,ooo,ooo a year. He was sorry a very small
part of that money was gained by Irish fishermen — some
^^300, 000 or ;^400,ooo. He ventured to hope that the fisheries
were worth a great deal more than ^io,coo,ooo to the con-
sumers. He wished to call their attention to the work done by
scientific men in recent years in connection with preserving
and improving the fisheries.
First, he wanted them to grasp very firmly that their fish
area was a small one. The great bulk of the ocean was deeper
than 2,000 metres, or yards. For a long time it was believed
that there was no life in the deep seas, in the waters beyond
about 100 fathoms. One of the most prominent professors of
last century maintained that fact, but that idea was got rid off.
It was first really proved by the electric cables that had been
Recent bishery Research. 31
laid in deep water. They were lifted after a time for repairs,
and were found to be covered with marine organisms. This
proved the fact that there was life in the depths of the ocean,
and in this connection he could not refrain from referring to
the magnificent work that was done by Sir W. Thompson, a
former professor of Queen's College, who carried out work on
the Challenger, the results of which had been given to the
world in many volumes.
He was particularly anxious that they should grasp the fact
that deep-sea life was not the kind of life that was any use to
them. The lecturer then called attention to characteristics of
some of the curious looking creatures that they found in the
deep sea. He showed that some of these were provided with
luminous organs, as the water beneath 100 fathoms is com-
pletely dark, and he also pointed out that they were so formed
as to be able to exist under the great pressure to which they
were subjected so far beneath the surface. Those physical
conditions prevented fish living in the higher waters migrating
to the lower, and vice versa. Fish taken from those deep
waters practically exploded by being brought to the surface
and relieved of the pressure which they were formed to resist.
The ordinary fishtrman in the North Sea knew how to mini-
mise the effects of slight change of pressure. When they took
a cod out of even twenty fathoms of water, and wishei to keep
it alive, they resorted to the precaution — at least they used to
— of running a needle into the bladder and letting out some of
the gas or air, so that the bulk of the fish might diminish
rapidly and accommodate its size to the lesser pressure of sur-
face water. Another preventative from the passage of fish from
higher to lower waters, and lower to higher, was the diffe*--
erce in temperature. They had found that the temperature
in those deep waters was very little above freezing point.
After alluding to figures which showed a decline in some 6f
our fisheries, especially those for turbot and soles, the lecturer
said that fall in the fisheries took place in spite of the fact that
there was an enormous increase of fishing apparatus at work.
32 Professor Gregg Wilson on
Their great steam trawlers went further afield than they did a
few years ago. They were managing to take about the same
quantity of fish out of the water by fishing with an enormous
amount of apparatus. They had got to face the fact that there
was at least the danger of a very serious decline in their
fisheries. On the recognition of that fact there was a sudden
impulse to study the question of their fisheries. The Ameri-
cans, Canadians, Norwegians, Danes, the British, especially the
Scotch, had been engaged on that question, and he would like
to indicate to them the sort of work that had been going on
amongst scientific men who had put themselves to consider the
fishery question, and he hoped that sooner or later they would
do some fishery work in this district. In the first place, they
had been studying fish eggs and the spawning of fish.
The most important fact discovered about the spawning
habits offish was discovered in 1864. That was the fact that
most of their food-fishes produce eggs that float. Why was it
that they did not see them ? Because they were like little
beads of glass, they were so transparent. A false idea existed
that the spawn of most fish was produced near the shore,
Avhereas many of the best spawning grounds were far from the
shore, and legislation to protect the same would require to
take that fact into consideration.
He advocated the provision of fish hatcheries in certain cir-
cumstances only, and more especially in fresh waters, when
spawning ground was deficient. The Americans as early as
1 87 1 went in for hatching. He instanced what they had done
in shad hatching as an example of its success. They carried
the shad across to the Pacific waters. In the case of salmon
and trout, river hatching had been an enormous success.
Where they had too little spawning ground and plenty feeding
ground hatching was an advantage.
Naturalists were also studying the young of fish. There was
the question of the destruction of young fish by trawlers and
others, and associated with that question was the study of what
he might call fish nurseries. The latter were places where
Recent P-shcry Research. 33
young fish were crowded together, and where there were com-
paratively few old fish. Trawlers were more successful in .
catching the young fish than the old fish. All he had to say
was, if they emptied the nursery he took it for granted that the
drawing-room would not be full in a little time. In Lancashire
this matter was being considered, and they were regulating the
size of the mesh of fishing nets.
Naturalists had also been considering the food of fish and
their feeding habits. A popular belief was that the larger fish
fed on the smaller, and so on, but ultimately they found their
fishes were dependent on plant life It was the plants that
made organic stuff.
Dealing with the question of artificial baits, the lecturer said
some fish distinguished their food by smell almost, others by
sight almost entirely.
The lecturer then referred to the enemies of our food fishes,
and pointed out that naturalists were principally engaged on
how to get rid of them by encouraging the enemies of the
enemies of our food fish. 'J"he question arose could men over-
fish the seas ? Professor Huxley had been of opiiuon that
this was impossible, and that the damage done by man was
infinitesimal compared with what was done by other enemies.
It was the last straw that broke the camel's back, and if they
put en that last straw it made all the difference, and he
thought man could play the part of the last straw. There was
a great deal of injury which might be prevented, and it was
with that he wished to interfere.
In conclusion reference was made to the importance of
properly equipped marine stations for ihe study of all questions
relating to the fisheries, and a hope was expressed that before
long such a station might be instituted near Belfast.
Professor Symington moved a vote of thanks to Professor '
Gregg Wilson for his lecture. He thought it was appropriate
that they should consider on that occasion what could be done
in connection with their own fisheries. With the exception of
what was beingdone by Mr. Holt, under the Agricultural Depart-
34 Professor Gregg Wilson on Recent Fishery Research.
ment, on the Western-Southern Coasts there were absolutely
no scientific investigations being conducted in any part of
Ireland with regard to that question. In connection with that
Society something might be done on the North-East Coast.
There was no difficulty in getting a suitable site for starting
a modest modern laboiatory. Professor Wilson spoke to them
that evening as an expert, and he was sure he would be only
too anxious and willing to assist any of them that wished to
take up that department of the work.
Rev. D. A. Purves, in seconding the motion, as an outsider,
was sure that in Professor Gregg Wilson not only Queen's
College, but the city of Belfast, had received a great acquisition.
While he had given them a scientific lecture, they would
all agree that he had been perfectly lucid. He concurred
with the suggestion that had been thrown out that the services
of a man like Professor Gregg Wilson should be in some way
secured to that neighbourhood, and he did trust that the out-
come of that meeting would be that steps would be taken to
instal a modern laboratory in the region of Belfast.
The motion was carried and suitably conveyed by the
Chairman, who referred to the time when many of the most
eminent naturalists of Great Britain belonged to the North of
Ireland.
A similar compliment was paid to Professor Redfern, on the
motion of Mr. J. J. Andrews, seconded by Mr. William Shuw.
i']th December, 1902.
Mr. Robert Young, J. P., in the Chair.
EVIDENCE OF THE CAVES.
By R. J. UssHER, J.P.
[Abstract.)
Kent's Cavern, in Devonshire, is very extensive, and cdntains
many chambers and passages. On the top of its deposits were
blocks and masses of limestone that had fallen from the roof,
and the uppermost deposit, a black mould, lay between these.
It was largely formed of leaves blown into the cave, and con-
tained miscellaneous relics, from the soda-water bottle of the
modern tourist to relics of mediaeval, Roman, and pre-Roman
times — bronze articles, spindle-whorls, broken pottery, including
Samian ware ; ancient bone implements, amber beads, and
charred wood ; also human bones, bones of brown bear, red
deer, and of domestic animals, such as dog, pig, ox, and sheep.
Beneath the black mould no remains of sheep occurred. None
of these relics carry us back beyond historic times.
The second deposit was a floor of granular stalagmite varying,
from a mere film to five feet in thickness.
The third deposit was confined to one part of the cavern,
and was called the black band. It was composed of little bits
of charred wood, the hearthplace of the palaeolithic cave men.
Three hundred and sixty flint weapons or tools were found here,
6 Mr. R. J. Lssher on
with bones that had been roasted, and bone tools, an awl, a
harpoon, a fish-spear, and a needle of bone. With these were
bones of hysena, rhinoceros, horse, ox, and deer. Here was the
home of those ancient hunters who lived in England with the
hysena, the mammoth, and the rhinoceros, and who used flint
weapons, which they manufactured round this fireplace.
The next deposit, which extended throughout the cave, was
a reddish cave earth, and it yielded the greatest store of animal
remains. They represented hyaena, horse, Avoolly rhinoceros,
mammoth or woolly elephant, Irish elk, reindeer, red deer,
lion, and other animals, some of which exist at the present da}-,
while others are long since extinct. Among the relics of the
latter were some teeth of the machairodus, or sabre-toothed
lion, whose upper canine teeth were of enormous size and
serrated. It was a very ancient and pliocene animal. Hyaenas
appear from their numerous bones to have been very abundant,
and some of the others, as the reindeer, were suited for life in
Arctic countries. But, besides the beasts of prey, human in-
habitants— doubtless a race of hunters — lived there at times.
They probably lighted large fires near the cave's mouth, where
the black band occurred, to keep out the wild beasts during
their stay. The objects these hunters left behind them were
chiefly spear heads of flint, carefully chippedinto shape with great
labour, as is still done by some savage nations. Carved bone
harpoons were also found in the cave earth, and a bone pin,
which was in contact with the tooth of a rhinoceros.
But there was an older chapter still in the history of Kent's
cave. Another stalagmite floor lay beneath the cave earth,
crystalline in structure, which showed its greater age, and it
attained in places twelve feet in thickness.
The lowest deposit, which lay under the crystalline stalagmite,
was a dark-red sandy paste in places, but was often found in
masses of rocklike hardnes?, and was called the Breccia. It
was largely composed, not of limestone fragments, but of pieces
of red grit, a rock which is not to be found in the cavern hill,
but in hills now separated from it by a valley seventy feet deep
Evidence of the Caves. 37
below the cave level. Therefore this red grit must have here
drifted into the cave before this deep valley had been gradually
scooped out by rains and streams. The Breccia contained
numbers of bones, but they were all of the greit cave bear,
except two jaws of lion and another of fox, and none of these
bones had been gnawed by hyaenas, like those in the cave earth
above. Even here, however, human implements of flint were
found, not so finely wrought as those in the cave earth above,
but unmistakably the work of rnen. No one can assign a date
to these things, but, ancient as must have been the men of the
cave earth who lived when mammoths and their companions
existed, the people who made the weapons found in the Breccia
were vastly older. We can only say that they represented a
very far-off age, as when one sees the snowy peaks of lofty
mountains rising against a clear sky he is sure they are further
than any other visible object, but cannot say how great their
distance is.
In 1858 quarrymen working on the site of an ancient cave at
Shandon, near Dungarvan, in County Waterford, found the
remains of a mammoth with those of reindeer. They were
brought to light by the late Mr. E. Brenan, of Dungarvan, and
are now in the Science and Art Museum, Dublin. Bones of
horse, bear, and other animals were also found in Shandon
Cave by Professor Leith Adams, who had done cave exploration
work in Malta.
In company with him in 1879 I opened up a small cave half-
a-mile south of the Cappagh Station, in the townland of Bally-
namintra. It was nearly filled with deposits ; but, now that it
is cleared, it forms a tunnel about eight feet wide When we
began to dis we found in the brown earth which lay uppermost
many bones of domestic animals — as cows, sheep, pigs and dogs
— with some human bones ; but as we dug deeper we came to'
a grey earth that contained more ancient-looking blackened
bones of a larger size. These were fragmentary, but when we
came upon pieces ot palmated antlers my friend pronounced
them without doubt to belong to the Irish elk. Its remains.
38 Mr. R. J. Ussher on
though frequently found in bogs, had never been discovered
before in a cave in Ireland, nor associated here with evidences
ot man ; but no sooner did Dr. Leith Adams find the bones of
this gigantic deer in the same bed with charcoal and other
relics of man than he freely confessed we had found proof that
the Irish elk had existed in the human period in this country.
In England Irish elk had been found with man in Kent's
cavern. The gigantic size of the stately and beautiful animal
may be judged by the skeletons and antlers in our museums.
Though found in other countries it has nowhere been found so
abundantly as in Ireland, where it had probably had fewer
enemies, as there were not so many species of beasts of prey,
and it certainly multiplied and flourished largely throughout
this island, where its remains are often found in, or rathei
under, bogs, most commonly in the shell-marl. At Cappagh
luy father found the bones and antlers of at least sixteen, and in
Ballybetagh Bog, County Dublin, no fewer than one hundred
and thirty individuals were discovered. It is chiefly the males
that are thus found, probably owing to the enormous weight of
their antlers having made them more likely to be drowned or
bogged.
But to return to the Ballynamintra cave, we found in the
earth of the second stratum or in crevices of the rocky walls
many bones of the Irish elk. They were split and broken, the
ends of the narrow bones being invariably knocked off, as used
to be done by all ancient peoples to the bones of an ox and
other beasts. Moi cover, the pieces of Irish elks' antlers could
hardly have been brought into that small cave except by man,
the animal being too large to enter it alive. These facts of
themselves show that we had found the retreat of an early
people who had hunted the Irish elk, of which at least five
individuals were represented by their remains. In the same
stratum that contained them were quantities of burned wood,
and this charcoal, which formed a seam in the midst of the
grey earth, marked an ancient floor or hearth, and proved that
the bed had not been disturbed. There were aho sea shells in
Evidence oj the Caves. 39
it, brought bv the human inhabitants, and a number of stones
suitable for taking in the hand and striking with, which were
chipped along their edges in a way that leaves no doubt they
had been used to break the bones with. Beneath the grey
earth were remains of a great stalagmite floor, four feet thick in
places, which had crystallised. In the lower part of this,
which lay upon a bed of gravel, were found embedded the
teeth and bones of a huge bear, pronounced by Professor Busk
to have been the grisly bear, now confined to the Rocky Moun-
tains of North America. The deposits of this cave also con-
tained some teeth and bones of reindeer. Thus the Ballyna-
niintra Cave yielded relics of three distinct ages — the neolithic,
with its polished stone axe and domestic animals ; then the age
of the elk-hunters ; and before that the time of the grisly bear.
Within the last two years good work has been done in other
Irish caves by a Committee appointed by the British Associa-
tion, under Dr. Scharff, who has organised the movement, and
assigned to me the execution of the excavations. In 1901 we
worked in caves in Keish Corran Mountain, County Sligo, in
which were found two distinct strata — the uppermost of grey
earth, containing a stone celt, bronze pins and objects of iron,
abundance of charcoal, bones of domestic animals, and some
oyster and mussell shells. Bones of bear were also found, and
a shin bone of reindeer, beneath which charcoal occurred, in the
same stratum. This was fair evidence that the reindeer had
been contemporaneous with man in Ireland. The second
stratum was a clay in which the characteristic animal was the
brown bear ; but in these caves the jaws and bones of the Arctic
lemming were found in abundance. This was the first dis-
covery ot it in Ireland, and the species differs from the lemming
of Norway, and is not found nearer than Greenland at the
present day.
During the summer of 1901 two groups of caves have
been excavated at Edenvale, in County Clare. In these the
upper stratum has, as usual, yielded in profusion charcoal, bones
of domestic animals, many human bones, and other relics of
40 Mr. R. J. Ussher on Evidence of the Caves.
ancient art, knives of iron, objects of bronze, bracelets of metal,
an amber bead, pins or awls of bone ; but besides these, chiefly
in the second stratum, we found great numbers of bones and
teeth of reindeer and bear, and some of the latter of enormous
size, whose species remains to be determined. Some relics of
the Irish elk also have occurred in the Edenvale caves, which
are very complicated and extensive, and are by no means dug
out.
In the chalky limestone of the Antrim cliffs numerous caves
occur, and during the formation of the new walk at the Gobbins
last summer by the Belfast and Northern Counties Railway
Company a large cavern was found, closed by a slipped piece of
the cliff, and full of the shingle of an old raised beach. In this
Mr. Welch has found many bones of domestic and wild
animals, and some portions of red deer's antler of large size,
which are exhibited. It is hoped that further researches of
various parts of Ireland will lead to a much fuller knowledge of
its prehistoric past.
Mr. John M. Dickson moved a vote of thanks to the lecturer.
Professor J. Symington, in seconding the motion, said,
though Mr. Ussher was a well-known ornithologist, in recent
years he had become possibly better known as a cave explorer.
He believed interesting investigations could be made on the
Northern coast as regarded cave exploration.
iMr. William Gray, from personal research, believed that in-
teresting results would reward the proper investigation cf the
caves along the North coast of Antrim, from White Park Bay
to Carrick-a-Rede. A cave near Pulbraddan was well worth
exploring.
Mr. R. Knowles thought the question was deserving of the
consideration of the Field Club.
The motion was passed.
41
']th January, 1 903.
Mk. J. Brown, F.R.S., President, in the Chair.
HEREDITY IN ITS RELATION TO THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM.
By John M. MacCormac, M.D., L.R.C.P. k. S.Edin.
(^Abstract.)
In assuming that the mind of a child is devoid of character or
ideas, Locke attributed nothing to heredity. Man enters this
world as a stranger, it is true, but he can investigate and
explore, and his mind is ever active to receive various per-
ceptions, and it is a matter of common observation that the
same objects produce different effects upon different minds. A
poet, painter or geologist looks at a landscape with entirely
different ideas. While the country lad knows every bird song
and the intricacies of every glade, the town-bred boy revels
in bricks and mortar and despises the dirty lanes. In all there
is a special quality, which responds to external perceptions, and
which is due to heredity.
The broadest principle of heredity is, that like produces like,
that all the physiological and psychological characteristics of
the parent are transmitted to the child. Hence Darwin's
theory of Pangenesis, which supposes that every cell gives off
gemmules or germs, which permeating the whole body, and
42 Mr. John M. MacCormac on
becoming collected in the generative cells, can reproduce the
whole organism. This theory was too complex to commend
itself to physiologists.
Sanson defines heredity as the transmission of natural or
acquired qualities from predecessor to descendants. Professor
Weisman founds a theory of heredity, which assumes that
acquired characters cannot be transmitted, while many consider
that they can be inherited. It is clear that acquired characters,
such as mutilations, e.g., the clipping of dogs' ears and tails,
the piercing of women's ears, the deformity of the feet of
Chinese women, affect the individual only. Dr. Archdall Reid
remarks that there are two classes of characters, inborn and
acquired, and the question of the transmission of the latter
has been warmly debated. This diff'erence of opinion arises
from the difficulty of deciding what is due to heredity, and
what to environment. It is commonly saii that all theories of
heredity are in essence theories of evolution, but theories of
evolution depend directly upon environment, while theories of
heredity are closely associated with the nervous system.
Professor Titchencr maintains that every child is born with
certain tendencies, which differ according as the child takes
after this or that predecessor. The nervous system of each is
the product of a long course of development, and all sorts of
influences have combined to aff"ect it. Hence the different
mental characteristics.
But are physiological and psychological heredity mutually
dependent or not ? Science cannot settle this, unless we are
prepared for materialism, and to deny the existence of the soul.
This must be considered. The ancients believed that souls
migrated from men to animals and vice versa, and this belief,
finding its way into the early church, gave rise to different
theories of the soul's existence. Later arose the question
whether the soul was not generated at the same time as the
body, and the theory " Traducianism," arising out of this, was
adopted by many of the early Fathers. Lactaniius asked from
which parent the soul sprang, and exploded the theory.
Heredity in its Relation to the Nervoiis System. 43
A later theory " Creationism " suggested that the Creator is
perpetually creating souls, and infusing them into bodies.
This subjects the work of the Almighty to the will of human
beings. A third theory teaches that the Creator, at the
beginning, imparted to man a spiritual element, which should,
in due course, develop into a force, controlling the body, and
becoming fitted for a continuous existence. Thus may be
understood the possibility of a permanent physiological state,
producing or developing a permanent psychological state
corresponding with it. To admit psychological heredity
therefore follows the admission of the principle of physiological
heredity, and establishes the direct influence of the nervous
system upon mental processes. We therefore hold with
Spencer that Consciousness is a continuous adjustment of
internal with external relations, that every psychical pheno-
menon is inherent in some organ, and that mental and physical
tendencies are alike transmitted.
Evolution, to which reference must be made, depends upon
external influences or environment, and influences both the
physical and mental characteristics. This influence can be so
directed as to considerably affect earlier hereditary traits, and
produce variation within the species. Illustrations of this fact
are well known. The modified theory of evolution of Monsieur
Naudin is that its object is to produce a definitive species, since
in the earliest period living creatures had a more plastic and
variable habit than now, and that this plastic character is an
evidence of design. It is however for Science yet to confirm
this, as well as the Darwinian theory of the variability of species.
No evidence can be found of the transformation of species,
while the weak as well as the strong find room for existence.
Moreover palaeontology establishes the identity of seeds, plants
and species with those of ages far remote, while another strong
objection to the transformation theory is the uniform sterility of
hybrids. It must also be observed that as soon as the operation
of environment ceases, there is a gradual return to the
primitive type. As Professor Drummond pointed out, choice
44 Mr. John M. MncCormac on
roses, strawberries, raspberries, and fruit trees, if left untended,
without culture, return to the briar, the wild fruit of the
woods, the bramble, and the useless undergrowth. Similarly
fancy pigeons soon revert to the plain, uniform colour of the
original type. The same is observable in human beings, who
neglect themselves, and are removed from beneficial and
improving influences. These considerations show how closely
interwoven are the laws of heredity and evolution, and afford
striking evidence of design. One of the greatest of naturalists.
Professor Agassiz maintains this, when he says : — " Nothing in
the organic kingdom is calculated to impress us so strongly as
the unity of plan, which is apparent in the structure of the most
various types." And after pointing out the wonderful relations
and admirable harmony, he says : — " If all these relations are
beyond man's intellectual power to grasp, if man himself is but
a part or fragment of the whole system, how could this system
have been called into being it there were not a supreme
intelligence the author of all things ?" Monsieur Ribot raises
the ascertained fact of the physiological and psychological
transmission of general specific characters to the dignity of a
law, with the necessary reservation, that heredity is twofold
and that the operation of the law must be in favourable
circumstances, otherwise the blind fatality of its laws might
make decadence the rule. But as universal life develops in the
direction of progress, heredity is not abandoned to a blind
fatality. There must be a presiding directing power. So
Darwin has taught us that the laws of evolution point to a
supreme intelligence. His theory, however, like those of
Haeckel and Spencer, is intensely materialistic. While
enforcing his law ol the persistence of force, Spencer had to
admit the possible existence of an intelligent causation ; but
Haeckel recognised only the materialistic principle, starting
with the theory of spontaneous generation. Professor Tyndall
and Dr. Dallinger have however disproved this theory by
showing that life can only come from the touch of life. Dr.
Archdall Reid asks us to consider the vast complexity, physical
Heredity in its Relation to the Nervous System. 45
and mental, of man, to think of our futile microscopes and our
infantile chemical analyses, and so to gather some idea of the
vanity of attempting to pry into the how of the inheritance of
either inborn or acquired trails. The law exists, and from a
physiological standpoint argues in favour of determinism. But
psychology must also be considered, and hence the influence of
the nervous system. If the mind is merely a physical outcome
of the brain, then psychological and physiological phenomena
cannot be distinguished, but the theory of the soul's existence
is an important factor here. Luys and Vfaudsley both hold that
the physical operations of the brain constitute intellectual and
moral life, and that by means of these, it feels, remembers, and
re-acts. This materialistic doctrine, which asserts the identity
of brain and thought, sets aside all idea of free will. It
maintains that " The organism is the man himself," that
" intelligence is the result of organic phenomena," that
" thought is only a functic n of the nervous centres." But is
this so ? Internal phenomena can only be perceived b)' one
faculty — consciousness, and Maudsley himself admits that they
are incapable of experimental demonstration. The moral and
physical are not identical, for the mind, conscious of motion, is
also conscious of itself. It is an " ego" and cannot be produced
by a material organ. The brain is the organ of thought, as the
eye is the organ of vision, and as perfect vision depends up..n a
perfect eye, so perfect thought depends upon a perfect brain.
Now the nervous system has certain leanings in a definite
direction, and what that direction is, is determined by influence,
which even afl'ected remote ancestors. But it is in youth easil}''
moulded. Hence the great problem of Education for habit
becomes second nature.
Psychologically "apperception" is defined as a psychical
activity by which individual perceptions are brought into
relation to our previous intellectual and emotional life,
assimilated with it, and raised to greater clearness and
significance. It thus indicates the intimate relationship between
Heredity and the Nervous System, and may be considered the
46 Heredity in its Relation to the Nervous System.
connecting link between physiological and psychological
developments. This common ground presupposes a mental
bias, but what that bias is we cannot predict, we can only learn
by experience. That this bias can be altered or modified by
attention, an act of volition, to other influences, is a matter of
daily observation and experience. We cannot therefore but
conclude that the nervous system is seriously affected by
environment, habit and volition, and that there is an influence
directly transmitted from one generation to another. How far
this influence may be directed or counteracted by the will is a
question to be determined. If to-day we are the subjects of it,
this arises from the freedom of yesterday. Our good or ill may
be referred to the free acts of our predecessors, so we, by the
ferce of our own will, are the parents of our own acts, and may
influence the acts of others. Our consciousness convinces us
that, while we have acted in a certain way, it was m our own
power to have acted otherwise. The great past is the outcome
of human freedom, and it is to that freedom we must look for
the improvement or depreciation of the influences affecting
future genetations.
Professor Gregg Wilson, in proposing a vote of thanks to Dr.
MacCormac for his lecture, said he was not going to say very
much, because after considering such grave matters as those
treated in the lecture one was more in a condition to think than
to talk. He believed Dr. MacCormac would have the effect of
stimulating a great deal of thought and controversy amongst
his audience.
Mr. Robert Patterson seconded the vote of thanks, which was
uuanimously passed.
Dr. MacCormac briefly replied in acknowlegement of the
vote.
47
'^rd February^ I903-
Mr. Robert Young, J.P,, in the Chair.
THE MICRO-FAUNA OF THE BOULDER CLAY,
WITH SOME REMARKS ON THE MOVEMENT
OF GLACIERS,
By Joseph Wright, F.G.S.
(Abstract.)
Boulder Clay is a stiff compact clay, containing numerous
boulders as well as smaller stones, the greater portion of which
are more or less rounded, their surfaces being often striated and
scored. It formed the subsoil of the greater part of this
country — it occurred at all elevations, from the sea level to a
height of upwards of 1,500 feet above the sea. Foraminifera
have been found at many places in the clay. I have examined
samples of it from 134 localities — from Ireland, England,
Wales, Scotland, Isle of Man, Canada, and Novaia Zemlia. and
in 105 of these Foraminifera had been found. In some places
they were very rare, in others they were abundant, but their
presence was demonstrated in three-fourths of the instances.
With one or two exceptions all the species found in the clay
occurred recently off our coast, the fossil specimens havino-
usually the fresh lustrous appearance of specimens brought up
by the dredge. Ten of the samples were obtained from alti-
tudes of 500 to 1350 feet, all of which, with one exception,
contained Foraminifera.
48 Air. Joseph Wnght on
With the exception of sixteen samples received from Novaia
Zemlia which, on account of the smallness of their size, had to
be examined in detail under the microscope, floatings from the
clays were alone examined. To ascertain how far the process
of floating could be relied on for giving conclusive results, one
ounce troy of the boulder clay from Woodburn, Carrickfergus,
was examined with great care. The first floating contained
1,400 specimens, this process having to be repeated twenty-four
times before specimens ceased to come up. What remained
of the clay was then examined under the microscope, and
sixty-seven additional specimens were got from it. Upwards of
2,100 specimens were obtained from this ounce of clay. This ex-
perimentclearlydemonstrated that the process of floating cannot
be relied on for proving the non-existence of Foraminifera in
Boulder Clay.
The micro-fauna of the Boulder clay is a peculiar one,
more than half of the entire specimens found being referable to
Nonioniiia depressula^ whilst Cassidtdina crassa^ though some-
what rare as a recent British species, is often plentiful. The
Porcellanous forms are usually very rare, whilst the Arenacca
are represented only by the species Haplophra^miinn
canariense.
The marine fauna in a climate so rigorous as must have pre-
vailed during the glacial period could not fail but be a poor
one. .VTr. S. A. Stewart, in his " Alollusca of the Boulder Clay
of the North East of Ireland, "says : — " MoUuscan shells occuring
in the Boulder clay are not numerous. In most cases they are
only got by patient searching, and then only in a fragmentary
condition ; but in a few instances they are less rare, and include
specimens in a perfect state. The presence of perfect shells of
Lcda was known long since to General Portlock, and forced
him to the same conclusion as arrived at by the author, that
the Boulder clay is a marine sedimentary deposit."*
No dovibt many of the shells in boulder clay were transported
*Pi-oc. Belfast Nat. Field Club. App. 1879S0.
The Micro-Fauna of the Boulder Clav, &e. 49
by icebergs with stones and rock fragments, but some of them
certainly lived at the places where they are now found, and
with some few exceptions, all the Foraminitera must have done
so, as these microzoa are usually as perfect and as fresh looking
a? recent specimens brought up by the dredge. There were in
glacial times both elevation and subsidence. First glacial
striation, then depression, boulder clay, and marine organisms-
At Woodburn and Knock Glen, Leda pygmcea and L.
inimita are frequently found with their valves united, here also
Foraminifera occur in the very greatest profusion, 100 species
having been found at Woodburn and 79 at Knock Glen.
Foraminifera in boulder clay are usually much smaller in size
than recent British species, but many of the specimens at these
two localities are fairly large in size, the following are the most
notable in this respect : — M-iUoUna semimihim, Nomonina
orbicularis and FolystomcUa arctica. Three of the species
found at Woodburn and five of those from Knock Glen are
only known as recent British species from gatherings taken off
the West Coast of Ireland, two of them also occurring off the
West Coast of Scotland. Some of these West of Ireland
species have also been found in boulder clay at other places.
Lagciia fimhriata was got at five other localities, one of them
being Larch Hill, Co. Dublin, 650 feet above the sea, and
Polystomella subnodosa was got at Deppel Burn, Ayrshire, at
106 1 feet elevation. The presence of these West of Ireland
Foraminifera in the boulder clay of Woodburn, Knock Glen,
and some other places, would lead us to infer that when these
clays were deposited the land stcod at a much lower level than
new, and when the marine conditions were somewhat similar to
what now prevails off the West Coast of Ireland. The fineness
of the clay at these two localities, and their freedom from stones,
the perfect condition of some of the Leda shells, the profusion
of Foraminifera, and the large size of some of the specimens,
would support the view that the clay at these two localities
was deposited in deep and quiet water, and below the disturb-
ing influence of ice action. Boulder clay with many stones in
d
50 Mr. Wright on The Micro- Fauna of the Boulder Clay, &c.
it usvially contains few Foraminifera, and would be characteristic
of deposits formed near exposed sea coasts, as such situations
are not favourable for marine forms of life.
Reference may be made to the slow downward movement of
glaciers by gravity, and that when they terminated in the sea,
as they frequently did in the Arctic regions, they sooner or
later broke off into large masses, floating away as icebergs,
carrying with them any stones or other material which they
had accumulated in their course. As ice when submerged
beneath the sea diminishes far more rapidly than when in air,
so the bergs quickly melted away, depositing their burden over
the floor of the ocean ; and to tl^.is cause, as also to the action
of shore ice, may be largely attributed the formation of boulder
clay.
Should at any future time the sea bed between Labrador and
Greenland be raised above the sea, one can readily imagine
such a place to present a very similar appearance to that which
we now find in boulder clay. There would be rock fragments
and stones striated and scored by ice action, with shells more or
less broken, and other material whicli had been dropped there
by bergs floating southward from Arctic places. With these
would be found associated mud and stones from the wearing of
rocks in the vicinity, and also marine organisms that lived
at the place.
PLATE I.
JCTNCnON OF GEAXITE AND SILURIAN ROCK, GLEN lUVER, NEWCASTLE, CO. DOWN.
To the left a lamprophyre dyke, cut off by the granite. 0— Granite; S— Silurian shale;
D— Dyke of Diorilic lamprophyre. (From a photograph by Miss M. K. Andrews : copyright).
51
NOTES ON SOME IGNEOUS ROCKS IN DOWN
AND, ANTRIM.*
By Miss Mary K. Andrews.
{Abstract.]
Thf, following brief notes refer to rocks exposed in the bed of
the Glen River at Newcastle, Co. Down, to certain dykes on
the Mourne Coast, north of Glasdrumman Port, to a few of the
rhyolites of Co. Antrim, and to one or two points of interest
connected with its Basaltic Plateau.
Beginning with the granite of the Mourne Mountains,
attention may be drawn to its well known resemblance in
miarolitic structure and other characteristics to some of the
granite of Arran, and to the probability that both are of
Tertiary age. Direct evidence is still wanting, but one of the
many points that support this inference, is that in its intrusion
into the surrounding grits and shales, the Mourne granite has
cut off a number of basic dykes, possibly belonging to the
Tertiary " Lower Basalts," and is itself penetrated by a less
numerous later series, probably representative of the " Upper
Basalts." In the first lantern slide (reproduced in Plate I.),
one of these older dykes is seen cut off by the granite. This
very interesting section occurs at an approximate height of 550
feet above sea level, and about 300 yards from the second stone
bridge in Donard Lodge Park. The photograph shows the
junction of the granite and Silurian rock in the bed of the
Glen River. The head of the hammer is on the line of
* The paper was mostly illustrated by lantern slides from the author's geological
photographs, and bv microscopic sections of specimens she had collected.
52 Miss M. K. Andrews en
junction, where the two rocks are united into so hard a mass,
it was difficult to obtain specimens. Towards the middle of
the river granite veins penetrate the sedimentary rock, whose
normal colour becomes lighter in its vicinity. Microscopic
sections of the granite obtained at and above this junction
show beautiful examples of the micrographic intergrowth of
quartz and felspar characteristic of granophyres. At the left
side of the photograph, close to the rieht bank of the river, a
dyke of dioritic lamproph\re is seen traversing the Silurian
rock in a N.N.W. direction, and is cut off by the granite. The
shale in contact is greatly indurated, and so similar in colour
to the dyke, that it was not easy to trace the exact line of
demarcation. In microscopic section, the intermingling of the
green hornblende bands, probably of igneous origin, with the
brown clastic patches cf the sedimentary rock is very striking.*
(Plate 2.) When the river is exceptionally low a continuatioVi
of one of the granophyric veins already referred to, can be seen
crossing the dyke.
Donard Tunnel passes close to this junction, and there are
large specimens from it on the table — baked sedimentary rock,
penetrated by eurite bands. In the course of its construction,
I had in September, 1897, an opportunity of seeing dykes of
the later series. A very interesting section was then tem-
poral ily exposed in the " cut and cover " to this tunnel, about
a quarter cf a mile south of the Bloody Bridge River. The
normal granite of the district was here seen to about six feet in
depth, capped b}^ four feet of drift deposit. Two basalt dykes
traversed the granite at an interval of fort\^ yards from each
* This microscopic section, with one of the dyke itself, was submitted to Professor
Cole, to whom I am indebted for the following interesting remarks. "Your 'dioritic
lamprophyre ' is a curious rock, with its sparse triclinic felspars, and its groundwork of
biotite and green hornblende. It looks as if a magma capable of making biotite
and pyroxene had remained as a groundwork after the felspar had developed,
and then this magma crystallised out, the pyroxenic matter finally passing into granular
ampKibole. But the Silurian contact-rock fhows similar patches of granular horn-
blende, and an abundance of the same brown mica. Is this rock permeated by the
igneous one in intimate streaks, or does the igneous one owe some of its matter to
absorption of the adjacent sediment ? The former view looks to me more probable."
Photo and Process Block by Bemrose d: Sons, Limited, Derby.
/PLATE II.
MICROSCOPIC SECTION showing junclion of Dioritic lamprophyre dyke, with
indurated Silui'ian shale. The lamprophyre is at the top. Intermingling of igneous and
sedimentary rock below. The hornblendic bands are the darkest. The lighter parts arc
sedimentary, traversed by short dark bands composed of biotite (X4S \
Some Ig)ieous Rocks in Down and Antrim. 53
other, and thirty yards further south, it was also traversed by a
conspicuous greenish granite band about five feet wide. A
microscopic section of the more southern basic dyke shows
it to be a true basalt. Newer thun the granite which it
penetrates, it probably represents the Tertiary "Upper Basalts."
The greenish granite is a handsome rock, with fairly large
crystals of quartz and felspar, coarser in texture than the
normal granite, but the difference microscopically is not very
great.
The next slides show dykes on the sea coast, and in connec-
tion with these, I may refer to Major Patrickson's paper read
before the Geological Society of Dublin in 1835, entitled, "A
descriptive list ot the dykes appearing on the shore which
skirts the Mourne Mountains." His list includes 76 dykes.
One of these, No. 48, he mentions as a porphyritic dyke,
a quarter of a mile North of Mullartown, and describes Nos. 47
and 49 as hornblende dykes in parallel contact with it. These
have been identified by Professor Cole with the now well known
composite dyke at Glasdrumman Port, minutely described by
him in a paper " On derived crystals in the Basaltic Andesite of
Glasdrumman Port," * in which he shows that " crystals may be
floated away into a pre-existing rock of a low degree of
fusibility from one of a higher degree which has intruded into
it." The igneous contact described by Professor Cole is
illustrated by the next two lantern slides, from Mr. Welch's
scries of " Irish Geological Views." Hand specimens from this
interesting dyke are on the table.
Passing on to Dunmore Head it may be of interest to note
that this is one of the few localities in the British Islands where
variolite has been found, and with specimens of the Dunmore
variolite, there are others from Annalong, Anglesey, and
Australia, the latter particularly interesting as being tlie fii'st
variolite discovered there. It was found in the bed of the
Saltwater River, near Sydenham, upon an excursion, conducted
* Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. Vol. V., Scr. 11., Aug. 1894.
54 il^m M. K. Andrews on
in April, 1902, by Dr. Gregory. For this specimen 1 am
indebted to Mr. Chapman, Palaeontologist of the National
Museum, Melbourne.
The next slide shows the position of a large porphyrite
(altered andesite) dyke, about a quarter of a mile south of
Green Harbour, apparently No. 23 of Major Patrickson's list.
In the mam central part of the dyke there are very numerous
and large crystals of labradorite, and in microscopic section, the
schillerization of the labradorite, and the " strain shadows "
have a very beautiful effect.
In the little creek, called ''Goat's Cove," shown in the next
slide, there is a small composite dyke I have not seen noted
elsewhere. The quartz-porphyry in the centre has an average
width of three feet, and is bounded on both sides by a basic dyke
into which the acid rock has probably intruded. A few dark
inclusions are found in the quartz-porphyry, which in micro-
scopic section appear to be altered shale. The position of this
creek is a little south of Bloody Bridge, almost immediately
below the interesting old ruin of Ballaghanery church,
popularly known as St. Mary's. Another composite dyke
occurs at Dullisk Cove, just north of this creek.
The next two views show parts of a very interesting dyke on
the sea coast, a little north of Bloody Bridge, in front of a low
hill known as Rock-a-bill. It travel ses Silurian strata in a
north and south direction, and at the northern end, consider-
able patches of the Silurian beds are seen at the surface. The
rock appeared at first sight to be a typical quartz-felsite, but
microscopic examination of the first slide made, revealed certain
characteristics of rhyolites, which indicate the intermediate
position it holds between these well marked types. Dr. Cullis,
to whom it was shown, described it as a " stony rhyolite
approaching quartz-felsite." * Other microscopic sections show
the base in various stages of devitrification. This dyke cuts
S {* Mr. H. J. Seymour asked for the loan of this microscopic section to exhibit before
the Dublin Microscopical Club, and the details he then gave are published in "The
Irish Naturalist," Sept., 1897, p. 24-8
Some Ignco2is Rocks in Down and Antrim. 55
through one of basalt, which may be seen in the bottom of a
deep gully. Between this and Newcastle there are several
basic dykes, one large one occurring just below the houses
known as the " Widow's Row."
As the granite of ihe Mourne Mountains is now regarded
as probably contemporaneous with the riiyolites of Co. Antrim,
I have selected for the first two views in that county slides
showing the rhyolite at the east and west ends of the quarry
at Templepatrick Railway Station. It was here that Mr.
M'Henry obtained the interesting evidence which led him to
the conclusion that the rhyolite had intruded in the form of a
laccolite into the Lower Basalt series, now regarded as of Eocene
age, while further evidence obtained at Ballypaladyand Gleuarm,
showed it to be older than the Upper Basalt sheets, or, so to
speak, of mid-basaltic age.* It is interesting to note that, in
this respect, these later observations bear out the view of Sir
Richard Griffith, who in his address to the Geological Society
of Dublin in 1836, placed the relative age of the " Sandy Brae
Porphyry " between that of the "Lower" and " Upper tabular
trap.''
The chiei locahties in Co. Antrim for rhyolites, besides
Templepatrick, are Tardree, Sandy Braes, and Ballymena.
Specimens from these districts are on the table, for several of
which I am indebted to Mr. Robert Bell, whose fine collections
of fossils and rock specimens are well known.
The next lantern slide shows an exposure of beautifully
banded rhyolite in a quarry between Tardree and Sandy Braes
and it will be followed by two slides showing a small protrusion
of rhyolite at Clough water. /' The whole mass," Professor
Cole writes, '' is so small, that it might possibly be a displaced
portion of a lava-stream, as it stands we must regard it as
representing a volcanic neck." |
* " On the Age of the Trachytic Rocks of Antrim," by A. M'Henry, M.R.I. A.
Geol. Mag., Dec. 4, Vol. 2, p. 260.
t The RhyoUtes of the Co. of Antrim. By Grenville A. J. Cole, M.R I A
F.G.S. Sc. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc, vol. VI., Ser. II., p. 112.
56 Miss M. K. Andreivs on
The second view of this rhyohte boss includes the moorland
behind, and Slemish, the finest example in our district of a
volcanic neck, in the extreme distance.
In connection with the dolerite of which Slemish is
composed, I may mention that it was in this rock that my
father, Dr. Andrews, by a magneto-chemical process, discovered
native iron widely diffused in microscopic particles. The
observation was unexpected, as except in meteorites, native
iron is of very rare occurrence. Dr. Andrews detected it also
in various basalts, in the induiated lias ofPortrush, and in a
trachyte from Auvergne, but the largest indications were
obtained from the olivine dolerite of Slemish.
The next lantern slides show views of Kenbaan, one of the
most striking headlands of our coast. The intrusion of basalt
below the chalk anticline is of special interest in connection
with the well known controversy between " Neptunists " and
" Vulcanists " in regard to the origin of basalt and other
igneous rocks.
My last slide is of Scrabo Hill, which although in Co.
Down, is regarded as an outlier of the Antrim Ba&altic Plateau.
It affords very fine examples of sills and dykes, exposed in its
large quarries of Triassic sandstone. The sandstone has been
protected on the top by a cappmg of dolerite, and the lantern
slide shows a typical section v/ith intrussive sills, cut through
by a vertical dyke of later age.
The economic importance of the igneous rocks of Antrim
and Down is well known, and in regard to this it is suflScient
to note the employment of Castlewellan granite in the Albert
Memorial, Hyde Park, and to refer to the important inquiries,
instituted by Mr. Wilkinson, into the qualities of the various
kinds of stones used for building purposes in Ireland. The
results of his experiments are given in his work, entitled,
"Practical Geology, and Ancient Architecture of Ireland,"
published in 1845.
In addition to the ordinary tests, I wish to draw attention to
the great value of microscopic sections in determining the
Some Tgneotis Rocks in Down ana Antrim. 57
qualities of building stones, and in this connection the following
quotation from a letter just received from the eninent geologist
Professor Judd, is of much interest. "Microscopic sections"
Professor Judd writes, *' are not infrequently employed to dis-
criminate between the hardness and durability of different
kinds of building materials, and of other rocks used for
economic purposes.
There are two kinds of observations that can be made, ist,
as to the nature of the cement between the grains of a rock ;
2nd, as to the amount of incipient decomposition the particles
of a rock have undergone."
I have only now, in conclusion, to add — we are all justly
proud of our coast scener)^, do not let quarrying operations
mar its beauty nor accelerate its erosion. On the other hand,
geology may be largely aided by quarrying, and may we not
hope that, especially in the inland rhyolite districts, further
sections, as interesting as the classic section at Templepatrick,
may yet be revealed.
Note on some Experiments on Irish Stone for Street
Paving hy H. Gullan.
Mr. H. Gullan, Superintendent of Works to the Corporation,
referring to the use of Irish stone for street paving, informed ,
the members present that the Works Department were about
to lay down a series uf lengths of sett paving in Corporation
Street with stone from several Irish quarries, with a view of
testing the quality of the various stone for the purpose of
street paving. He also mentioned that a similar experiment
58 Mr. H. Gullan on Some Experiments on Irish Stone^ &c.
was being carried out iu connection witli road metal in Upper
Townsend Street.
These experiments, he pointed out, would be of great value
in determining the relative qualities of the stones, and he
also trusted would result in the further development of Irish
quarries.
Professor Redfern moved, and Mr. R. Patterson, seconded, a
vote of thanks to the lecturers, which was heartily passed.
59
2)rd March ^ 1903-
Mr. J. Brown, F.R.3., President in the Chair
THE ARMADA WRECKS ON THE IRISH COAST.
Bt Rev. W. S. Green, M.A.
{Abstract.)
Rev. W. S. Green said that during the last dozen years a
great deal of his life had been spent in the West Coast of
Ireland. In the early part of that time he had to make a
survey of the fishing grounds when Mr. Arthur Balfour was
Chief Secretary for Ireland. It was natural that his interest
should be awakened in the history of the past. There were a
great many periods pressed on their attention when they were
wandering round those places and had time to think, and there
was no time more remarkable or striking when they tried to
picture it than those days when the galleons of the great
Spanish Armada were drifting ashore on all the bays of the
West of Ireland. «■
At first it was difficult to get at any history on that point,
but all the time he had been wandering in the West a good
deal ot publishing had been going on, publishing of the State
papers not only British, but Spanish and Venetian, and all
those documents had been made accessible by order of the
Master of the Rolls. Anyone who took the trouble could find
out in those pages the facts he would tell them, though a good
deal of digging was required to get at the ore.
From days long before the dawn of history traffic appeared
to have existed between the Iberian Peninsula and Ireland. It
mighc have commenced when the Phoenician colonists were
exploring the Western ocean. When history opened they
found trade with Spain thoroughly established. Several
6o Rev. W. S. Green on
incidents in the histories of Galway and of Watertord formed
good illustrations of this, as Spanish ships bearing wine and
other commodities were constantly coming, and taking back
hides, tallow, and fish. The fishing banks of the Irish coast
were annually visited by Spaniards, who had permanent
establishments in the harbours and creeks. In the early days
of Oueen Elizabeth as many as 600 Spanish fishing vessels were
reported on the Irish coast in a single year, and Spaniards had
permanent curing establishments.
Turning from peace to war, they read of a great sea fight in
the Harbour of Kinsale in the year 1380, when Spanish and
French galleys were attacked, and destroyed by English and
Irish. Later on, when Europe was convulsed by the wars
resulting from the Reformation and the breaking up of the
great empire of Charles V., Ireland came in for her share of
disturbance, but In those times Spanish experiences in Ireland
were almost a series of terrible disasters. The first act of
invasion was followed by the massacre at Fort Del Ore in 1580,
in Smerwick Harbour, in Kerry.
This, however, paled into insignificance when compared with
the loss of the ships of the great Armada, which took place
eight years after. In Connaught alone Sir Richard Bingham
reported between 6,000 and 7,000 men drowned, and that he
had executed 1,100 wretches who had escaped from the sea,
many of them being notable grandees of Spain. Besides these
losses thousands were drowned or slain in Ulster, while others
perished on the coast of Kerry.
Though they had read long ago in their story books that the
English fleet which went to attack the Armada was a small
fleet, and that the vessels were small, yet when they came to
look up the State papers they found that the vessels were fairly
matched, and at least in the battle fought at Calais the English
fleet outnumbered the Spanish considerably. There were about
100 Spanish vessels engaged against 140 ordinary English
ships, with 9,000 English sailors. The Spaniards had 7,000
seamen. The largest guns in those days were the 42-pounders,
The Armada Wrecks on the Irish Coast. 6i
and the Enslish had a gieat many more cf those heavy guns
in that fight. The Spaniards ahvays wished to come into close
quarters, but the English kept them at arm's length.
When the Spaniards were beaten they had to retreat round
the North of Scotland and down the West of Ireland back to
Spain, which the remainder of them reached starving, sick, and
in a miserable plight.
The largest ship in the Armada was 1,300 tons, and carried
about 40 guns. The largest English ship was about i,too tons,
so that there was only about 100 tons difference in size. The
poops of the Spanish vessels were very high ; the English cut
their ships lower, and had an advantage in sailing. The
English ships had been greatly improved in rigging. They
were able to sail within five points of the wind ; the Spanish
ships could only sail within six points of the wind. There was
about one point of difference, and it made all the difference in
the world. It enabled the English ships to keep the Spaniards
to leeward. The reason why the English ships sailed closer to
the wind was described in a book by Sir Walter Raleigh. The
Spanish and English vessels carried big sails, and the English
adopted bowlines, which were a great invention of that day,
and enabled the English to sail roimd the Spaniards.
Some of the Spanish vessels, the lecturer pointed out, were
propelled by three hundred rowers each, the idea being that
they should be able to attack when they liked, and in the calm
weather that no vessel could stand an attack from them. Un-
fortunate! v there was very little calm weather. The galleys,
with hundreds of slavcs chained to the oars, were always
worsted.
The lecturer then gave an account of the battle aiid the
retreat of the Spaniards up the North Sea and down the West
Coast of Scotland and Ireland. Out of 131 vessels only 65'
returned. Large numbers of the vessels perished on the Irish
coasts. He gave a resume of what had been learned of the
adventures of the following vessels, illustrating his discourse by
old maps, charts, and photographs, for the most part taken by
62 Rev. W. S. Green on
himself, on the Irish coast :— The Gerona, lost at the mouth of
the River Bush, in Antrim ; the Valencera, in Glenagivney
Bay ; the Duquesa Santa Ana, in Louohrosmore ; the Juliana
and La Via, also in Donegal ; the San Juan de Sicilia, on the
Sligo coast ; the Rata Encoronada, in Blacksod Bay ; El
Gran Grin, on Clare Island ; the Falco Blanco Mediano, in
Connemara ; and Nuestra Senora de la Rosa, in the Blasket
Sound, County Kerry. The lecturer devoted special attention
to the story of the Rata and to the adventures of Captain
Cuellar, whose letter, recently translated from the Spanish, has
proved so interesting to Irish readers.
So far as the literature of the subject was concerned, he
referred specially to Mr. Froude, Professor Lawton. Major
Hume, Mr. Allingham,and to the British, Spanish, and Venetian
State papers. In relating Captain Cuellar's adventures after
his miraculous escape from drowning in the wreck of the
Spanish galleon on which he sailed, he told the story of his
wanderings through the country. He made himself very
agreeable to the people, and stopped for some time with
a certain M'Clancy. One day when sitting in the sun
M'Clancy's M'ife asked him to tell her fortune. He stated that
be manufactured ten thousand falsehoods, which pleased her so
much that all the country round were coming to him, and a
special guard had to be appointed to protect him from these
people. M'Clancy was so delighted with him that he insisted
upon him marrying his sister, but that was too much for the
Spanish grandee, and he asked to be shown the shortest way
to Donegal. Eventually he managed to get to Scotland and
round home.
The lecturer, having referred to some relics oi the Armada,
hoped in conclusion that he bad been able to give them some
points that would make the reading of that very interesting
time in Irish history a little bit more interesting.
Professor Boas moved a vote of thanks to the lecturer. He
said that the admirable address to which they had listened that
evenino" was a most interesting exhibition of what he might
The Armada Wr-ecks 07i the Irish Coast. 63
call the new historical method. The older school of historians
had been content to base their narratives on the literary records
of the past. But the newer school, while not neglecting these,
drew upon two additional sources of information. Firstly they
went to the State papers, and other first-hand documents. It
was plain from his lecture that Mr. Green had made abundant
use of these — not only of the English State papers bearing on
the Elizabethan period, bu: of those belonging to foreign
countries. Secondly, the new school of historians, headed in
this respect by J. R. Green, called topography into their
service, and were not content without surveying, as far as
possible, the actual localities of the events which they described.
The value of this method had been illustrated in the clearest
possible way by the lecture that evening. Mr. Spctswood
Green had gone carefully over all the localities associated with
the wrecks of the Armada, and had used his camera to the best
advantage. He had thus been able to fill in with vivid detail
the narrative of events which they all knew in outline, and no
one could come away from the lecture without a heightened
historical sense, and a fuller grasp than before of the tragic
story of the Armada.
Professor Fitzgerald seconded the motion, which was heartily
carried, conveyed by the President, and suitably acknowledged
by the reader of the paper.
Note on some Effects of the Cyclo7ie of Fehruary,
27th, by R. Welch.
Photographs illustrating the effects of the cyclone of February
27th, at the Eastern intake at Limavady Junction were shown,
by Mr. R. Welch. The intake was flooded to the depth of eight
feet in some places as the result cf the embankment giving
way, the railway line being submerged also three feet at each
high tide.
64
7/// April ^ 1903.
Mr. J. Bi-ioWN, F.R.S., President in the Chair.
A LOST PRINCIPLE IN ART.
By George Coffry, M.A., MR.I.A.
{Abstract.)
Mr. George Coffey said the actual subject of the lecture was
really certain requirements, optical and artistic, which were
practised by old artists, and which h".d actually perished out of
art. Those discoveries, the great majority of them, were chiefly
due to Mr Good) ear, curator of Brooklyn Fine Art Institution,
who had made a toui in the North of Italy examining
mediccval architecture, and he reported certain refinements.
He had met Mr. Goodyear in England, and was in the position
of being able to show them that evening a number of vievi's of
those buildings, many of which would be seen on this side of
the Atlantic foi the first time.
English architects had pooh-poohed those discoveries, but he
was glad to say, because he believed in those theories, that on
the Continent those views were rapidly extending, and in
America they were being put into practical operation, so that
he h;d no doubt that in a very short time they would have
extended to this side of the waler. They knew the ordinary
Greek temple. Taking the Parthenon, it had been supposed
that the columns were perpendicular, that lines which appeared
horizontal were horizontal, and that it was laid out mathe-
matically correct, and it had been assumed that the intervals
between the columns were equal. Mr. Penrose, who died a
A Lost Principle in Art. 65
few years ago, discovered that it was filled with the most
wonderful refinements. The columns, which appeared to be
erect, leaned in slightly. The platform on which the temple
was built, instead of being flat, was delicately curved. A
delicate rhythm was given through the whole of the spacing of
the columns. There were a number of other refinements. A
sense of touch was given to the whole building, and every line
of it was considered with a view to its effect.
The curves were first discovered by an Englishman named
Pennythorn, and the general idea was that the curved line was
to give a greater appearance of strength. Since Penrose's time
it had been discovered that every Greek temple had its refine-
ments, and Goodyear's discoveries went to show that not only
did Egyptians and Greeks employ those refinements, but that
they passed on to Roman and came down to mediaeval times.
The principle was called assymmetry, and he thought they
would find that the principle of symmetry was death and the
principle of assymmetry life.
Repetition was part of a tendency in the world towards
uniformity, and there could be no manifestation of power
except there was difference, and unless there was something
vital and human in art there could be not relation between art
and them. In those commercial days, when they turned out
prints mechanically, commercial men had actually found it
necessary to devise machines with eccentricities to try and
imitate the life that was not in them.
In conclusion, he wanted to say let them not imagine this
was an artistic age. They had for the present done with art.
It died about 1600. But let them not imagine that by
crowding their rooms by a whole lot of manufactured art that
they were adding to the pleasure of life. Let them have plain
and comfortable rooms, and let them purchase at least if they
could one work of art.
The Chairman thought that, except in a few cases, they
could not call the architecture of Belfast art. It was
rather of the nature of a hereditary utilitarianism.
66 Mr. George Cojfey on
Sir Otto Jaffe moved a vote of thanks to the lecturer, and
believed if they should have the good fortune to visit any of
the places touched upon they would be able to recall the
instruction they had received that night with particular
pleasure.
Mr. Gray said that variety was an element of beauty in
architecture, as it was in nature. In his opinion the departures
from perpendicular, horizontal, and straight lines detected in
the ruins ot ancient Grecian and other buildings, were the
result of pressure, heat, and natural decay, and not to the
intentional design of the architect. Symmetry and not
assymmetry seem to have been the rule with the Greeks.
Mr. W. J. Fennell offered his tribute of thanks to the
lecturer for his valuable paper. He took exception to the
praise bestowed on the irregular designs of Pisa, and considered
the attempt of its builders to enhance the perspective defeated
its object, and compared its "crossing" and heavy looking
dome to that of Ely, considered that the latter was immeasur-
ably superior, and without laboured attempts at perspective.
He also considered chat the irregular arcading of Pisa had not
the same good effect as the more regular design of Gloucester.
That the art was not altogether " lost " he instanced that the
modern classic columns always bore evidence of the " swelling"
required for the perfect harmony that the eye demanded.
Mr. R. May said that it was a well known rule and principle
in all good carving shops in the executing of freize ornament
or good panels, where it was desired that the ground should
appear fiat, a fulness of over a sixteenth of an inch to the foot
was left in the centre, where, had the ground been finished
quite fiat, a weak or hollow appearance is the result. This
principle must have been handed down from very early times.
Mr. R. A. Dawson desired to add a word of thanks to the
lecturer for coming amongst them, and pointing out the various
refinements in architecture which were so easily neglected.
With the lecturer he believed in the unity of the arts, and that
all the arts clustered round architecture. He was glad that this
A Lost Principle in Art, 67
was being more and more recognised in our schools of art.
In their own school at Belfast chey had special classes for
architecture, and in order to get this unity in art work
architectural students were encouraged to study other branches
of work, and students in other classes were encouraged to
study architecture, so as to see its bearing on their own special
craft. No doubt we lived in a mechanical and material age,
tending to a loss of refinement, and the stamping out of
humanity and life in art. What we wanted nowadays to bring
back the refinement mentioned by Mr. Coffey, was more
recognition of the human element in art work, as against the
merely mechanical ; more hand work as against machine wcrk;
more work in situ as opposed to that worked out entirely
in the studio or office, and more craftsmen who were also
designers, and not mechanical copyists of designs by other
men, with which they had no sympathy. He had pleasure in
supporting the vote of thanks.
The motion was heartily passed, and the lecturer, in replying,
said he had only been able to touch the fringe of the subject,
and he referred those who would like to study the subject to
the Brooklyn Institute of Fine Arts' memoirs on the subject,
which they would probably find in the library.
i^atutal list0rg & IBIjilasopIjical Smttv.
Officers and Cou?icil of Maftagetnetit for ig>oj-ig04.
■^resibeiti :
PEOFESSOR JOHNSON SYMINGTON, M.D., F.E.S.
■^ice-"g*tresibcttfs :
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., il.d. I WiM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
SIR R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l. 1 ROBERT YOUNG, c.e., j.p.
F.L.S.
/aon. ■treasurer :
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
<^on. (£ibratrian:
JOHN H. DAVIES.
/»on. gccrefarg.
ROBERT M. Y'OUNG, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a.
JOHN BROWN, F.E.S., a.m.i.e.e.
JOHN H. DAYIES.
KEY. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d., prfsident q.c.b.
JOHN HORNER, m.i.m.e.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN. m.r.i.a., f.k.s.a.
SIR R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l., j.p., e.l.s.
ROBERT PATTERSON, m.r.i.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
THOMAS F. SIIILLINGTOX, j.p.
WM. SWANSTON, r.c.s.
PROFESSOR JOHNSON SYMINGTON, m.d., f.r.s.
PROFESSOR GREGG WILSON, d.sc.
JOSEPH WRIGHT, f.g.s.
ROBERT YOUNG, j.p., c.e.
R. M. Y'OUNG, B.A., J. p., M.R.I.A,
SHAREHOLDERS.
\^ Denotes holders of three or more Sharcs?\
*Alexarider, Francis, b.k., Belfast
Allworthy, S. W., m.d., Manor House, Antrim Road. do.
*Anderson, John j.p., f.g.s., East Hillbrook, Holyvvood
Andrew, John J., l.d.s., r.c.s. Eng., University Square, Belfast
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong, Thomas, jun., Donegall Square West, do.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, do.
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, do.
Barbour, James, j.p., Ardville, Marino Holywood
Beattie, Rev. A. H. Hamilton, Portglenone
Bigger, Francis J., m.r.i.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast
Bland, Robert H., j.p., Lisburn
Bottomley, Henry H., Belfast
Bowman, Davys, Holyrood, Malone Road, do.
Boyd, William, Great Victoria Street, do.
Boyd, William Sinclair, Ravenscroft, Bloomfield, do.
*Boyd, J. Sinclair, m.d., Chatsworth, Malone Road, do.
Braddc-11, Edward, Wilmington Square, Eastbourne
Brett, Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, Belfast
Brett, John H., c.e., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Bristow, James R., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.
Brown, John, f.r.s., a.m.i.e.e., Longhurst, Dunmurry
Brown, William K. (Representatives of), Belfast
Bulloch, Alexander, Kversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., m.a., m.d.. Lower Crescent, do.
Calwell, Alex. M'D., do.
Calwell, William, m.a., m.d., College Square North, do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Carr, A. H. R., Waring Street, Belfast
70
Shareholders.
Carson, John, Walmer Terrace, Holywood
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor
*Chrislen, Madame Rodolphe, Carnbinn, Whitehouse
Clark, George S., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., Netting Hill, do.
Coates, Victor, j.p., d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p., Queen's Elms, Belfast
Combe, George, Cranethorpe, Strandtown
Crawford, William, Mount Randal, Belfast
Crawford, William, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown
Davies, John H., Lenaderg House, Banbridge
*Deramore, Lord, d.l. (Representatives of)
Dixon, Professor, Almora, Myrtlefield Park, Belfast
Dods, Robert, b.a., St. Leonards, Newcastle
^Donegal, Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast
*Downshire, Marquis of (Reps, of). The Castle, Hillsborough
Duffin, Adam, ll.d., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park
(Representatives of), Ballywalter
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast
Ewart, Fred W., m.a., b.l., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., m.a., j.p., d.l., Glen-
machan House, Belfast
Faren, Wm., Mountcharles, do.
*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
Ferguson, Godfrey W., C.E., Donegall Park, Belfast
Finlay, Fred W., j.p.. Wolf hill House, Ligoniel
Finlay, Robert H. F., Cavehill Road, Belfast
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc, Kelvin House, Botanic
Avenue Belfast
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., b.a., m.lm.e., Assoc.
M.LC.E., Eglantine Avenue,
Foster, Nevin Harkness, Hillsborough,
do.
Co. Down
Shareholders.
V
*Getty. Edmund (Representatives of), Belfast
Gibson, Andrew, f.r.s.a.i., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, Miss, Mountpleasant, do.
Gordon, M., Hilden, Lisburn
*Grainger, Rev. Canon, D.n , m.r.i.a.,
(Representatives of) Broughshane
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Cavehill Road, Belfast
Greer, Thomas, j.p., m.r.i.a., Seapark, Carrickfergus
*Ha]I, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rev. Thos., d.d.. President, Queen's College, Belfast
*Hami]ton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, W., 3 Crescent Gardens, University Road, do.
Henderson, Miss Anna S., (Representatives of), do.
Henderson, Sir James, a.m., j.p., d.l., Oakley, Windsor
Park, do.
Henderson, Mrs. Charlotte (Reps, of), Clarges Street, London
Henry, R. M., m.a,,
Herdman, John, j.p., d.l., Carricklee House,
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, j.p., Rosavo,
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House,
Hind, John, junr., Clifton Park Avenue,
Hodges, Miss
Hogg, John, Academy Street,
Horner, John, m.i.m.f.., Chelsea, Antrim Read,
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.l., Orangefield,
*Hughes, Edwin, j.p., Dalchoolin,
Hyndman, Hugh, ll.d., Windsor,
Inglis, James, j.p., Abbeyville,
Belfast
Strabane
Cultra
Belfast
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Craigavad
Belfast
Whiteabbey
Jackson, A. T., c.e., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgie
Avenue, Belfast'
Jaffe, Sir Otto, j.p.. Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Dalguise, Monkstown,
Dublin
72 ShareJinlders.
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, Belfast
Kidd, George, j.p., Lisnatore, Dunmurry
*Kinghan, John R., Altoona, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Kinnaird, George Y., Malone Park, do.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, Mrs., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Larmor, Joseph, m.a , d.sc, ll d, f.r.a.s , f.r.u.i..
Sec. R.S., St. John's College, Cambridge
Leathern, R. R., m.d., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecumbe,
Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p , Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down
Letts, Professor E. A., ph.d., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra
Lindsay, Professor James A., m.a., m.d., College Square
East Belfast
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House, do.
Lytle, Joseph H., j.p., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.t,., m.i.c.e., Dunmurry
Mackenzie, John, c.E., Strathavon, Lisburn Road, Belfast
*Macrory, A. J., (Representative of), do.
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonville, do.
Malcolm, Bowman, m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim Road, do.
Maxton, James, m.i.n.a., m.i.mar.r., Kirkliston Drive,
Bloomfield, do.
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens, do.
Mayes, William, 5 Mount Pleasant, do.
Milligan, Seaton Forest, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a., Bangor
Mitchell, Robert A., ll.b , t.c.d., Marmont, Strandtown
Montgomery, Henry C, Bangor
Montgomery, H. H., Strandtown, Belfast
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.l., Ballydrain House. Dunmurr}'
Moore, James, The Finaghy, Belfast
Morton, Professor W. B., m.a., Nottinghill, do.
Shareholders.
73
Mullen, William, Lindistarne, Marlborough Park,
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p.. Tudor House,
*Murphy, Isaac James,
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of),
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone,
*Musgrave, Henrv, Drumglass, Malone,
Belfast
Holywood
Armagh
Belfast
do.
do.
Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., d.l., j.p., Drumglass, Malone, do.
MacAdam, Robert (Representatives of), do.
M'Bride, Henry James, Hyde Park, Mallusk, do,
M'Bride, Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
*'Vl'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London
*M'Cammon, Thos. Plaisted, Woodville, Holywood
M'Cance, Miss Charlotte Georgianna, Larkfield, Dunmurry
M'Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart., j.p., d.l. (Representatives
of)
MacColl, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, Belfast
MacCormac, John M., m.d.. Victoria Place, do.
MacCormac, Hugh M'Neile, Cultra House, Holywood
*M'Cracken. Francis (Representatives of)
M'Gee, James, Woodville, Holywood
Macllwaine, John H., Mornington Park, Bangor
M'Kisack, H. L., m.d.. College Square East, Belfast
M'Knight, John P., Nevara, Chichester Park, do.
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p., Queen's Elms, do.
M'Neill, George, Beechleigh, Malone Road, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Holywood
Nicholson, Henry J., College Square North, Belfast
O'Neill, James, m.a., College Square East, do.
O'Rorke, Mrs., Dunratho, Craigavad
Orr, Hugh L., Woodstock Road, Belfast
Park, Rev. Wm., m.a., Somerset House, University St., Belfast
Patterson, Edward Ferrar, Ballyholme Road, Bangor
Patterson, Mrs. Isabella, Bonn, Germany
Patterson, John, Dunallan, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
74 Shareholders.
Patterson, Richard, j.f., Kilmore, Holj^wood
*Patterson, Sir, Robert Lloyd, j.p., d.l... f.l.s., Croft House do.
Patterson, Robert, m.r.i.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u., Malone Park, Belfast
Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a., Garranard, Strandtown
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Knock, Belfast
Pim, Edward W., j.p., Elm wood Terrace, do.
Pim, Joshua, Slieve-na-Failthe, Whiteabbey
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.e., m.r.i.a., National Library, Dublin
Rae, John Henry, m.d., University Street, Belfast
Rae, William R., Gardha, Fortwiiliam Park, do.
Reade, Robert, H. S. j.p., d.l., Wilmont, Dunmurry
Riddell, Samuel, Beechpark Belfast
Robertson, William, j.p., Netherleigh, Strandtown do.
Robinson John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc. Royal Academical
Institution, do.
Shillington, Thos. Foulkes, j.p., Dromart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, Felix Booth, Queen Street, do.
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a., T-P-j r).L., Hopefield, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, M.i;., f.r.c.s. Eng., Howard St., do.
Smith, John, Castleton Terrace, do.
Smyth, John, m.a., c.e., Miletown, Banbridge
Speers, Adam, b.sc, Riversdale, Holywocd
Steen, William C, m.d., Windsor Crescent, Belfast
Steen, William, b.l.. Northern Bank, Victoria Street, do.
Stelfox, James. Oaklcigh, Ormeau Park, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Symington, Prof. Johnson, m.d., f.r.s., Queen's College, d®.
*Tennent, Robert (Representative of), Rushpark, do.
*Tennent, Robert James (Representative of). Rush-
park, Belfast
Thompson, S. B., Short Strand, do.
Shareholders, 75
Torrens, Mrs. Sarah H. (Representative of), Whiteabbey
*TurnIey. John (Representatives of), Belfast
Walkington, Miss Jane A. Wolsley Villas, Malonc Park, do.
Walkington, Thomas R., Edenvale, Strandtown, do.
Wallace, John, Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, J.P., f.s.a., Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard, T., Shandon Park, Knock, do.
Whitla, Prof. Sir William, m.d., j.p., College Sq., North, do.
Wilson, James, m.e, Oldforge, Dunmurry
Wilson, John. K., j.p., Donegall Street, Belfast
*Wilson, Walter, H. Belvoir Park, do.
*Wilson W. Perceval, do.
*Wolflr, G. W., J. p., M.p., The Den, Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, Drummena, Bladon Park, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., Rubane House, Glastry
Workman, Rev. Robert m.a., B.n., The Manse, Newtownbreda
* Workman, Thomas, j.p. (Representatives of), Craig-
darragh, Craigavad
Workman, William, Nottinghill, Belfast
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, c.e., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
76
Animal Subscribers.
HONORARY ASSOCIATES.
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Belfast
Stewart Samuel Alex., f.b.s., Edin., Belfast Museum, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Clittonville Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
Northern Banking Co., Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
York Street Spinning Company, Ltd., do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.
Allan, C. E. Stormont Castle, Dundonald
Boyd, John, Cyprus Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast
Brown, G. Herbert., j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Cleaver, A.S., b.a., Dunraven, do.
Davidson, S. C, Sea Court, Bangor
Fulton, G. F., Howard Street, Belfast
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace. do.
Green. Isaac, Ann Street, do.
Hanna, J. A., j.p., Marietta, Knock, do.
Hazelton, W. D., Cliftonville, do.
Higginbotham, Granby, Wellington Park, do.
Hutton, A. W., Chichester Street, do.
Jones, R. M., m.a., Royal Academical Institution, do.
Lynn, William H., Crumlin Terrace, do.
Aiuiual Subscribers. 77
Macassey, Lyndon, c.e., b.a., ll.b., London
Malone, John, Brookvale House, Cliftonville, Belfast
Morrow, W. A. G., Clifton Street, do.
M'Laughlin, W. H., Macedon, do.
Parr, William, St. Marks, Ballysillan, do.
Redfern, Prof. Peter, m.d., f.r.c.s.i.. Lower Crescent, do.
Pullman, S. H., Claremont, Knock, do.
Scott, Conway, c.e., Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
Storrar, W. Morrison, l.r.c.p., Mountcharles, do.
Swiney, J. H. H., b.a., b.e., Bella Vista, Antrim Road, do.
Tate, Alexander, c.e., Rantalard, Whitehouse, do.
Thompson, John, j.p.. Mount CoUyer, do.
Turpin, James, Waring Street, do.
I
epijt ami irorceiiitflH
BBLB^.A.ST
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIEiy
SESSIOlSr 1903-1904:.
BELFAST :
PRINTED BY ALEX. MAYNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STREET.
(printers to queen's college.)
1904.
CONTENTS.
Annual Report
Balance Sheet
Donations to Museum ..
Additions to Library
John Grattan : A Sketch of his Work as a Craniologist — Professor
Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E
Sayings, Proverbs, and Humours of Ulster — Professor Byers, M.A., M.D.
Radium — John Finnegan, B.A., B.Sc
A Historic Trial : The 1 imavady Gold Ornaments Case— R. Lloyd
Praeger, B.A., B.E., M.R.I.A
Around Youghal and the Blackwater— Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.LA.,
F.R. S.A.I.
Presentation to Mr. S. A. Stewart, A.L.S., F.B.S.
The National Expenditure on the Maintenance of Gulls— J. Brown, F.R.S.
Blinking or 111- wishing— E. J. M'Kean, B. A. (Oxon.)
Report of Delegate to British Association — Professor Gregg Wilson,
M.A., Ph.D., D.Sc, M.R.I.A.
List of OtBce- Bearers ...
List of Shareholders
PAGE
1
9
10
11
19
41
44
50
53
59
63
70
74
76
77
i
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
EST-A^BLISiaiEID 18121.
CONSTITUTION.
The membership of the Society consists of Shareholders in the Museum,
Annual Subscribers (Associates), Honorary Members and Honorarj' Associates.
Shares in the Museum cost £7 each. A holder of one Share pays an
annual contribution of ten shillings ; a holder of two Shares (in one certificate)
an annual contribution of five shillings ; while a holder of three or more Shares
(in one certificate) is exempt from annual payments. Shares en which the
annual payments as above are in arrear are liable to forfeiture. The Council
retain the right to decline to consolidate two or more share certificates into one
certificate.
Annual Subscribers (Associates) pay £1 Is. (one guinea) due 1st November
in each year in advance.
A General Meeting of Shareholders in the Museum is held annually in
May or June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to receive the Report of the
Council and the Statements of Accounts for the preceding year, to elect
members of Council to replace those retiring by rotation or from other reasons,
and to transact any other business incidental to an annual meeting. Share-
holders only are eligible for election on the Council.
The Council elect, from among their own number, a President and other
officers of the Society.
Each Member has the right of personal attendance at the ordinary lectures
of the Society, and has the privilege of introducing two friends for admission
to such ; and he has also the right of access to the Museum and Library for
himself and family residing under his roof, with the privilege of granting
admission orders for inspecting the collections in the Museum to any person not
residing in Belfast or within five miles thereof. The session for lectures
extends from November till May.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily for the admission of
visitors, for such hours as the Council may from time to time decide ; the
charge fur admission to non-members is sixpence each. The Curator is in
constant attendance, and will take charge of any donation kindly presented to
the Museum or Library.
Any further information required may be obtained from the Honorary
Secretary.
ifiSelfast IRatural 1bi5torv> an^ jpbilosopbical
Society.
ANNUAL REPORT, 1903-4.
The Annual Meeting of the Shareholders was held on 20th June,
1904, in the Museum, College Square North. Professor Symington,
M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., President, occupied the chair, and amongst
those present were — Rev. Dr. Hamilton (President Queen's Col-
lege) ; Dr. John MacCormac ; Messrs. John Ward, J. P., F.S.A. ;
Geo. Kidd, J.P. ; R. M. Young, J.P. (Hon. Secretary) ; John
Horner, J.P.; J. H. M'llwaine, John Carson, Robert Patterson,
M.R.I.A. ; W. Gray, M.R.I.A.; W. H. F. Patterson, R. A. Kyle,
W. Swanston, F.G.S.; J. E. Magill, and H. C. Montgomery.
The Hon. Secretary, Mr. Robert M. Young, M.R.I.A., J.P.,
read the Annual Report, which was as follows : —
The Winter Session was opened in the Museum on the 3rd
November, 1903, when the President, Professor Johnson Symington,
M.D., F.R.S., gave an inaugural address, subject, "John Grattan :
an Appreciation of his Scientific Work," with illustrations. The
second meeting was held on the ist December, when Professor
J. W. Byers, M.A., M.D., delivered a lecture, subject, " Sayings,.
Proverbs, and Humour of Ulster." The third meeting took place
on the 28th of January, 1904, when Mr. John M. Finnegan, B.A'.,
B.Sc, gave a lecture on " Radium," illustrated by experiments,
&c. The fourth meeting was held on 17th February, when a
lecture was kindly given by Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, B.A., B.E.,
2 Annual Meetiftg.
M.R.I.A., subject, " A Historic Trial : the Limavady Gold
Ornaments Case." Fac-similes of the gold objects were exhibited.
Mr. W. Swanston, F.G.S., Vice-President, occupied the chair in
the unavoidable absence of the President. The fifth meeting
took place on the 22nd March, when Mr. Seaton F. Milligan,
M.R.I.A., delivered a lecture, subject, " Around Youghal and the
Blackwater with the Royal Society of Antiquaries," illustrated with
a special series of lantern views. The closing meeting was held
on 26th April, when two papers were read — i. "The National
Expenditure on the Maintenance of Gulls," by Mr. John Brown,
F.R.S. 2. " BHnking or Ill-wishing," by Mr. John M'Kean, B.A.
(Oxon.). Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc, then gave an account
of the work done as our delegate of the allied societies at the last
British Association meeting.
The attendance of members and of the general public at all
these meetings was good. The various societies holding their
meetings in the Museum continue to do so, and the Ulster
Amateur Photographic Society have taken over the rooms on
ground floor formerly occupied by the Naturalists' Field Club.
At the Easter holidays the Museum was opened as usual at a
nominal charge and the attendance was fully as numerous as in
recent years.
On the occasion of the Royal Visit to Belfast in last July your
Council prepared a loyal address, which was presented to their
Majesties, King Edward VII. and Queen Alexandra, by Sir R.
Lloyd Patterson, D.L., and the Honorary Secretary, on behalf of
the Society, and was graciously acknowledged.*
Since the last Annual Meeting the Society has to deplore the
loss of several of its oldest members. Sir James Musgrave, Bart.,
was a warm friend of the Society and his time and purse were
always at its disposal when required. Messrs. D. B. Lytle and
Walter H. Wilson also took a lively interest in its welfare. Dr.
John Purser, a former president and for many years on the
Council, will also be much regretted, as until his removal to
* The text of this address is appended below.
Annual Meeting. 3
Dublin he took much interest in the work of the Society. Mr.
James O'Neill, M.A., and Mr. H. H. Bottomley, who passed away
during the year, were both valued members of long standing,
while Mr. Davys Bowman had more recently joined the Society.
The death of Mrs. Bryce, in August last, severed another link
with the past history of the Society, as her husband. Dr. James
Bryce, was one of the early members and a former secretary. His
portrait was presented by his wndow to the Museum some years
ago.
Your Council were much gratified to know that your Curator's
scientific researches have received well-merited recognition from
the Linnean Society of London, of which he has been elected an
Associate. Advantage was taken of the occasion by some members
of your Society and of the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club to
present Mr. Stewart with a testimonial at the last meeting on 26th
April.
During the year a good number of plants have been mounted
for the local herbarium. Many of these are to replace unsatisfactory
specimens already in the collection, but many are of the rarer
Irish species, including the set recently presented by Mr. R. Lloyd
Praeger. These were collected lately in Antrim and Down, and
are additions to the lists of those counties. Some progress has
been made in remounting and labelling the large collection of
foreign mollusca and echinodermata, and a considerable amount
of time has been occupied in replacing the labels in the different
rooms of the Museum.
Amongst the donations to the Society of special interest are two
fragments of papyrus from Oxyrhynchus presented by the Egyptian
Exploration Fund, through the good offices of Mr. John W^ard,
J-P-
In accordance with the constitution of the Society, five members
of Council now retire from office, four of whom are eligible for
re-election.
Mr. W. H. F. Patterson, Honorary Treasurer, submitted the
financial statement, which showed that the accounts for the year
4 Annual Meeting.
ending 30th April, 1904, had been closed with a balance on hand
of £^^ 3S. 3d.
Mr. John Ward, in moving the adoption of the Report and
Statement of Accounts, said that on his recent visit to Egypt he
was requested by Professor Maspero to obtain photographs of any
existing portraits of the late Dr. Edward Hincks, the great
Egyptologist, in order that a distinguished sculptor might be
employed to make a bronze bust which would be erected along
with those of Mariette and Champollion in the Museum at Cairo.
Professor Maspero said that as Hincks was one of the pioneers of
the knowledge of Egyptology he considered it right that his bust
should be enshrined in the greatest Egyptian museum in the
world. As Dr. Hincks was one of the founders of that Society,
and as their Museum was full of his works, especially the translation
of the inscriptions upon the Egyptian mummy, he (Mr. Ward)
thought this information must be very interesting to his admirers
in his native town.
The President of Queen's College, who seconded, said it seemed
to him it was very important that Belfast should have a society
like that, for it provided for men who were engaged in different
pursuits in natural history, philosophy, and other departments of
science, an excellent medium for the promulgation and discussion
of their views. The Society had now been in existence for a great
many years, and had had connected with it not a few distinguished
men. The reports laid before them that day show that, although
it was getting older it was still bringing forth fruit in its old age.
Indeed the proceedings of last session could scarcely have been
other than successful. On the bridge of the vessel they had a
most excellent commander in Professor Symington, and in the
Secretary they had a most experienced and capable man at the
wheel. They all lamented that day that they had lost by death
so many old and respected members. Their removal had been
referred to from time to time at the winter meetings ; but he
thought they ought again that day to pay another passing tribute
to their memorv. Thev wo ild not see their familiar faces again,
Annual Meeting. 5
but he could not help expressing the hope that their places would
be supplied by others, able and willing to do something for the
advancement of science. The financial position of the Society
seemed to be fairly satisfactory, although the balance was rather
less than last year. He was perfectly certain they were all delighted
at the mention in the Report of their old friend Mr. S. Stewart,
a man whose modesty prevented him from being as well known
as he deserved to be. In his knowledge of botany he was
unsurpassed by anyone in the North of Ireland. Indeed, he was
entitled to be classed among the most eminent botanists in the
United Kingdom. He happened to know that in a few days
there would be made known another well-deserved honour which
was to be bestowed on Mr. Stewart, but of that he was not at
present at liberty to say more. He was sure they would all
congratulate their old and esteemed friend on the well-deserved
distinction he had achieved during the past winter, and they
sincerely hoped he might long be spared to help forward the work
of the Society and of the Museum.
The motion was carried.
The Secretary then said there were five vacancies on the
Council of Management, and the following gentlemen, who were
retiring members, were eligible for re-election : — Sir R. L. Patterson;
Messrs. J. H. Davies, John Horner, and R. Young. The other
vacancy was caused by the retirement of Mr. Joseph Wright, who
did not seek re-election, and in his place the Council had
nominated Professor Morton, who had been a very warm friend of
the Society, and had given one or two lectures, which were much
appreciated.
On the motion of Mr. Gray, seconded by Mr. George Kidd,
these gentlemen were unanimously elected.
The Secretary said since the last meeting the Society had
received gifts as follow : — From Mr. Robert Bell, a specimen of
the rare mineral dopplerite, recently discovered by the donor at
Randalstown ; a large fossil nautilus from the lias at Waterloo,
near Larne ; and a very fcssiliferous block of lias limestone from
6 Annual Meeting.
the same place. From Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, M.R.I. A., a number
of the rare plants recently found by the donor, mainly in Down
and Antrim. From Mr. T. S. Hall, M.A., Melbourne University,
a number of Australian marine shells. From Mr. J. R. Bristow,
a number of geological specimens.
Mr. W. Gray, in proposing a vote of thanks to these gentlemen,
said the principal gifts to the Society in former times had come
from intelligent citizens who had travelled abroad, and he was
glad that the practice still survived, as was evidenced by the
travels of their old friend, Mr. John ^^'ard, who had been in
Egypt, where he had done good work. Mr. Ward had remembered
the Society in his travels, and had been the means of obtaining
very valuable contributions, for which they were much obliged.
Mr. J. H. M'llwaine seconded, and said if it were better known
that such donations were acceptable they might get more of them.
He would undertake to give a tomtit's nest built in an elm tree,
which, judging from the marks, had been there for twelve years.
The motion was agreed to.
Dr. MacCormac next moved a vote of thanks to the Chairman,
who, he said, had done much in the cause of science, and was an
honour to the Society. He need not attempt to give expression
to any feelings of his own concerning Professor Symington's
merits, as they were known to all of them, and he would therefore
content himself by moving a hearty vote of thanks to him for the
manner in which he had discharged his duties during the year.
The motion, seconded by Mr. John Horner, was carried with
acclamation, and, in responding.
The President said he did not propose to detain them at any
length by reviewing the present condition or the future prospects
of the Society. He thought their presence there was an evidence
that it was doing a good and useful work, and was worthy of their
support. It behoved all of them, however, to endeavour to secure
for the Society a greater amount of support than it had yet
received. Practically that was the only Society of the kind which
they had in Belfast, and it certainly ought to receive from the
Annual Meeting. 7
inhabitants of the city a very much larger measure of assistance.
There were various duties devolving on the Society, such, for
instance, as the maintenance of the Museum and the diffusion of
general information with regard to scientific progress. No one
could be at all familiar with the character of museums in other
towns without feeling that they really required, not exactly to put
their house in order — a considerable part of it was already in
order — but undoubtedly they still wanted more means to furtiier
improve the character of the Museum. That institution must
form a very interesting record of the conditions of nature and the
social state of the people in future times. It would undoubtedly
some day or other form the nucleus of a very large and important
museum, and if the specimens there were not taken proper care of
their loss would be irreparable. It would be quite impossible to
replace many of the existing specimens. He would like to direct
their attention to the fact that the Museum was threatened with
some damage owing to the erection of the municipal building on
the opposite side of the road. They all recognised the importance
of that institution, and wished it all success, but they trusted that
they would receive some compensation from the city for any
injury that the Museum might suffer by its construction. Another
matter he might refer to was the noise caused by passing vehicles
on the street. He thought that if wood pavement were laid down
it would do a great deal to do away with the present cause of
complaint. Personally he could only thank them for the honour
they had done him in electing him as their President, and for the
support they had given to him during his term of office.
At a subsequent meeting of the Council Mr. W. H. F. Patterson
resigned his office as Hon, Treasurer, and Mr. John Horner, J. P.
was appointed to succeed him. Professor Symington, M.D.,F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., was re-elected President, and the following Vice-Presi-
dents were also chosen for another term : — Rev. Dr. Hamilton,
M.A., D.D., LL.D. (President of Queen's College), Sir R. L.
Patterson, D.L., J.P., F.L.S., Mr. W. Swanston, F.G.S., and Mi.
Robert M. Young, J. P., C.E. For the position of Hon. Librarian,
8 Anmial Meeting.
Mr. J. H. Davies was selected, and for Hon. Secretary Mr. R. M.
Young, B.A., J.P., M.R.I. A.
To their Most Gracious Majesties Edward VII., by the grace of
God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,
King, and Queen Alexandra.
May it please your Majesties — In the name and on behalf of
the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, we, the
members of Council, desire to express the pleasure and .satisfaction
we so cordially feel at your Majesties' visit to Ulster, and to offer
our most respectful and sincere welcome to the city of Belfast.
We fully recognise the importance of your Majesties' Royal
progress through Ireland, and entertain the most sincere conviction
that it will be productive of much permanent good to our country.
Our Society was formed in 182 1 for the cultivation of geology,
botany, and mineralogy in all their branches, more especially the
investigation of the natural history and antiquities of Ireland. In
later years our efforts have been more especially directed to the
advance of science and the spread of knowledge among the
people. We cannot but feel encouraged to greater zeal by
observing the practical interest your Majesties take in the social
and intellectual improvement of your subjects, and the encourage-
ment your Majesties accord to the progress of scientific research
at home and abroad. In conclusion, we would again assiu'e your
Majesties of our devotion to your Majesties and to all the members
of the Royal family. Wishing your Majesties long life and every
prosperity, we have the honour to remain your Majesties' most
humble, lo3'al, and devoted servants.
(Signed on behalf of the Belfast Natural History and Philo-
sophical Society.)
Johnson Symington, President.
Robert M. Young, Secretary.
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DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, 1903-1904.
From Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, M.R I.A.
A number of rare plants found in the North of Ireland.
From The Egyptian Exploration Fund.
Second Century Document, and Homeric Fragment ; also carving
in limestone, and various specimens from the recent excava-
tions at Abydos, Egypt.
Fro7n Mr. J. R. Bristow.
Vegetable Ivory, and Geological specimens.
From Mr. Henry Craig.
Specimen of Sphinx convolvuli captured in a house in Belfast.
From Mr. Lionel L. Fletcher, Caterham, Surrey.
Plaster-cast of an Irish token, the " Belfast Ticket," in the
possession of Mr. L. L. Fletcher.
Fro7n Mr. Robert Welch.
A number of the rarer recent Irish shells.
From Mr. Robert Patterson, M.R.I.A.
Contents of a Pellet, cast up by a Herring Gull.
From Lord Shaftesbury.
Ancient Leaden Trunkhead of a Spout, from John M'Cracken's
Cotton Mill, Donegall Street.
From Mr. Robert Bell,
Specimen of the mineral Dopplerite, from Sluggan Bog, near
Randalstown. Specimen of a fossil Nautilus, from the Lias,
at Larne, also a fossiliferous block of Lias Limestone from
Carr's Glen, Belfast.
II
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, ist May, 1903, till
1ST May, 1904.
Adelaide. — -Transactions of the Royal Society of South AustraHa.
Vol. 27, parts I and 2, 1903.
From the Society.
Albany. — Fifty-fourth Annual Report of the New York State
Museum. Vols, i — 4, 1900, and 55th Annual
Report, 1 901 ; also Index to Publications, 1903.
The Director.
Austin. — Transactions of Texas Academy Science. Vol. 3, 1900^
and vol. 4, part i, Nos. i — 8, 1900-1901.
The Academy.
Basel. — Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Basel. Vol. 15, part 2, 1904. The Society.
Belfast. — Report and Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists'
Field Club. Ser. 2, vol. 5, parts i and 2, 1904.
The Club.
Berkeley. — University of California Publications. Vol. i, part
I, 1902. The University.
Bergen. — Bergens Museum Aarsberetning for 1902, and Aarbog
for 1903, parts i — 3, 1903-1904 ; also Crustacea
of Norway. Vol. 5, parts i and 2, 1903.
The Aluseuvi Director.
Birmingham. — Records of Meteorological Observations for 1902
and 1903, by A. Cresswell, Curator of the Ob-
servatory. Birmingham Institute.
Boston. — Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History.
Vol. 5, No. 8, 1902, and No. 9, 1903. Proceed-
ings, vol, 3, Nos. 3 and 7, 1902, and No. i, 1903,
The Society.
12 Books Received.
Boulder. — University of Colorado College Studies. Vol. i, Nos.
3 and 4, 1903. The University.
Bremen. — Abhandlungen herausgegeben vom Naturwissenschaft-
lichen Verein zu Bremen. Vol. 17, part 3, 1903.
The Society.
Breslau. — Zeitschrift fiir Entomologie vom Verein fiir Sclessiche
Insektenkunde zu Breslau. New series, part 28,
1903. The Society.
Brighton. — Report of Brighton and Hove Natural History and
Philosophical Society, 1903. The Society.
Brooklyn. — Science Bulletin of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts
and Sciences, No. 2, 1902, and Monographs, i
and 2, 1903. The Institute.
Brussels. — Annales de la Societe Royale Malacologique de Bel-
gique. Vol. 37, 1902. The Society.
,, Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique.
Vol. 46, 1902. The Society.
Buenos Ayres. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.
Ser. 3, vol. I, parts i and 2, 1902.
The Director.
Buffalo. — Bulletin of Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Vol.
8, Nos. I — 3, 1903. The Society.
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol.
34, part 3, and vol. 35, part 2, also General
Report and Index, 1903. Palceontologia Indica,
ser. 9, vol. 3, part 2, No. i, and ser. 15, vol. i,
part 5, 1903. The Director of the Survey.
Cambridge. — Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Vol. 12, part 3, 1903, and parts 4 and 5, 1904 ;
also List of Fellows, 1903. TJie Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Anatomy. Vol. 39, Nos. 6 — 8, 1903 ; vol. 40,
Nos. 6 — 7, 1903 ; vol. 41, No. 2, 1904 ; vol. 42,
Nos. I — 4, 1903, and No. 5, 1904; vol. 43, No.
I, 1904, and vol. 45, No. i, 1904; also Annual
Report, 1903. The Keeper of the Museum.
Books Received. 13
Cardiff. — Transactions of Cardiff Naturalists' Society. Vol. 34,
1902, and vol. 35, 1903. The Society.
Cassel. — Abhandlungen und Bericht der Vereins fiir Naturkunde
zu Kassel. Vol. 48, 1903. The Society.
Christiania. — Forhandlinger i Videnskabs Selskabet i Christiania,
1902.
T]ie Royal Norske Trederiks University.
Cincinnati. — Bulletin of the Lloyd Library, No. 6, 1903 ; also
Mycological Notes, Nos. 10 — 12, 1902, and Nos.
13 and 14, 1903. The Messrs. L,loyd.
Colorado Springs. — Colorado College Studies, 1903.
Colorado College Scietitific Society.
Dublin. — Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society.
Ser. 2, vol. 8, Nos. 2 — 4, 1903. Scientific Pro-
ceedings. New Series, vol. 10, part i, and
Economic Proceedings. Vol. i, part 4, 1903.
The Society.
Edinburgh. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Vol. 22, 1 889-1 90 1. The Society.
„ Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society. Session
1901 1902. The Society.
Emden. — Jahresbericht der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Emden, 1903. The Society.
Genoa. — Rivista Ligure di Scienze, Littera ed xA,rti. Anno 25,
fasc. 2 — 6, 1903, and Anno 26, fasc. i, 1904.
Societa Letture e Conversazione Scientifiche.
Glasgow. — Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow. Vol. 34, 1903. The Society.
Gothenburg. — Goteborg's Kungl Vetenskaps Och Vitterhets
Samhalles Handlingar. Parts 5 and 6, 1898.
The Society. '
Halifax. — Proceediiigs and Transactions of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science. Vol. 10, parts 3, 1902, and
4, 1903. The histitute.
14 Books Received.
Hamburg. — Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissen-
schaften herausgegeben vom Naturwissen shaft -
lichen Verein in Hamburg. Vol. i8, 1903 ; also
Verhandlungen, 190304. The Society.
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen-Karpathen Vereines, 30th year,
1903. The Society.
Indianopolis. — Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science,
1 90 1. The Acadej?iy.
Kharkow. — Proceedings of the Society of Physico-Chimiques of
Kharkow University. Nos. 25 — 31, 1 901-1903.
The Society.
Lausanne. — Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles. Ser. 4, vol. 39, Nos. 146 — 148, 1903.
The Society.
Lawrence. — Bulletin of the University of Kansas. Vol. 3, Nos.
6 — 8, 1901-02. The University.
Leicester. — Thirteenth Report of Leicester Museum and Art
Gallery, 1902. Tlie T>irector.
Leipsic. — Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig,
1902 ; also Wissenschaftliche Veroffentlichungen.
Vol. 6, 1904. The Society.
Lima. — Boletin del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru, No.
2, 1902, and Nos. 3 and 4, 1903.
The Director.
London. — Report of the British Association Seventy Second
Meeting, Belfast, 1902. The Association.
,, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London.
Vol. 59, Nos. 2 — 4, 1903, and vol. 60, No. i,
1904; also List of Fellows, 1903 The Society.
,, Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. Parts
3 — 6, 1903, and parts i and 2, 1904.
The Society.
„ Transactions of the Zoological Society of London.
Vol. 16, part 8, and vol. 17, parts i and 2, 1903.
Proceedings for 1902, vol. 2, part 2, and vols, i
and 2, 1903 ; also List of Fellows, 1903.
The Society.
Books Received. 15
Madison, — Bulletin of Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
Survey. Economic Series, Nos. 5 and 6, 1903,
and Educational Series, No. 2, 1902.
The Director.
Madras. — Bulletin of Madras Government Museum. Vol. 4,
No. 3, 1903, and Administration Report for
year, 1 902-1 903. The Snperintendetit.
Manchester. — Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society.
Vol. 18, Nos. 4 — 12, 1902, and vol. 19, Nos.
I — 3, 1903. The Society.
,, Transactions of the Manchester Geological
Society. Vol. 28, parts 4 — 8, 1903, and parts 9 — •
12, 1904. The Society.
Marseilles. — Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Vol. 13, 1903. The Librarian.
Melbourne. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria. Vol.
16, part I, 1903, and part 2, 1904.
The Society.
Mexico. — Boletin Mensual del Observatorio Meteorologico Mag-
netico Central de Mexico. 3 parts, 1902 ; also
Informe, Obs. Astronomical, i part, 1903, and
Anuario for 1904. The Director.
„ Instituto Geologico de Mexico, Parergones. Vol. i.
No. I, 1903. 77/1? Institute.
Milwaukee. — Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History Society.
Vol. 3, Nos. I — 3, 1901 ; also Annual Report of
the Public Museum, 1903. The Society.
Missoula. — Bulletin of the University of Montana. Biological
Series, No. 3, 1902 and Nos. 5 and 6, 1903.
Geological Series No. i, 1903, and President's
Report for 1902-03. The University.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Vol.
2, part I, 1903, and vol. 4, parts i and 2, 1903.
The Director.
1 6 Books Received.
Moscow.^ — Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of
Moscow, No. 4, 1902, and Nos. i — 3, 1903.
The Society.
Nantes. — Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
rOuest de la France. Ser. 2, vol. 2, parts 3 and
4, 1902, and vol. 3, parts i and 2, 1903.
The Society.
New York. — Annals of New York Academy of Sciences. Vol.
14, part 3, and vol. 15, part i, 1903.
The Academy.
,, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.
Vol. 35, Nos. 2 — 5, 1903, and vol. 36, Nos. i
and 2, 1904. The Society.
Nottingham. — Report and Transactions of Nottingham Naturalists
Society for 1902-03. The Society.
Odessa. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of New Russia.
Vol. 24, part 2, 1902, and Memoirs of the
Mathematical Section, vol. 20, 1902.
The Society.
OsNADRUCK. — Jahresbericht des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins
zu Osnabruck, 1903. The Society.
Ottawa. — Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Canada.
New series, vol. 12, 1902, and Maps of Alberta ;
also Altitudes in the Dominion of Canada, and
Catalogue of Canadian Birds. Part 2, 1903.
The Director of the Survey.
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of
Natural vSciences. Vol. 53, part i, 1901, vol. 54,
parts 2 and 3, 1902, and vol. 55, parts i and 2,
1903. The Academy.
„ Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society. Vol. 41, 1900, and vol. 42, parts 2 and
3, 1903. The Society.
Pisa. — Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Processa
Verbali, 1903-04. The Society.
Books Received. 17
Rochester, N.Y. — Proceedings of the Rochester Academy of
Science. Vol. 4, 6 parts, 1902-03.
The Academy.
Rome. — Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Ser. 5, Vol. 12,
semestre i, fasc. 7 — 12, 1903; semestre 2, fasc.
I — 12, 1903; vol. 13, semestre i, fasc. i — 6,
1904; also Rendiconto dell' Adnnanza Solenne,
June, 1903. The Academy.
,, Bulletin del Societa Zoologica Italiana, Anno, 11, fasc.
4^ — 6, 1902, and Anno 12, fasc. i — 6, 1903.
The Society.
San Francisco. — Proceedings of the California Academy of
Sciences. Ser. 3, vol. 2, No. i, 1900, and vol. 3,
Nos. 5 and 6. The Academy.
St. Louis. Fourteenth Annual Report of the Missouri Bot-
anical Garden, 1903. The Director.
Stavanger. — Stavanger Museums Aarshefte for 1902.
The Museum Trustees.
Sydney. — Science of Man. New Series, vol. 6, Nos. 2, 4, 5, 6,
10, I r, 12, 1903, and vol. 7, Nos. i and 2, 1904.
The Editor.
Tokyo. — Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur.
und Volkerunde Ostasiens. Vol. 9, parts 2 and
3, 1903. The Society.
ToPEKA. — Transactions of Kansas Academy of Science. Vol. 18,
1903. The Academy.
Vienna. — VerhandlungenderKaiserlich-KoniglichenGeologischen
Reichsanstalt, Nos. 5 — 18, 1903, and i — 4, 1904.
The Society.
„ Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Koniglichen Zoologisch-
Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Vol. 43, 1903.
The Sofiety.
Washington. — Annual Report of the American Bureau of
Ethnology for 1897-98, parts i and 2, 1900 ; also
Bulletin 25, 1903, and 27, 1902.
The Director of the Bureau.
1 8 Books Received.
Washington. — Twenty-Second Annual Report of the United
States Geological Survey. Parts i and 2, 1901,
parts 3 and 4, 1902, and 23rd Report, 1902 ; also
Monographs, 42 — 45, 1903, and Atlas. Bulletin
No. 191, and 195 — 204, 1902, 205 — 207, 209 —
217, 1903. Professional Papers, Nos. i — 8,
1902. Water Supply and Irrigation Papers,
several numbers. Mineral Resources of the
United States, 1902.
The Director of the Survey.
„ Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for
1901-02. Annual Report of the United States
National Museum for 1900, 1901, and 1902.
Proceedings of the United States National
Museum. Vol. 23, i9oi,vol. 24, 1902, and vols.
25 and 26, 1903. Bulletin of the United States
National Museum, Nos. 50 — 52, 1902. Directions
for Collecting and Preserving, 8 Nos., 1895 —
1 90 1. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,
Nos. 1373 and 141 3, 1903. Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections, No. 1372, 1902, and No.
1376, 1903. The Smithsoniati Institution.
„ Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washing-
ton. Vol. 14, 2 Nos., 1903. The Society.
York. — Annual Report of Yorkshire Philosophical Society for
1902. The Society.
Zurich. — Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
in Zurich. Parts 3 and 4, 1903, and parts i — 4,
1903-04; also Neujahrsblatt, 1903.
The Society.
From Mr. \\\ J. Knowles. — Irish Flint Arrow and Spear-Heads,
1894.
BELFAST
NATURAL HISTORY & PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
SESSION 1903-4.
3rd November^ 1903-
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
JOHN GRA ITAN : A SKETCH OF HIS WORK AS A
CRANIOLOGIST.
Ladies and Gentlemen, — My first dut}' is to offer my warmest
thanks to the Council for the honour they have conferred upon
me in electing me President of this Society. It is certainly an
honour to be identified with the government of an Institution
which has existed for more than 80 years without state aid or
municipal support, whose object is the extension of a knowledge
of nature and of art, and the encouragement of learning and
research, and which during this period has received not only the
sympathy, but the active support, of such men as Thomas Andrews,
^^'illiam Thompson, Robert Patterson and \\''yville Thomson. I
am fully aware that I have done but little to deserve this honour,
and that the invitation so cordially extended to me was intended
(juite as much as a compliment to the College which I have the
honour to serve, as to myself personalh'. Indeed, it was the
consciousness of this fact that led me to accept a position for
which my other duties leave me but little time to discharge as I
should wish.
Many of those who have contributed to our proceedings havp
been engaged in some industrial or professional occupation, but
have found a change of thought and a relaxation from their ordinary
work in the study of some department of the physical, or of the
biological sciences. They have been the fortunate possessors of
a scientific hobby, which they followed without any idea or hope
Jo/ni Grattan :
20 -'
of material gain. Fortunately for the progress of science, and the
prospects of a general recognition of the intellectual and material
value of scientific research, such men have always existed in our
midst, and this Society is justly proud of having enrolled amongst
its members not a few who have made important and \aluable
contributions to the sum of human knowledge. During its earlier
history our Society was singularly fortunate in this respect. The
work of some of these pioneers is well known locally, and has
received general recognition in scientific circles, while the labours
of others have not only failed to gain that amount of credit to
which they are justly entitled, but are even in danger of being
entirely ignored. Amongst the latter I would ])lace the investiga-
tions of John Cirattan, and I desire to take this opportunity of
attempting an appreciation of his scientific work. I do so with
the more confidence, since it involves questions to which I have
personally devoted some attention.
John Grattan was born in 1800 in the neighbourhood of Dublin
and he obtained the diploma of the Apothecaries' Hall about
1823.
The reasons, given to me on excellent authority, for his starting
business in Belfast may be of interest to some, although not
entirely creditable to the state of pharmaceutical science at that
time in this city. It appears that Grattan had decided to settle
in some provincial town in Ireland, and with this object in view
he visited various places accompanied by his employer's son. In
the course of their travels these young men came to Belfast and
going into a druggist's shop in the centre of the town one of them
asked for a pennyworth of Epsom's salts. The attendant took
down a bottle from one of the shelves, extracted a handful of the
salt which he placed on a fragment of a newspaper and secured
by gathering up the edges of the paper and twisting them round
one another. As soon as they left the shop Grattan's companion
(-urned to him and said " Belfast is the place for you."
Grattan came here in 1825, and at that time there were, of
course, no railways to the town, while the population was only
about one-tenth of what it is now. According to tradition he
.'/ Skt'/r/i of his Work as a C/yr///o/oi^7.s'/.
arrived on a stage-coach with a large buttle, .similar to thos':: still
shown in many chemists windows, between his legs. Grattan was
not only the founder of the well-known firm which still bears his
name, but he also started the manufacture of the now celebrated
Belfast aerated waters, which for many years were exclusively
manufactured by his firm. I mention these facts to show that his
scientific tastes and pursuits did not prevent him from conducting
his business with marked ability, enterprise and success.
During his long residence here, Grattan took an active interest
in the existing literary and scientific societies. Thus he was
President of the Belfast Literary Society during the session 1843-4,
and read two papers on phrenology — one on the 2nd May, 1842,
entitled, "Phrenological Ethics," and the other on 12th February,
1844, "Phrenological observations on the treatment of criminals.'
P\:)r many years he was an office-bearer in our Society, to which he
contributed three pajJers. His first communication "On the
importance, to the Archaeologist and Ethncjlogist, of an accurate
mode of measuring human crania and of recording the results, — ■
with the description of a new Craniometer," was read on the 6th
April, 1853, and was published in the Ulster Jour )ial of ArcJic?-
ology, Vol. i., 1853, illustrated by 5 plates. Again, on the 20th
January, 1858, he read a paper "On some ancient Irish skulls,
and on an exact method of taking and recording cranial measure-
ments." Part of this communication was published in the Ulster
Journal of Archceology, Vol. ^•i., 1858, with 3 plates, under the
title, "Notes on the human remains discovered within the Round
Towers of Ulster, with some additional contributions towards a
Crania Hibernica." This appears to have been his last contribu-
tions to Craniology at our meetings, but in i860 he gave an
interesting demonstration on the oxy-hydrogen light and its uses
for illuminating the microscope and throwing pictures upon a screen.
AVe have just seen that his last published paper on craniol6gy
appeared in 1858; but after that date he was engaged in the
preparation of another contribution to this subject. He went so
far as to print 16 pages of letterpress and to prepare a number of
plates. After his death his daughters, the Misses Grattan, bound
2 2 foliji Crafta)! :
into a single volume the various portions of his unfinished work,
along with " Notices of the Round Towers of Ulster," by Edmund
Gett}', M R.I. A., and presented copies to a number of his friends.
It was a specimen of this volume, which I obtained from a second-
hand bookseller, that first directed my attention to his methods of
skull measurement. On enquiry I found that Grattan's work was
unknown to many of our leading anatomists and to others interested
in physical anthropology, as it had previously been to myself-
The cause of this is easily explained. The earlier part of Grattan's
investigations appeared in a journal which is not readily accessible
to, and is rarely consulted by, the great majority of those interested
in craniology, while the later unpublished portion, issued privately,
was still less likely to fall into the hands of such workers.
Before proceeding to discuss the nature and ^alue of Grattan's
scientific work it is advisable that I should explain, as briefly as
po.ssible, the circumstances that led him into this line of research
and the problems that were then engaging the attention of anthro"
pologists and ethnologists.
About the tune when Grattan came to Belfast, phrenology was
at the zenith of its popularity. It is evident from his writings that
he was a convert to the theories of Gall and Spurzheim, and indeed
he ai)pears to have been personally acquainted with the latter.
He collected a large number of skulls and casts of heads, and
naturally became interested in the variations in their form.
Further, the long period during which Grattan pursued his
craniological investigations witnessed the rise of a scientific
ethnology.
Anthropologists began to collect material from barrows, caves
and other ancient burial grounds to determine the physical
characteristics of their remote ancestors ; and to procure specimens
and make observations in all parts of the world to ascertain the
structural peculiarities of existing races. It soon became evident
that for anthropological purposes the skull was the most important
part of the skeleton, and attempts were made to utilise certain
differences in the form of the skull for purposes of racial
classification.
A SA'c/c'// oj his ]\'ork as a Craniologist. 23
Towards the end of the i8th century Blumenbach had drawn
attention to the significance of variations in the form of the skull
in different races, but it was reserved for Anders Retzius to place
this subject upon a scientific basis. In 1840 he made his first
communication to the Academy of Science of Stockholm.
Blumenbach had attached special importance to the shape of the
anterior part of the skull, such as the forehead and jaws, but
Retzius showed that it was even more important to examine the
cranium, or that part of the skull which contains the brain. It is
to him that we are indebted for the division of skulls into long, or
dolichocephalic, and short, or brachycephalic, according to their
relative length and breadth. He maintained that the Caucasian
race of Blumenbach was a mixed one, since it consisted of both
short and long-headed people, the proportion between these two
varying in different places according to the degree to which the
primitive stock had been invaded, or replaced, by a foreign
element. Anders Retzius devoted himself with great energy to
the determination of the distribution throughout Europe, both
amongst the living races and prehistoric remains, of these two
types of heads. His work slowly, but surely, gained general
recognition, and before his sudden death in i860 craniology was
engaging the attention of many distinguished workers. Several
events which happened about this time tended to create a more
general interest in this subject. Thus the discovery in 1857 in a
limestone cave in the Neanderthal of the remains of an extinct
race whose skulls had a very remarkable form, and in some respects
ape-like appearance, raised a keen discussion as to the significance
of certain cranial characters, while the publication two years later
of Charles Darwin's work "On the origin of species by means of
natural selection," inevitably turned men's attention to all biological
problems with wider interest and renewed energy.
Grattan's work was almost cotemporaneous with that of Anders
Retzius, and nearly all of it was done before the German and
French Schools had elaborated their schemes of skull measurements.
The general plan which he devised for this purpose is given in
his paper published in 1853, and it is not essentially altered, but
24
John Grattan
only more fully elaborated in his subsequent contributions lo the
subject.
The spirit and aims of Grattan's work are so admirably expressed
in a paper he published in the Ulster Journal of Archceology
for 1858 that I cannot refrain from quoting it. .Vfter discussing
the craniological methods then in vogue he wrote as follows : —
" So far, we look in vain, therefore, for that uniformity of
method and that numerical precision, without which no scientific
investigation requiring the cooperation of numerous observers can
be successfully prosecuted. The mode of procedure hitherto
adopted furnishes to the mind at best nothing but ^■ague gene-
ralities which it cannot by any intellectual effort reduce into
general shape and form ; and until we can accomplish something
more than this — until we can record with something approaching
towards accuracy the proportional development of the great sub-
divisions of the brain, as indicated by its bony covering, and by
our figures convey to the mind determinate ideas of the relation
they bear towards each other we shall not be in a position to do
justice to our materials, or to interpret faithfully or profitably the
natural hieroglyphs thus submitted to our examination. "What we
specially stand in need of is some method of measuring cranial
forms and magnitudes which by combining perfect simplicity and
facility of application with rigid scientific accuracy shall command
our confidence ; so that the ethnologist may be able to record his
own observations, and to profit by the recorded observations of
others without the risk of misinterpretation, and the phrenologist
possesses a sound numerical foundation u})on which to base his
special measurements. But although an improved method of
taking and recording cranial measurements would admittedly be
of great importance to the phrenologist, to the ethnologist it is
absolutely indispensible. The phrenologist can pursue many of
his enquiries and test the soundness of most of his inferences, by
the aid of detached or isolated specimens, each head itself
affording the necessary data by which its mental capabilities may
be -determined. But the ethnologist has to deal with tribes and
nations. He stands somewhat in the position of the artuary Avho
25
A Sketch (I I /lis II ork as a Cra/iiologist.
has to deduce congruous and general laws from an extensive
collection of apparently incongruous and heterogeneous facts.
In every age, and amongst all races, special individuality of
character must necessarily have been accompanied by considerable
modifications of typical form so that no single cranium can, per
se, be taken to represent the true average characteristics of the
variety from which it may be derived. It is only from a large
deduction that the ethnologist can venture to pronounce with
confidence upon the normal type of any race, or reasonably
expect to attain in his craniological investigations that measure of
completeness necessary to rescue them from their present objectless
character, and to impart to his conclusions scientific definiteness
and value. If an improved method of measurement be thus
desirable when treating of existing races whose crania form but
one, though by no means tlie least important, element for
determining the influences that may have contributed to their
development and progress, still more necessary does it become
when we endeavour to investigate the moral, social and intellectual
condition of our remote predecessors, of whom we possess few, if
any, records, save such as remain to us in their rude structures
and works of art, and. in their own osseous remains. These
latter are, necessarily, few in number, widely scattered, singularly
frail and perishable, and are, day by day, irretrievably disappearing
before the unavoidable encroachments of extending ci\"ilization.
If we are to indulge, therefore, in any well-grounded expectation
of our being able to render the fleeting records of the past
available for contrast with the more accessible materials of the
present, it is of the first importance that our description of such
should be as accurate and as free from ambiguity as the nature of
the subject will permit — the paucity of (jur material affording but
little prospect of our accumulating the necessary data, unless we
can succeed in concentrating upon some recognized scientific plan
the detached labours of every competent observer."
Grattan's attention to these questions appears to have been due
to the action of his friend Edmund Getty who had collected a
considerable number of skulls during his well-known researches
2^ Jo Jul Graf fan :
on the Round Towers of Ulster. At Getty's request Grattan
agreed to describe these skulls, but like the most of us he found
it easier to promise than to perform. As we have just heard,
Grattan was convinced that the various methods of measuring
skulls then in vogue were too indefinite and incomplete to admit
of a thorough and scientific description of individual specimens,
or of a comparison of groups of skulls with one another.
Accordingly he set to work to frame a new plan of skull measure-
ments, and in so doing he found it necessary to construct a
suitable instrument with which to take these measurements. For
a number of years Grattan worked at this subject, modifying his
methods and improving his instrument, until they were not onl\-
greatly in advance of those then in use, but in many respects will
bear favourable comparison with those now generally employed.
Through the kindness of Professor Haddon I am able to show
you what I believe was the latest and most improved form of
Grattan's Craniometer. No account of this instrument has been
published, although Grattan prepared a fine illustration and wrote
an excellent description of it for a paper which was not completed
at his death. He appears to have used this instrument in the
preparation of his " Notes on the Round Towers of Ulster, with
some additional observations towards a Crania Hibernica," which
appeared in the Ulsfer Journal of Archaoiogy in 1858, and it was
probably shown before the Society on the 20th of January of the
same year. An instrument constructed on much the same principle
as the one before you, but differing considerably from it in ap-
pearance, was described and figured in the Ulsfer Journal of
Archceology for 1853.
I will now endeavour to explain, in a manner as simple and as
free from technicalities as possible, the problem with which
Grattan had to deal and the main peculiarities of his methods and
instrument.
.'\s the cranium is an irregular ovoid box we can obtain data
for a rough estimate of its size and general form by measuring its
greatest length, breadth and height. Further, by taking its length
as 100 we can express the proportions of length to breadth and of
A Sketch of his JJ'or/c as a Cranioh)gist. ^7
length to height by indices. This plan is adopted in distinguishing
between round and long, or flat and high heads. Such a method
is simple, and in ])ractice has been found useful in classifying
skulls and in distinguishing races. It is obvious, however, that
two skulls differing considerably from one another both in capacity
and shape might have the same length-breadth and length-height
indices. If we examine the median longitudinal arc of the
vaulted portion of the skull we find that it passes from the root
of the nose upwards and backwards to the vertex forming two
curves, with their convexities directed forwards and upwards, it
then turns downwards and backwards to the most posterior part
of the skull, and finally forwards and downwards to end at the
posterior margin of the large hole at the base of the skull through
which the brain becomes continuous with the spinal cord. Now,
the form of these curves from the nose to the vertex, and from the
vertex to the back of the head, may differ greatly in two skulls
which have the same length and height. Thus, in one the fore-
head may be high and protruding, the roof of the skull be directed
nearly horizontally for a considerable distance and then descend
abruptly to the occiput, while in the other the forehead may be
low and retreating, and the longitudinal arc only gain the same
height as the other skull for a very short distance before it begins
to descend again. The problem was, and indeed still is, How can
we best give numerical expression to these differences ? The plan
often adopted of measuring the length of the three portions of this
arc, viz., frontal, parietal, and occipital, gives the respective share
the bones so named take in the formation of the arc, and hence
may be supposed to show the relative development of the anterior,
middle and posterior parts of the vault of the skull. In some skulls,
however, owing to irregularity in, or disappearance of, the lines of
union b-:ftween these bones, their respective lengths cannot ,be
definitely ascertained, and in any case such measurements do not
show the contour of the arch. For this purpose I believe that the
best method yet devised is that of Grattan's. By means of his
craniometer the skull is firmly fixed in position by passing two pegs
into the external openings of the ears and pressing another screw
28
Jo/in G?-affa/i :
against the base of the skull. The skull can then be rotated along
with the stage to which it is fixed, round an axis passing through
the external auditory oi)enings, or it can be rotated along with its
stage round an axis perpendicular to the first. In each case the
exact amount of rotation is indicated by a dial. The instrument
has a brass carriage, a brass slide and a curved tracer, all suitably
adjusted, so that the distance of any part of the median line of the
skull from the point where the axis passing from the centre of one
ear-opening to the other crosses the median plane, can be read on
a graduated scale marked in inches and tenths of inches. Grattan
selected as his starting-point, or zero, the distance from this point
on the auditory axis to the nasion, or depression just above the
root of the nose. After this is ascertained the brass slide is with-
drawn, the skull rotated io°, the brass slide carrying the pointer
again pushed towards the skull and the distance measured in the
same way as from the nasion. This process of skull rotatiou
through lo'^ and of measurement is repeated along the entire
extent of the arc. From such a series of measurements a profile
drawing of the skull can be made showing the position of the
external auditory meatus and the contour of the vault at intervals
which, in an ordinary skull, are less than an inch apart. If necessary,
the skull can be measured at shorter intervals by rotating the skull
between each measurement a smaller number of degrees. By
other adjustments the same instrument can be used to make a
tracing on paper of the external contour of this arc. After the
vault has been measured the rotation of the skull can be continued
so as to determine the amount of projection of the nose, jaws, and
teeth below and in front of the cranium. Grattan measured a
number of skulls in this wa}' and compared them with one another
in a series of tables showing the proportion of the radial diameters
at lo' interval from zero to i8o° with the length of the skull
estimated at 100*^.
It is difficult to imagine a more ingenious and accurate method
of measuring this part of the skull.
The length-breadth index expressed by comparing the greatest
length of the cranium with its greatest breadth is open to the
29
A Sketch of Jin JI ork as a Craniologist.
same objection as the length-height index which we have just
discussed. Thus, in some skulls the greatest transverse diameter
is high up on the parietal Ixjnes, this means that the sides of the
skull have a slight inclination outwards from the base until near
the top; in other specimens the lateral walls begin to slope inwards
from near the base, so that the greatest transverse diameter is
much lower. Further, the maximum tran.sverse diameter may be
the same in two skulls, but towards the anterior or smaller end of
the oval one of these skulls may be much narrower than the other.
To correct these sources of fallacy the transverse diameter is often
taken in the frontal as well as the parietal regions, and the level of
the greatest transverse diameter is roughly indicated by stating
whether this occurs high up between the parietals, or nearer the
base between the temporals. It is interesting to see how Grattan
recorded these variations of the transverse diameter at different
points from before backwards and from below upwards. A\'ith his
craniometer lines are drawn on the skull from one external ear,
opening to the other, opposite selected angular intervals from the
nasion. The cranium is thus blocked out into a series of wedges,
each having a convex base on the \-aulted part of the skull and a
sharp straight edge at the auditory axis at the base of the skull.
The arched lines over the surface of the skull from one ear opening
to the other he called coronal arcs, and he selected for special
examination the arcs at intervals of io°, 30°, 60°, 90", 120° and
150° from the ear-nasion arc. He divided each of these arcs into
three parts of e(]ual vertical elevation, by two lines parallel to their
bases, and the extremities of these lines and the base line furnished
so many fixed points between which the transverse diameters could
be taken.
I must admit that this part of Grattan's method looks somewhat
complicated, but it is not so laborious in actual practice as it might
at first sight appear. Grattan's own remarks on this point are
very characteristic. He writes as follows : — " It may possibly be
objected to this method that it involves too large an array of
arithmetical figures and demands too great an expenditure of
labour ; but v^■hat was c'\'er yet accomplished, of any \'alue, without
30 John Gnftian :
some labour? And if it be desirable to furnish measurements at
all (and from the fact that almost every writer upon the subject
gives them after some fashion this is manifestly the case), surely
it is of some importance that they should be adequate to accomplish
the object in view, and at least be so taken and recorded as to
convey truthful and intelligible impressions to the mind." —
Ulster Journal of Archceology, Vol. vi., p. 35.
An examination of present-day craniological methods will show-
that various attempts are made to amplify and check the data
afforded by the greatest length, breadth and height measurements
of the cranium. Thus, the transverse diameter is taken between
several different points, the chords of the frontal, parietal and
occipital arcs are measured, and the lengths of radii drawn from a
point on the base of the skull to various spots on the median
longitudinal arc of the vault are recorded. The points selected in
many cases correspond to the union of certain of the skull bones.
These, however, may vary without affecting the general shape and
dimensions of the skull, and have not the mathematical precision
of Grattan's points. On the whole, it appears to me that fo""
completeness and accuracy, and for facility in making a thorough
comparison between the external form of different skulls, Grattan's
method, devised about 50 years ago, when craniology was in its
infancy, can hold its own against any scheme yet formulated-
Curiously enough he made no attempt to measure the diameters of
the cranial cavity, or to ascertain how far the inequalities of the
outer surface of the skull correspond to those on its inner aspect.
Possibly his phrenological view led him to suppose that this
question had been settled.
There is one feature in Grattan's method to which I must
allude, viz., his selection of the middle of the auditory axis as a
starting point from which to measure the various radii and
diameters of the cranial vault. The point usually selected for
this purpose is the anterior edge of the foramen magnum and on
morphological grounds there is much to be said in its favour. It
represents, as Huxley long ago })ointed out, the posterior end of
the true base of the skull, and he used this point from which to
./ S/.r/i// of //is ll'ork <is a Craiiiol():^isl. 3^
start in measuring the length of the basi-cranial axis and com-
paring it with the vaulted portion of the cranium. At certain
times, however, craniologists have recognised the fact that the
external auditory opening presented certain advantages over the
anterior edge of the foramen magnum as a basal point from which
to measure the cranial vault, and curiously enough this view was
adopted very strongly by the late General Pitt-Rivers, who in the
last volume of his celebrated " Excavations in Cranborne Chase"
wrote as follows in discussing this question : —
" There are other considerations which may perhaps operate in
ultimately bringing about a change of system. Mr. Busk, F.R.S.,
was a strong advocate for measuring from the meatus auditorius
and contrived an instrument for this purpose, but it was somewhat
clumsy in use and was not generally adopted on that account.
His method, however, was sound in principle. No comparison
between the skull and the living head can be made by an)-
measurements other than those taken from the meatus. Three
profils of living heads taken by my instrument are given in Plates
290 and 292 and they are recognised as striking likenesses of the
originals. This instrument is made of aluminium and the legs
are movable so as to be light enough for use with a living head.
The profile can be taken much more cjuickly than with Mr. Busk's
instrument. There is also this great objection to the anterior
margin of the foramen magnum as a base for measurement that
in ancient skulls which have been buried for ages it is one of the
first parts of the skull to decay, whereas the meatus auditorius is
much more frec^uently preserved and a larger number of skulls
can be measured by this methcxl, a point of great importance
when it is considered what a small number of the ancient skulls
found in tumuli and other places are sufficiently perfect to be
available for measurement."
I have been assured by an old friend of Grattan that he had a
remarkable aptitude for the construction of mechanical instru-
ments, and his craniometer affords ample proof of the correctness
of this opinion. Grattan endeavoured to base his measurements
upon mathematical principles and to avoid as far as possible the
fohii Grattaii :
selection, as points between which to measure, tliose liable to
vary from irregularities in the sutures on the vault of the skull.
Thus in taking the height he did not choose the spot where the
frontal and the two parietal bones join, but one on the vault 60°
from the nasion. His preference for definite angular intervals is
again shown by the fact that he took the length and breadth of
the cranium at a horizontal plane passing anteriorly 10° and
posteriorly 150° from the nasio-auditory plane as zero. He found
such a section usually intersected the cranium at its longest and
broadest diameters.
The capacity of the cavity of the cranium is obviously of im-
portance as an index of the size of the brain, but the determination
of its amount is subject to various fallacies. The cavity is filled
with some material made up of small solid particles, and the
quantity needed for this purpose is then measured. Many of the
earlier estimates of cranial capacities are \ery inaccurate owing to
the use of unsuitable substance and the absence of proper pre-
cautions when filling the cranial cavity and the measures. Grattan's
remarks on this subject show the care and thoroughness with which
he pursued his investigations. Thus, he states that he tried sand,
sago, and mustard seed, but they all gave unsatisfactory results,
since none of these indicated the same capacity when the same
experiment was repeated. He found, however, that small round
shot gave reliable results, and it is interesting to note that tliis is
the material now generally used. Davis tS: Thurnam, in the first
jiart of their great work, entitled Cra/z/a Brifaiuiica, published in
1856, state that they employed sand. Grattan refers to this fact,
and expresses his regret that they did not use a more reliable
material.
In addition to devising instruments and methods for taking
skull measurements he employed them in the study of numerous
Irish skulls. Thus, in the Ulster /ournal of Archeology, "S'ol. i.,
1853, he had a "Notice of an Ancient Sepulchural Mound."
From this Mound which \\as apparently a pre-christian burial
place, he obtained 8 skulls sutificiently well preserved to admit of
satisfactory measurements. These specimens were probalily all
A S/cr/r// ,>/' //is U.'ork as a Cnun'i>/oisisf.
interred al)()ut the same time, and yet they exhibit considerable
variations in cranial form. Again, in the same Journal, Vol. vi., i S58,
p. 241, he gives a chronological classification of 104 skulls from
various Irish sources which he had measured. P>om an examina-
tion of some prehistoric Irish skulls he came to the conclusion
that they were divisible into two distinct groups. The majority
were long-headed like the majority of the existing inhabitants,
and he considers them Celtic. The minority were round-headed,
and Grattan agrees with Retzius in holding that these were of
" Turanic " origin, had preceded the Celtic population, and have
their living representatives in the Fins or Laplanders. He further
concluded from the cranial testimony that the Celtic population of
Ireland, no matter by how many immigrations introduced, must
be originally from one part stock.
It will thus be seen that Grattan belonged to that group of
scientific investigators who have endeavoured to ascertain the
physical characteristics of the prehistoric races of this country
and that his own researches and inventions were calculated to aid
in the accurate determination of the differences between the
various races of mankind and the zoological position of man
himself.
Grattan was an acti\e member and an important contributor to
the Proceedings of this Society about half a century ago, and his
researches may serve as a typical illustration of the general
character of the work of some of its early supporters.
This Society was not founded upon any narrow and merely
utilitarian basis and has not limited itself to any one department
of scientific work. It has welcomed contributions from those
interested in any of the physical or biological sciences, and while
glad to receive contributions illustrating the practical application
of scientific discoveries to the improvements of our arts and
manufactures it has shown an equal appreciation for observations
and experiments tending to increase our knowledge of nature and
its workings, irrespective of whether or not they were likelv to
increase our wealth or contribute to our material comfort.
Natural History, Botany, Geology and Ethnology have been
34 John Graf fan :
fovoLirite departments of study amongst our members. The
gradual accumulation of carefully recorded facts by a multitude of
humble workers in these subjects, no less than the capacity for
broad generalisations possessed by a few brilliant minds, have
taught us the great antiquity of this earth and the gradual
evolution of its organic life. Darwin's work on board the
" Beagle '' and his studies amongst his flowers and his domestic
animals must have appeared to many as a useless, if harmless,
amusement, and yet what department of human thought and
activitv has not been influenced by them.
It not unfrequently happens that in the attempts to solve a
difficult and complicated scientific problem a frontal attack is as
ineffectual, if not as disastrous, as our Generals found it to be at
Colenso. The foundations of the science of bacteriology were
laid by botanists who probably never dreamed that in the hands
of such men as Pasteur it was destined to create a re^"olution in
the treatment of many diseases and in our views of sanitation and
preventative medicine.
In these times when the steam engine is disappearing to be
replaced by the electric motor we ought not to forget what we owe
to such men as Galvani with his apparently trivial experiments
with frogs, muscles, and bits of copper and iron. It will be an
unfortunate day for our material prosperity, no less than for the
progress of science, when the scope and nature of our scientific
work is limited to what at the time may appear of practical
utility and when the pursuit of truth for its own .sake can no
longer claim its devotees. Let us hope that this Society will
always maintain its high traditions, and will continue to produce
members as able, industrious, and energetic in scientific research
as John Grattan.
A Sketch of /lis ll'orh as a Cra/iio/oo/s/, 35
APPENDIX.
The following appendix (xjnsists of reprints from some of
Grattan's unpublished work. Plate (I) is a drawing of Grattan's
craniometer. The explanation of this plate and the description of
the method of using the craniometer are reprinted from the paper
prepared by Grattan, but unpublished at the time of his death.
Plate II. is reproduced from one made by Grattan to illustrate
his method of cranial measurements. It has been reduced to
about 731-ds of the size of the original figure. A somewhat similar
illustration will be found in the Ulster Journal of Archaeology,
Vol. VI., 1858, showing a profile view of the dimensions of
Spurzheim's skull.
A table has also been added showing Grattan's scheme of skull
measurement ; some facial measurements have been omitted.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Grattan's Craniometer.
A. — A flat Board, 20 inches scjuare, and 5<(ths of an inch thick,
forming the stand of the Instrument.
B. — A movable wooden foot, 9 inches long, 3 broad, and i
thick. It narrows to ^ of an inch in front, where it has
affixed to it a brass mounting, which carries the Pivot P.
C. — Nut and screw for securing B to A.
D. — A wooden upwright, i 2 X 3 X i inches, firmly mortised into
the foot B.
E. — A brass frame attached to 1) by means of pivot F, upon
which it can be made to rotate in a vertical plane. Its
centre (the pivot K), is 9 inches above the board A : and
its arms project forward •] }{ inches from I), and are 7^4
inches apart.
F — The pivot and nut which secure E in its place, and allow
of its being fitted and rotated at will.
G. — A second brass frame or stage, attached b\- its extremities
to the extremities of E.
26 /oliii Gtaifau :
HH. — Two screws, passing through the extremities of J'^ and G,
constituting the axis upon which G revolves, in a plane
always perpendicular to the plane of rotation of E. The
inner ends of these screws terminate in smooth cylindrical
pivots, of suitable dimensions, to permit of their being
introduced into the external auditory foramina. They can
be screwed backwards or forwards with the utmost facility ;
and when adjusted to a skull, are fixed in a postion by
means of the nuts II.
II. — Binding nuts, for fixing the stage G firmly to the screws
HH, in order that they may rotate with it in its progress.
J. — A brass semicircle, divided into degress, and firmly secured
by screws upon the upper arm of E. Its centre coincides
with the axis of G, and it is traversed by an index K,
secured upon H by the binding-nut L, so as to insure its
accompanying H and G in all their movements, the ex.
tent of which can thus be read off in degrees.
K. — The hidex attached to the screw H. A\'lien E stands in
the position in which it is placed in the diagram, the faces
of I and Iv lie horizontally, and conseciuently only their
edges can be seen ; but a detached diagram of them is set
out separately.
L. — A binding-nut, for fixing the index K in position when
adjusted.
M. — A piece of whalebone 2>f\ iiiches long, i '_. broad, and
2-:oths thick, securely, Ijut slackly attached 1)\- twine to the
upper surface of the short projecting arm of(i, so as to
allow it a sort of hinge-like motion. It is imperfectly
visible in position in the diagram, but a detached outline
of it is given ; two dots upon it, and upon G, respectively,
indicating the holes by which they are secured to each
other.
N. — A thumb-screw passing through G, and pressing against the
back of M, by means of which the distance of M from G,
and the pressure exerted upon M can be regulated.
A SkeicJi of his Work as a Craiiioloi^^isf. ^'
O. — A binding-nut, for securing the stage G in position when
its adjustments have been completed.
P. — A pivot, rising vertically from the brass mounting of the
foot B. Its centre coincides with the axis of the stage G,
when the poles of the latter are placed perfectly vertical,
and if extended vertically, would exactly bisect the same
axis when adjusted horixontally.
Q. — A brass carriage, 12 inches long and 2^^ broad. One of
its extremities is perforated to make it fit pivot P, round
which, resting upon B, it moves horizontally ; the other
extremity resting upon a brass foot, R, which raises its
under surface to the level of the top of B. When moved
round P, it describes a circle, of which P is the centre, and
its left limb is graduated to permit of the distance from P
to U being read off in inches and tenths.
K.. — The foot upon which Q rests, secured to it by screws.
S. — A brass slide, which travels backwards and forwards in a
slot upon the carriage Q, carrying at one end the upright
T, and having at the other end a tube for receiving the
pencil U.
T. — A perpendicular triangular brass upright. 12^ inches long,
attached to S.
U. — A pencil, passing freely through S, which it accompanies
in all its movements, with its point resting on the paper Y.
V. — A spring slide, fitting accurately upon, and moving freely
up and down T. It carries in front a horizontal pivot,
upon which rotates the curved tracer A\' ; and at the back^
a binding-screw, to fix it in position when requisite.
W. — A curved tracer, so adjusted as always to have its points in
the same perpendicular line as the point of the pencil U.
X. — A pointed steel pin, furnished with a wooden handle. ' It
passes through the exact centre of P ; pierces the paper Y ;
and indicates the precise point from whence all the measure-
ments are taken.
Y. — A sheet of paper, extending under a portion of the foot B ;
which, when screwed down, holds it firmly in its place.
38 John Gratfan :
a I, and a 2. — Two lines scribed upon the board A. a i, passing
transversely through the central point, indicated by
X ; and a 2, backwards therefrom, and perpendicular to
a I. They enable the paper Y, when correspondingly
marked, to be removed, and accurately replaced, if lequisite.
To employ this instrument, let the frame E be turned upon its
axis, until the axis of G shall be perfectly horizontal, indicated by
the mark upon the edge of E ; touching the point c)f the arrow
upon D ; and by the graduated semicircle J, standing perpen-
dicularly at the left hand of the operator as he faces the upright
D : then let the stage G be turned upon its axis, until it depends
vertically from the extremities of E, when its projecting arm,
carrying the thumb-screw N, will be underneath — the whaJebone
lever M lying loosely upon it above. If a skull be now placed
upon its base, centrically on the stage G, with its face towards the
operator, and the screws HH be introduced mto the external
auditory foramina, the bony palate will rest upon the hinge-end of
M ; whilst, by means of the thumb screw N, the forked extremity
of M can be pressed upon the occipital condyles, with any
amount of force requisite to keep the skull fixed and steady. The
binding-nuts, II are then to be screwed home, after which the
stage G mav be rotated completely round its axis, carrying with it
the skull, which will not require to be shifted upon the stage in
any subsequent operation. Let the carriage Q be now moved,
until, upon sliding S backwords and forwards, the point of the
pencil U exactly traverses the line A 2. Let it be fixed in this
position by passing the pin X through a hole in the foot R, into
a corresponding hole in the board beneath, and let the ])oint of
the tracer \V be adjusted precisely upon a level with the axis of E,
which will be when the under edge of the slide V touches the
point of the arrow upon T. It will now be manifest, that by
rotating the stage G, any portion of the median periphery of the
skull may be brought into immediate contact with the point of the
tracer W, and the distance of any part of it from the axis of the
auditory foramina be read off in inches and tenths upon the grad-
uated scale in O: the angular distance t;f any one i Joint i>om
PLATE II.
A Sketch of his fTarh as a Crauioloi;;ist. 39
another, adopting the same axis as a centre, being indicated upon
the graduated circle J by its index K. In this manner mesial
measurements, mathematically accurate, both as regards extension
and position, may be taken with surprising facility. For the
reasons already advanced, however, it has been found to be much
preferable to make outline tracings instead, which may be accom-
plished with very little additional trouble. To do this — replace E
in the position it occupies in the diagram ; set A free by removing
the pin from R, and then carefully move Q round P as a centre ;
keeping, at the same time the tracer "W in contact with the skull,
and tracing upon the paper Y, with the pencil U, the course the
latter takes, which will coincide exactly with the line described by
the point of W in its progress ; the position of sutures, and other
important points, being indicated as we proceed b\- short lines
perpendicular to the skull. By this means we shall succeed in
producing a faithful outline of the entire median section of the
skull ; and may, in like manner, jiroduce transverse sectional out-
lines at any desired point, by simply replacing E in the horizontal
position, and by rotating G, bringing the section to be outlined
into the same horizontal plane as the point of the tracer W. A
series of outlines thus taken (see Plates 2 and 3), affords per-
manent and unimpeachable materials from which measurements may
be taken with perfect accuracy and facility : and I shall now
proceed to explain how the exact dimensions, and the more
prominent characteristics of the skill, maybe expressed numerically,
with the precision and fidelity necessary for scientific purposes.
4°
GRATTAN'S TABLE,
Showing his Schema of Skull Measurements: —
Section I.
DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS.
Capacity in cubic inches
Length in inches and tenths
Breadth
Veitical height at 60 decrees
Circumference
Occipito- frontal Arch
Transverse Arch at 90 degrees
Capacity in cubic Centimetres
I>ength in ISIillimelres
Breadth
Vertical height at 60 degrees
Circumference
Occipito-f rental Arch
Transverse Arch at 90 degrees
Section IT.
PROPORTIONAL MEASUREMENTS
in lOnths of Long Diameter of Cranium,
Group I.
L.ngth
Breadth
Vertical height at 60 degrees
Circumference
Occipito frontal Arch
Transverse Arch at 90 degrees
Section II.
MESIAL RADII. Group 11.
1
0
At
10
^Angular
20
Intervals
30
of
40
10 degrees
50
from the
60
Naso- frontal
70
Suture
80
as
,^
90
Zero,
100
and Avith tlie
110
Axis
120
of the
UO
Auditory
140
Foramina
150
as
160
Centres.
170
180
To posterior edge of F
]M
agnum
.. anterior do.
do.
,, front edge of Upper
M
axilla
,, Symphysis Mcnti
Skction it.
CORONAL ARCS. <Jroup III.
^ \ Frontal
■^ I Parietal
■p i Occipital
; Total of, or Occiptio Frontal
f At 10 degrees
^ 30 ,,
> \ 60 „
ci 90
2 I 120
Section IT.
TRANSVERVE DIAMETER, Group IV
Mastoidal
Mentoriai
Temporal
(A)
Zone
at
Supra-Temporal
(B)
Zone
at
f 10 degrees
I 30
I 60 „
<; 90
1 120 „
1150
f 10 degrees
30
I 60
i 90 ,,
I 120
1150
Section III.
MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENTS.
Long Diameter of F. Magnum
Tiaiisverse do. do.
Cerebellar Depression below 1 .50^
Angular Position of —
Coronal Suture
Lambdoidal do.
Posterior edge of F. Magnum
Anterior edge of do.
,. Upper Maxilla
Symphysis Jlenti
41
1st December, igoj.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
President, in the Chair.
SAYINGS, PROVERBS, AND HUMOUR OF ULSTER.
By Professor John W. Byers, M.A., M.D.
(Abstract.)
The lecturer pointed out how sayings, proverbs, and humour were
characteristic of a distinct race, and that a study of these features
enabled us to form some opinion of the history and character of
the people, to understand their habits and peculiarities, to in-
vestigate their methods of speech, and in some measure to explain
why they have exerted such an influence in the world's history.
For three hundred years there had existed in Ulster (and mainly
the north-eastern part of that province) a race of people who by
their power of work, their level-headedness, and thorough self-
reliance, have made Belfast the great centre of Irish industries,
have contributed to all parts of the British empire men distinguished
in commerce, science, literature, statesmanship, and the arts of
war ; and, as pointed out by President Roosevelt in his great work
" The Winning of the West," have done so much in colonising
what was formerly called the AVestern States of America — those
lying beyond the Alleghanies.
The Northern Irish are a mixed people, and the Ulsterman
from his heredity is a product by himself. Through his veins
there courses a stream of Scotch, English, French Huguenot, and
Irish blood, and so in the same individual you may sometimes
find the pluck and grit of the Englishman, the tenacity and fore-
thought of the Scotch, the industry of the Huguenot, with the keen
42 Professor Byers on
sympathy, pugnacity, and ready wit of the native Irishman. The
characteristics of a race so constituted find expression in the
quaint sayings, proverbs, and humour of the people of the Northern
Province of Ireland, which are inspired more by a shrewd obser-
vation of men and nature than by mere book-learning. They are
met with in their most pronounced form in the country districts
as distinguished from the towns, and the clergy and the medical
profession who are brought into intimate relationship with the
people hear them most frequently.
The explanation of some of these sayings is at times difficult,
and, as examples, the following were discussed : — " The rale
M'Kay," "A Morgan Rattler," " Tibb's Eve," and "Paying on
the Nail." A large variety of other phrases and proverbs having
been considered, attention was called to the folk-lore, superstition,
and fairy-lore of Ulster, and illustrations were given from the
writings of " Moira O'Neill," Allingham, W. S. Drennan, as well
as from personal observation.
Various " omens " were mentioned, the " Banshee " was discussed
as well as terms and phrases used, indicating the power of
observation possessed by the Ulster race.
Finally, reference was made to the " Humour " of the Northern
Province of Ireland, which differs from that of the South in not
being so apparent and spontaneous, and not so topsy-turvy ; it
was of a drier kind, but at the same time could be as sparkling as
that met with in any other part of the country. One feature
about the Northern humour was that while it is not so much on
the surface and in many cases was not so evidently prepared
beforehand as is found in the South of Ireland it is not so readily
exhausted. In driving through Dublin the jarvey will at once
when you mount his vehicle fire off some humourous saying ; in
the North of Ireland, the carman, on the contrary, waits until you
draw it out of him by some remark, but while the carman in the
South shows by the twinkle in his eye that he is amusing you, his
Northern confrere never exhibits by any emotional evidence that
he is poking fun at you. Examples were given to illustrate the
Ulster Humour.
Savings, Proverbs, and Humour of Ulster. 43
[The lecture of which the above is a very short abstract appeared
in the March number (1904), of the "Victoria College Magazine,"
and has since been published, along with " Ulsterisms," in book
form.]
Rev. Professor Todd Martin said he thought they should not
separate, whatever was their custom, without tendering their hearty
thanks to Professor Byers for that lecture, which no other man in
the North of Ireland could have given them. Professor Byers had
a full acquaintance with Ulster, and that evening he had brought
before them some of the traits of the Ulster people in a wonder-
fully interesting way. They were under a deep obligation to him
for that lecture. He was sorry to see that the distinctive charac-
teristics of the Ulster people seemed to be vanishing. The spread
of education was driving out a good deal that was distinctive of
the province, and it was a great pity that some of the traits of the
people could not be seized upon before they passed away. They
had unfortunately not been provided with a picture of the province
as other parts of Ireland had been presented. Prefessor Byers, he
hoped, was on the way to do something of that kind. He moved
the vote of thanks heartily, and hoped it would be heartily sup-
ported.
Mr. William Crawford seconded the vote of thanks. The lecture
had been extremely interesting in every part, and he had the greatest
pleasure in seconding.
The Chairman said the lecture was a singularly appropriate one
to a society like theirs. Their Museum contained numerous
memorials of the work of the ancient inhabitants of this province,
and Professor Byers had brought before them that evening not less
interesting points that they ought to preserve and treasure as very
interesting historical facts.
The vote of thanks was passed by acclamation.
44
2Sth Jafu/ary, 1^04.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E,
President, in the Chair.
RADIUM.
By John Finnegan, B.A., B.Sc.
(Abstract.)
The meaning of lonisation was first explained, then the nature
of Kathode rays, canal rays and X-rays. Becquerel's discovery
that Uranium and its salts are continually emitting rays that affect
the photographic plate was discussed.
After the discovery of the uranium radiation only one other
chemical element — thorium — was found to possess similar powers.
About the close of 1897 Madame Curie began the study of
Becquerel rays. She soon found that the emission of rays by the
compounds of uranium was strictly proportional to the quantity of
metal present, and must be an atomic property of tlie element
uranium and independent of its chemical or physical state.
Uranium is chiefly obtained from pitchblende, a velvety black
mineral found in the Erzgebirge and in Cornwall. M. and
Madame Curie resolved to investigate the radio-activity of pitch-
blende, and they discovered that some specimens had a radio-
activity four times greater than metallic uranium itself, and they
immediately set about separating chemically from pitchblende one
substance after another, testing each portion for radio-activity.
In this way they discovered that, with the separate bismuth, there
Radium. 45
came away a very active sulistance which they named polonium,
and with the barium another intensely active substance, which
they called radium.
A third highly radio-active substance was discovered in pitch-
blende by M. Debierne, and called by him actinium ; it accompanies
certain bodies of the iron grou{), and is a near neighbour of
thorium. All these radio-active substances occur in pitchblende
in absolutely infinitesimal quantities. A ton of the uranium residue
— that is the dross of the pitchblende after the uranium is
extracted — yields about two or three grains of radium salt. The
radiation from radium is extraordinarily intense — it emits constantly
all the different rays produced in a vacuum tube — and a specimen
of a pure radium is more than one million times as active as an
equal weight of uranium. A few centigrams of radium bromide
discharge an electroscope four or five metres distant, and one can
easily discharge an electroscope through a screen of lead or glass
three inches thick. Photographic plates placed near radium are
almost instantly fogged. Radium can be used like X-rays for the
production of radiographs.
Rutherford, Becquerel, and others have shown that radium
radiations comprise three different classes of rays. (i) The
"Alpha" rays, formed of material particles, atomic in size, charged
positively, thrown off with a velocity about one-tenth that of light,
easily absorbed by thin sheets of aluminium foil, or by a few
millimetres of air. About 90 per cent, of the discharging effect is
due to those rays. They resemble the canal rays of Golstein, but
have much greater velocity. According to Rutherford, these
resemble closely helium. (2) The " Beta " rays, absolutely
analogous to Cathode rays, are swarms of flying corpuscles,
strongly active and much more penetrative than the Cathode rays
of our tubes, moving with enormous velocities, many as fast
as light. (3) The " Gamma " rays, not deflected by a magnet,
traversing thick sheets of lead, are generally believed to be
etherical pulses of the Rontgen ray type.
Radium radiation has an intense physiological effect, producing
46 Mr. John Finnegan on
skin sores that heal slowly. M. Curie allowed an impure radium
salt for ten hours to rest upon his arm ; immediately a red spot
appeared, and a sore was produced that required some months to
heal, leaving a very marked scar.
M. and Madame Curie observed that every substance which
remains some hours near a radio-active salt becomes itself radio-
active, possessing induced radio activity. Professor Curie found
that the zinc, iron, and lead fittings, the air of his laboratory, the
clothing of the workers, their very persons, in presence of radium,
start into activity, and give out rays capable of affecting a photo-
graphic plate and discharging electricity. Sometimes he himself
could not enter his laboratory or approach his electrometer for
days. It has been found that these .substances are continually
giving out a kind of gas, and this is called elimination ; the radio-
activity is caused by particles from this emanation depositing on
the surrounding bodies. We have five disintegration products of
radium — (i) a very active substance continually produced called
radium X ; (2) the luminous emanations arising from it ; (3) the
resulting precipitate of this, also self-luminous ; (4) Cathode rays ;
(5) "Alpha" rays, and accompanying these a continuous emission
of heat.
Rutherford explains the phenomenon of radioactivity by the
theory that radium atoms are disintegrated, producing others of
less intrinsic energy.
He supposes that a small number of atoms, perhaps one in one
hundred thousand millions, becomes unstable every second, and
explodes, a part the " Alpha " particle is violently expelled.
The remainder is the radium exonation. This is also unstable
and expels another " Alpha " particle, becoming emanation X,
which behaves like a solid.
This again is unstable, disintegrating with production of "Alpha,"
" Beta," and " Gamma " rays. All these are lost to the original
radium, and the loss is continuous, but so small that we cannot
detect it by weighing. Radium, then, cannot survive indefinitely,
and the wonder is that it has survived so long.
Radium. 47
Early last summer Professor Ramsay discovered that the fresh
emanation from radium does not show the helium spectrum, but,
with its decay, helium is produced in ever-increasing quantities,
and if this very important conclusion is confirmed it will verify
Rutherford's idea that radium is being constantly transformed into
helium, and a proof will exist that a transmutation of the elements
is possible. Assuming the truth of these laboratory results, we
find ourselves in presence of quite startling phenomena.
No one has hithereto observed the transition from one form of
matter to another, although everyone knows that such a trans-
mutation was the dream of the alchemists. In recent times skilful
observers have suspected such changes from spectroscopic details
of solar and stellar spectra. Some chemists have maintained the
evolution of matter on the strength of Mendelejeff's law that the
elements form a kind of family or related series, and suspected
that the barriers between the members were not impassible. All
this was the speculation of the very boldest ; but in radio-active
substances the process appears going on before our eyes. Radium
thorium, and uranium are only extreme cases. Atoms of all sorts
are reservoirs of energy, and have no guarantee of absolute
durability ; and Strutt finds that most ordinary materials are
slightly radio-active. If we allow ourselves to use our scientific
imagination and to push the electronic theory of the construction
of matter to its logical limits we may be witnesses of the spon-
taneous disintegration of radium, and we commence to doubt the
permanent stability of matter. The chemical atom may, in fact,
undergo a transformation, but so slowly that if one million atoms
escape per second from a gramme the weight would hardly
diminish one milligramme in one century. A well-known scientist
says : — " This fatal quality of atomic dissociation appears to be
universal, and operates whenever we brush a piece of glass with
silk ; it works in the sunshine and raindrops, in lightning and
flame ; it prevails in the water fall and stormy sea. Matter is
doomed to destruction. Sooner or later it will have dissolved
into the formless mist of protyle, and the hour Imnd of eternity
48 Afr. John Finnegan on
will have completed one revolution." Of atoms, as of men, it
may be said with truth, " Quisque suos patitur manes."
Among the experiments which Mr. Finnegan conducted during
his lecture was the discharging of an electrometer by bringing near
it a tube containing three-fortieths of a grain of radium, the tube
enclosed in a metal match-box, and that again in a wooden box.
The Lord Mayor, in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Finnegan,
said they had to thank that gentleman for an evening which he
felt sure they had all enjoyed very much. During the last twenty
years there had been from time to time scientific discoveries
which had sent a thrill of wonder and admiration through them,
and of these none was more admirable and wonderful than the
new discovery — radium. The world was to be congratulated that
it was a lady who had been the means of making them acquainted
to some extent with one of nature's greatest secrets. For the
welfare of humanity they hoped that these grand discoveries of
modern science would continue.
Mr. John Brown, in seconding, congratulated Mr. Finnegan on
the attractive manner in which he had treated his subject. To
old chemists like himself it was hard to have some cherished
belief shattered, but, though he bowed to some of the more
modern scientists on some of the points, he positively declined to
accept the dissociation theory, which he took leave to say was all
humbug. He did not refer to gases, but to electrolytic dissociation.
It was a theory made in Germany, and built upon a most
unsubstantial basis. He agreed with the Lord Mayor that they
ought to do all honour to the great French woman, Madame
Curie, whose work had been so attractively put before them by
Mr. Finnegan.
The Chairman, in putting the motion, endorsed all the mover
and seconder had said in praise of the lecture, which, however,
was given under certain disadvantages owing to the want of
equipment in the room. Two names had been specially mentioned
that evening — Madame Curie and Professor Rutherford. To the
former all honour was due. The latter, as they knew, held a
Radium. 49
chair at Montreal, and it was fortunate that he did so, for in
no laboratory in Ireland would he have found the equipment
necessary for the conduct of his experimental work. He might
be regarded as somewhat fanatical on this point, but he must say
that it appeared to him a national disgrace to any country not to
provide adequate opportunities for research into problems which
were of interest to every intelligent man, and which had a practical
bearing upon almost every department of work. They knew that
many of the discoveries of modern science were already largely
employed in medicine, and there was hope that some of them
might be of even greater utility to suffering man than they had
yet been. They ought, he thought, to all try and do their best to
remove what he considered a standing disgrace to the country —
the want of proper equipment for scientific research. If all their
public men in Belfast were as energetic and active in support of
scientific research as their present Lord Mayor, who took the
keenest interest in scientific work, especially in physical and
electrical research, the reproach would soon be wiped out.
The vote was passed with acclamation.
Mr. Finnegan, in acknowledging it, endorsed what Professor
Symington had said about their poor equipment in Belfast. In
going about the scientific appliance shops in London he had more
than once been shown a splendid scientific apparatus which was
going out to Mr. Rutherford at Montreal. It was a standing
disgrace that up to the present there was no physical laboratory at
the Queen's College, Belfast. However, they had been promised
such a laboratory by Mr. Pirrie, and when they obtained it he
hoped it would be more perfectly equipped with men as well
as good appliances.
50
I'jth February, 1^04.
Mr. William Swanston, F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
A HISTORIC TRIAL : THE LIMAVADY GOLD
ORNAMENTS CASE,
By R. Lloyd Praeger, B.E., M.R.I.A.
(Abstract.)
Mr. Praeger, in the course of his lecture, pointed out that the
Limavacly gold ornaments case had been in many respects a most
remarkable one: The action had been at the suit of the Crown
against the trustees of the British Museum for the delivery up of
certain ancient golden Celtic ornaments. The matter had origin-
ated through the finding by a ploughman named Nicholl in April,
1896, on a farm near Lough Foyle, of the following articles : — (i) A
hollow collar, in two sections, with elaborate repousse ornament-
ation of eccentric curves ; (2) a model boat, with eight thwarts
(originally nine) and a number of oars and spars ; a hemispherical
bowl of tliin metal, with four rings at the edges for suspension ;
(4) a solid gold tore of stout wire, with a thin wire twisted round
it ; (5) one half of a similar tore ; (6) a necklace, formed of three-
plaited chains, with a peculiar fastening; and (7) a thin single
chain of same plaiting.
The articles were found some fourteen or fifteen inches below the
surface of the earth and packed together within a radius of nine
inches, showing that they had been deposited there.
The lecturer proceeded to describe how the ornaments were
A Historical Trial : The Li?iiavady Gold Ornaments Case. 51
exhibited at a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries of London, in
Januaiy, 1897, when a paper was read about them, and how the
British Museum subsequently purchased them for the sum of
^600. The Royal Irish Academy took action, claiming that all
such articles should be deposited in the national collection, and
five years of agitation ensued. The Government agreed to have
the question thrashed out in a court of law, and ultimately the
action was brought in the name of the Attorney-General on
behalf of his Majesty the King, the trial taking place before Mr.
Justice Farwell in June of last year.
The evidence for the Crown and for the defence was fully dealt
with, and some of the most interesting extracts therefrom were
read by the lecturer.
The questions opened up by that portion of the defence which
urged that the articles constituted a votive offering made to a deity
at a time when the site was still below the sea, w^ere extremely
varied and interesting. Witnesses were examined as to the customs
pertaining to votive offerings at all times and in all countries, and
a court of law heard quotations from Herodotus, Strabo, and
Tacitus, and particulars relative to votive offerings found in Danish
bogs, or made at the present day in the Malay Peninsula. The
theory of votive offerings was also dealt with by the lecturer.
The geological evidence was also interesting. The fluctuations
of level of our coasts since the glacial period were fully dealt
with, and descriptions given of the post-glacial series at Belfast,
Lame, and elsewhere. The evidence of the age of these move-
ments was argued out, in the light of contemporary human remains.
The result of the trial was that the Judge finally made a
declaration that the articles were treasure-trove, belonging to his
Majesty by virtue of the Prerogative Royal, and accordingly
ordered delivery of them. I'he final scene in connection with
the matter was enacted in the rooms of the Royal Irish Academy
at their first meeting this session, when the Academy formally
received the articles, and they were now in the National Museum
in Dublin.
52 Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger o)i A Historical Trial.
Professor Boas, in moving a vote of thanks to the lecturer, said
the lecture had been a most admirable one, and he was sure he
spoke for everyone present when he said they had listened to it with
intense interest. Indeed, he had not heard anything so interesting
of its kind since he heard Mr. Evans in Oxford give an account of
his discoveries in Crete. They had all derived added interest from
it by the fact that facsimiles of the gold ornaments had been
exhibited that night. He (Professor Boas) had not the shadow of
a doubt that the proper home for the ornaments was the Museum
in Dublin, where there was a marvellous collection of Celtic
ornaments.
Mr. Wilson seconded the motion, which was heartily passed.
Mr. Fennell said that facsimiles of the ornaments were now in
the possession of the Belfast Corporation, and might be inspected
by those who cared to see them in the Free Library.
Mr. Praeger suitably acknowledged the vote of thanks.
53
22nd March, igo4.
Professor Johnson Svimington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
President, in the Chair.
AROUND YOUGHAL AND THE BLACKWATER WITH
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES.
By Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.I.A., F.R.S.A.I.
Mr. Milligan said they were all aware that the Royal Society of
Antiquaries of Ireland had stated meetings quarterly, one held in
Kilkenny, two in Dublin, and the Summer meeting which went
the round of the four Provinces in rotation.
Last year this meeting was held in Munster, and the place
selected was Youghal, a very interesting old town. One of the
objects of these meetings was to interest the people of the country
in preserving antiquities and creating an interest in archaeology,
which they have done to a very great extent. Their meeting in
Youghal was a very enjoyable one, not alone on account of the
antiquities, but also on account of the fact that the scenery every-
where was most picturesque. He would attempt to take them in
spirit with him to the South of Ireland.
They would first of all go to the city of Cork, and from thence
they came to Youghal. On arriving at the terminus and going up
the platform, they observed on one side a bay, something like
Belfast Lough as it looked from Bangor, but not quite so large,
and on their left numerous villas and terraces, usually let as
marine residences and lodges for visitors during the summer
54 Mr. Seafo/i F. Milligan on
months, as Youghal was a well-known and largely-frequented
seaside resort in the South. The walk from the station to the
town proper, fully half a mile or more, afforded a fine view of the
bay, the strand, and the town of Youghal lying on the lower
ground.
The town, which was picturesquely situated where the Southern
Blackwater emptied into the sea, consists of one street fully a mile
or more in length, with some small cross-streets at intervals. It
has an ancient history, something like that of their own old town
of Carrickfergus, but it went further back into the early period of
the ancient Celtic Church. Certainly during the Viking period it
was an important place, and had a well-authenticated history
through the Anglo-Norman period, as its various ancient charters
testified. In a town of such a character they naturally expect to
find many relics of the past ages, and in this they were not
disappointed. The main street was narrow, and about half-way
through they passed underneath an arched gateway, on which was
erected a building of four storeys, surmounted by a clock tower.
The members were welcomed in the Town Hall by the chairman
and members of the urban council, who exhibited their ancient
charters and various local curios. They were fortunate in having
such an intelligent and well-informed guide as Mr. J. C. Buckley,
the honorary local secretary of the Society, who was possessed of
vast stores of knowledge on all local subjects, and conveyed it to
them in most fluent and eloquent language.
Their first, and part of the second, day was passed in examining
the antiquities and places of interest, the most important of which
w'as the Collegiate Church of Saint Mary and the warden's house,
commonly called Raleigh's House. Portions of the old town hall
and the ruins of the two monasteries, called respectively the North
and South Abbeys, were still standing. The North was of the
Dominican, and the South of the Franciscan order, and the latter
was the first house of the order erected in Ireland in the early
part of the 13th century by a member of the Desmond family.
The Dominican Friary was also founded by another member of
Around Youi^hal and the Blackwaier. 55
the same illustrious family, who owned the town of Youghal and
surrounding district. There was also in the main street the ruins
of an ancient keep called Tynte's Castle, built in the 1 5th century,
and opposite this was a fine specimen of domestic architecture,
built between 1706 and 17 15 — a fine type of Dutch house of that
time.
Youghal was noted for the excellent brick made there, and the
bricks in this house may have been of local manufacture, though
some authorities said they were Dutch. Hayman in his guide
stated that the Church of St. Mary at the north end of the town
was founded in the nth century, and no doubt an earlier church
existed on the site and was replaced at that period by a church
built in the Hiberno Romanescjue or Norman style of architecture.
On nearly the same site a new church was erected by Richard
Bennett, a knight from Wales, and Ellis Barry, his wife, in 1220.
During the rebellion in the year 1579 it was ruined by Gerald, the
1 6th Earl of Desmond, and lay roofless for a period of 270 years.
In the year 1852, the rector, Rev. William Pierce Drew, aided by
generous contributions, had the choir roofed and tiled, rescuing it
from ruin, but not restoring it to its original beauty. Raleigh's
house stood close by St. Mary's Church. It was on record that
Sir Walter Raleigh resided here in the years 158S and 1589, when
he was Mayor of the town.
It was from Youghal Edward Spenser embarked when he went
to London to publish the first three books of the " Fairie Queen."
It was also supposed that the first potatoes planted in Ireland was
at Youghal, in the garden attached to Raleigh's house, and also
that the first tobacco smoked in Ireland was under the shade of
the myrtle trees in the same grounds. The name Youghal was
derived from two Celtic w^ords, meaning yew-wood, and certainly
the yew seemed indigenous to the place, and grew luxuriantly.
After referring to the industries of Youghal and its history as 'a
trading port, Mr. Milligen proceeded to describe a journey on
waggonettes to the interesting places near Youghal. First the
Preceptory of Rhincrew, a stronghold of the Knights Templars,
56 Mr. Seaton F. Miiligan o/i
said to have been founded in 1183 by Raymond Le Gros, and the
ancient castle called Temple Michael, which was erected by one
of the Desmond family in the fourteenth century to protect an
important ford on the Blackwater. It was battered by Cromwell
during his campaign, and the last of the Fitzgeralds who held it
assisted Lord Castlehaven in the year 1645 '^o cross the ferry that
he might bombard Youghal. A little further was the ancient
Celtic monastery known as the Abbey of Molana.
Driving to Ardmore, Mr. Usher, who is well known in Belfast
as local secretary for County \\''aterford, became their guide. The
beauties and the antiquities of this lovely spot would be very
difficult to do justice to. Ardmore was a well patronised watering-
place for County A\'aterford and County Cork, and many families
from Cork city came there to enjoy the fine sea bathing and
splendid air from the Atlantic. The village was built on the high
rocky ground overlooking the bay, and at the foot of the rocks
was a sandy shore or strand, where the sea was making inroads.
On the occasion of his previous visit they were shown as a great
curiosity the remains of a crannoge down on the sea shore. The
stakes were there, and no doubt that the sea had encroached to
where the crannoge was, which was formerly a bog, and some of
the peat or turf still remained.
The Holy Well was situated on the top of the cliff, close to the
sea side. They usually found an attendant ready to provide them
with a drink at this Holy Well. Close to the cathedral was the
round tower, St. Declan's Oratory, and the ogham stones. Great
uncertainty exists about the date of the birth of Declan, the
founder of the Christian Church at Ardmore. Some placed his
birth as early as 347 a.d., which would put him before St. Patrick.
Be that as it might, at a very early date St. Declan, who was of
Royal descent, founded the first Christian Church here, and his
oratory, still remaining, was supposed to be the original church.
The reputed burial place of St. Declan was within his little church
or oratory at Ardmore. It stood about 70 feet from the cathedral,
and measured internally 13 ft. 4 ins. by 8 ft. 9 ins., and the walls
Arou)id Yoiighal and the Bhukwaier. 57
were 2 ft. 5 ins. thick. The ground had risen from the great
number of interments, until it was within a foot of the Hntel of
the west doorway, which was intact.
The round tower was one of the finest in Ireland, and most
graceful in shape. It was 95 ft. 4 ins. high, tapering to the top.
At the base it was 17 ft. diameter; at the door sill, internal
diameter, 9 ft. i^ ins.; and the walls 3 ft. 5 ins. thick. The
internal diameter at the top storey was 4 ft. 7 ins. It had three
projecting string courses, and the internal floors had disappeared.
The doorway faced east, and was round-headed, and stood 12 ft.
10 ins. high. There were 4 storeys, an opening to the back
storey, and four on the top, facing the cardinal points. The
records of the cathedral were scanty. It appeared to have been
built originally in the Hiberno-Romanesque or Norman style.
The transition from Norman to Gothic appeared in the chancel
and its pillars, and, lastly, the east window was of late Gothic.
After describing the interior of the cathedral in minute detail,
the lecturer said their concluding excursion was a drive to Lismore,
and return by steamer in the evening down the Blackwater from
Cappoquin. Lismore, like Ardmore, was a very ancient seat of
learning and Christianity, going back to early in the sixth century.
The name of a bishop who died in the year 588 was given, but
St. Carthagh in the first half of the 7th century was more
associated with Lismore as the founder of the cathedral and
college. Here was an ancient monkish school similar to Bangor
in Down, to which scholars came for general education and to
learn the principles of the Christian faith.
The Danes, who came up the river from Youghal, plundered
and burnt Lismore in 819, and laid waste the whole country. It
was burned again in 869, and plundered in 913 by the Danes.
Notwithstanding all it passed through in the Viking period, it
arose phcenix-like from its ashes and produced many famous mdn
and great scholars. There were no relics of this early period now
remaining, if they excepted the Crozier and the ancient M.S.,
known as the Book of Lismore, found concealed in a receptacle
58 Mr. Seafon F. Milligan on Yougkal afid the Blackwater.
within a wall of the castle. The crozier was made for a bishop
who died in the year 11 13.
The only buildings of interest in Lismore were the cathedral
and the castle. The cathedral was almost a ruin when Richard
Boyle, Earl of Cork, in the year 1633 commenced to restore it.
The castle was the most interesting feature in Lismore. Some
portions of it were old, but the greater part of it was modern.
The site on which it stood was said to have been the monastery
of St. Mochuda, and the view from the bay window was one of
the finest imaginable.
Having commented on the great beauty of the scenery along
the Blackwater, and made some valuable suggestions to intending
excursionists to the district, Mr. Milligan concluded by saying the
visit of the Society to Youghal was most enjoyable, and they all
left feeling the invigorating effect of the fine sea breezes from the
Atlantic.
On the motion of Mr. W. H. Patterson, seconded by Mr. Wm.
Gray, the best thanks of the meeting were conveyed to Mr.
Milligan for his most entertaining and instructive lecture.
59
26th April, 1004.
Mr. William Swanston, F.G.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.
PRESENTATION TO MR. S. A. STEWART,
A.L.S., F.B.S.
The Presentation was made jointly by the Society and the Belfast
Naturalists- Field Club on the occasion of the election of Mr.
Stewart as an Associate of the Linnean Society.
The Chairman said there was no one in Belfast, or perhaps in
Ireland, who had done so much for natural history in its various
departments. He had done a great deal for botany and geology,
and also, though it was not generally known, for zoology. He
stood at the top of the tree in natural history. He (the Chairman)
regretted the absence of the President, which was unavoidable, and
hoped that Mr. Stewart would long continue to enjoy the honour
that had been conferred on him.
Mr. W. J. Fennell said, as President of the Belfast Naturalists'
Field Club, he would like to add, on behalf of their members, an
expression of the high esteem and regard in which they, one and
all, held their old friend and companion. The address was an
official one, but no words could justly express their admiration for
a veteran who had made no enemies and retained the fast love
of a long roll of friends. For forty years he had worked for
and with the club, which he helped to found, and now, at last, he
had received a high distinction. He was still the living encyclo-
pedia to whom many of them gladly turned when seeking
information, which was always cheerfully given. There were
comparatively few men whose records were so quiet and so
6o Presentation to Mr. S. A. Stewart.
brilliant. Mr. Fennell then read a number of extracts from letters
received congratulating Mr. Stewart on his well-earned honour.
Amongst the writers were Lady Harland, Sir AVilliam Quartus
Ewart, Bart. D.L. ; Miss Hodges, Rev. C. H. Waddell, Messrs.
James Davidson, Corry, and others.
The Address was read by the Honorary Secretary — Mr. R. M.
Young : —
To SAMUEL ALEXANDER STEWART, A.L.S., F.B.S.,
Edin. ; Curator of the Collections in the Belfast Museum,
and Hon. Assoc. Belfast Nat. Hist, and Phil. Soc.
"pvEAR MR. STEWART,— We the President and Members of
the Natural History and Philosophical "■ Society, and the
Members of the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club, desire to place on
record the high sense of satisfaction with which we have learned
that you have been elected an Associate of the Linnean Society,
as a recognition of your long and valuable services in botanical
research, and we desire to congratulate you most heartily on it.
And we trust that you may long be spared to wear your well won
honours, and to pursue the studies that have brought you such
distinction.
We also request that you will accept this Purse of Sovereigns as
a slight token of our friendship and esteem.
We are, dear Sir,
Yours sincerely,
JOHNSON SYMINGTON,
President N.H. and P.S.
ROBERT M. YOUNG,
Hon. Sec. N.PT. and P.S.
W\ J. FENNELL,
President B.N.F.C.
ROBERT PATTERSON,
NEVIN. H. FOSTER,
Hon. Sees., B.N.F.C.
Belfast, 26th April, 1904.
Presentation to Afr. S. A. Steivart. 6i
Mrs. Fennell, amid applause, then presented Mr. Stewart with
a purse of sovereigns.
Mr. Stewart, in responding, said it was with feelings of the
utmost gratification that he received that complimentary address
and its valuable gift. His sense of its value was enhanced by the
fact that it came from the officers and members of the two societies
which cultivated natural science in Belfast and the North of Ireland.
It was a red-letter day for him when he was elected an Associate
of the Linnean Society. That the premier natural history associ-
ation of the country should, without any solicitation on his part,
have conferred upon him that distinction came as a surprise, and
he could honestiy say that it was the most prized of all the honours
possible to him. The climax came when the naturalists with
whom he had worked so long accorded him the present token of
their approbation. He felt that his work had to a great extent now
been done. Tate, Robinson, and many others who helped it
forward, and who were instrumental in establishing their field club,
had gone. They had followed Drummond, Patterson, Templeton,
Thompson, and many old-time worthies of the Natural History
Society. The associations which they founded, however, remained,
and new workers had come and were coming forward. He wished
those workers every success, and hoped that in nature studies they
would enjoy the same pleasures as had rewarded him.
Mr. John Brown said, he was not a naturalist, but he had for
many years been associated with his friend Mr. Stewart in his
duties as an official of the Society. He could not allow that
occasion to pass without saying that a more sterling man and more
careful worker he had never found anywhere.
Mr. Wm. Gray said, he had been associated with Mr. Samuel
Stewart since 1863, and could say that that gentleman had main-
tained the tradition of Belfast for knowledge of zoology, geology^*
and botany. He was a perfect naturalist, and had always
attended to his work with persevering energy, and was in the fore-
front of anything connected with the literature of botany and the
other sciences.
62 Prese7itation to Mr. S. A. Stetvart.
Mr. Joseph Wright also paid a glowing tribute to the merits of
Mr. Stewart and the work done by him.
63
THE NATIONAL EXPENDITURE ON THE
MAINTENANCE OF GULLS.
By J. Brown, F.R.S.
(Abstract.)
During most part of last summer I sojourned at a pretty fishing
village on our coast where the industry was herrings, the talk was
herrings, the very smell was herrings, and when we sailed out of
the harbour we were reminded of herrings by the cries of the
gulls.
The fishermen said the gulls were playing, but if one knew the
views of the baby herrings who were invited to the game, these
would probably be comprised in the old saying, " what is play to
you is death to us."
The play is thus. The razor bills and other diving birds with a
skill worthy of even a " Bobs " have driven the fry into a little
Paardeberg of their own at the surface. The sea has two surfaces,
top and bottom. The razor-bill prefers the top for breathing
purposes. This suits the gulls admirably, and no quarter is given.
If one stand on the bows of a boat which is rapidly sailed
through such a "play " one may see the " ball " of fry a wreathing-
writhing semi-solid mass of baby herrings.
Every one of them knows what he is about, and that it is a
matter of life or death to him to get as near the centre of the ball
as possible. Below the razor-bill awaits him ; above the no less
pitiless beak of the gull. Truly " Nature is red in tooth and
claw."
Let us now become hypothetical and mathematical.
Supposing each bird ate 200 herring-fry in a day, which,
considering the activity of the bird and his opportunity and the
smallness of the fry, seems a fair estimate, and as his play-time
64 Mt\ J. Broivri on the
lasts for about two months, it makes 12,000 fry every season.
Now let us consider that each of these r 2,000 baby herrings
would become a mature herring if let alone, and that the average
price of herrings on the pier is about ;£\ per i,coo, we see that
the keep of each gull for two months costs the nation ^12.
A\'hat he costs for the other ten months of the year I leave to the
officials of the Marine Laboratory at Larne to investigate.
In making this estimate, I would point out that in fishing the
product of the business does not, as in the making of shirts and
shoes, depend solely on the capital and labour expended. It is
chiefly dependent on the available fish in the sea, since the
expenditure involved is practically the same, whether the night's
take be large or small.
In a paper recently read before the Belfast Natural History and
Philosophical Society by Professor Gregg Wilson, the question
was asked " Could men over fish the seas ? " and, in reply, the
learned author said : — Professor Huxley had been of opinion that
this was impossible, and that the damage done by man was
infinitesimal compared with what was done by other enemies. It
was the last straw that broke the camel's back, and if they put on
that last straw it made all the difference, and he thought man
could play the part of the last straw." Would it not be better to
remove the larger part of the whole load, and let man keep, not
only his one straw, but more in addition ?
Let us consider the amount of the load that might be removed.
At a low estimate there might be 100 birds in each play such as I
have described, and say 5 plays per mile of coast and taking the
coasts of the three kingdoms and adjacent islands, omitting the
smaller inlets, as 4,000 miles, we get a total of 2,000,000 birds
whose keep for two months in herrings alone would amount to
the grand total of ^24,000,000 sterling. When magpies and
hawks feed on game in the egg or bird, when rats eat the farmer's
corn, or mice the housewife's cheese, they are called vermin
and destroyed. But when seabirds devour ^24,000,000 worth of
National Expenditure on the Maintenance of Gulh. 65
herrings annually Parliament enacts a law to preserve these
seabirds.
In the good old times there was, I believe, a reward of so much
each for wolves' heads, and there are now no wolves in these
countries. We could hardly hope to extirpate these wolves of the
sea, but if the State were to offer ^d. per head, thereby saving
;^i2 worth of herring for each ^d. expended, their numbers might
at least be reduced. The shooting of seabirds at |d each would
be a profitable industry, since when crowded in a play a dozen or
so might fall to one shot, but even a penny would not be thrown
away in purchasing 12,000 herrings.
As to the distribution of the reward, I would suggest that the
coastguards have a good deal of spare time on their hands.
Finally, it might not be amiss to add that, as I have been
credibly informed, some of these seabirds were quite good eating.
People to whom I had given somehint of the above propositions
told me I was a heartless wretch to propose the destruction of
the graceful and beautiful seagull. I quite appreciate his grace
and beauty, just as I appreciate the glistening gracefulness of the
snake or the striped beauty of the tiger, but there were excellent
reasons of another kind why I do not encourage those animals
on my premises or try to preserve them, as Parliament preserves
the gulls about the domain over which it rules.
Professor Gregg ^^'ilson cordially agreed with Mr. Brown that
it was far better to destroy the enemies of the food fishes than to
limit man in his working ; far better to kill a hundred gannets
than to starve a few fishermen's families. But it was a very
complicated question. If the herrings were allowed to grow
unchecked the sea would not be able to contain them, and though
he would prefer that the herrings should be eaten by usefuf fishes
rather than gulls, still the gulls did not do so much damage. as
might appear at first sight. The fuller study of fisheries we had,
he thought, the better.
Mr. Wm. Gray said the author of the paper had overlooked one
66 Mr. J. Brown on the
important thing, the utility of gulls' wings, Src, for decorations.
He thought the gulls were useful in thinning the multiplication of
the herrings, and they should be very careful before they sought
their wholesale destruction lest they should injure their fisheries.
Mr. Hamilton said that many seabirds when properly prepared
were quite eatable.
Professor FitzGerald pointed out that while no doubt seabirds
had fed on herrings for thousands of years and thereby kept a
certain balance, in more recent times man had begun to fish also
thus disturbing the balance. In order to restore it he presumed
some birds would have to be sacrificed.
Mr. W. J. Fennell said by a rather peculiar coincidence he had
received a letter that day from an American who had recently
paid a visit to Belfast and Portrush, and who wrote protesting
against the destruction of gulls.
Mr. Brown in reply, said he felt gratified that the criticism was
on the whole favourable, and mentioned that since the paper was
written he had observed that the Royal Commission of 1879,
appointed to enquire into the Herring Fisheries of Scotland,
consisting of Frank Buckland, Spencer Walpole, and Archibald
Young, recommended the repeal of the Seabirds Preservation Act
so far as it applied to Scotland.
Note added October, 1904.
In the title of this paper it would have been more correct to
have put "Seabirds" for "Gulls" since the paper really deals
with various kinds of birds.
The numerous notices of the paper published in the press of
the United Kingdom would indicate that it dealt with a subject
of considerable interest. An article on the subject, revised and
enlarged, was prepared for the Manchester Guardian of August
8th.
Criticisms for and against were about equally divided. Amongst
the latter it was urged that the birds were beautiful, useful as
scavengers, and that destroying them was cruel, that if herrings
National Expenditure on the Alain te nance of Gulls. 67
were left unchecked they would multiply till the sea would not
contain them, and that the quantity of fry destroyed by birds was
exaggerated. The Hon. Secretary of the Society for the Protection
of Birds, London, stated also that the cries of the gulls warned
the fishermen of hidden rocks and shoals, and quotes some lines
in illustration of this idea. It is a pretty poetic fancy, but if
the fisherman fled from every collection of screaming birds, he
would have a busy time.
It is possible that before the era of lighthouses and steam fog-
horns the cries of seabirds may have been a feeble substitute on
cliffs on which they were known to breed.
The weakness -of these arguments indicates the scarcity of real
support for the other side. The amount of scavenging is probably
relatively unimportant.
The true objection is doubtless of a sentimental kind, partly
based on a feeling that the destruction of seabirds would involve
open cruelty. A correspondent of Truth points out that this
could be obviated by collecting the eggs for consumption as human
food.
The author of that trite and obvious statement about unchecked
herrings might have chosen a more prolific species, since according
to Buckland, the herring has, weight for weight, only one-third the
number of eggs of the average of other food fishes, or taking
individual fishes, the turbot has 300 times as many. At present
navigation is not impeded by any approach to the " stiffening
of the sea " by either herrings or turbot.
On the question of exaggeration it is possible that the number
of plays per mile may have been overestimated. On the other hand
I have not included the fry consumed by the grampus which
swallows the whole ball of fry at one gulp, a feat which he can
only accomplish after the divers have collected the fry into a ball.
Indeed the divers are the chief culprits since they not only
consume but also collect for both gulls and grampus, and if a
compromise must be made, let us sacrifice them and keep the
gulls, if the sentimentalists insist. The question as to whether
fish assist in this rounding up of the fry is a difficult one. I have
never observed that they do.
In addition there are the depredations of the gannet and tlie
cormorant which devour mature fish. The former will even take
the herrings out of the nets as these are being hauled and the
fishermen complain, not so much of what they eat, but of what
they shake out and lose.
68 Mr. J. Brown on the
Mr. Herewald Wake, writing to the Morning Post, states that
for the most part gulls live on Crustacea and mollusca, etc., found
on mud flats. These, he states, prey on ova and embryos of our
food fishes which would almost be extirpated if the mollusca, etc.,
were not kept in check by the gulls. Mr. Wake appears to base
his remark on the old and obsolete theory that fish came into
shallow water to spawn. It is now well known that practically all
food fishes are known to spawn in the open sea and nearly all
kinds of spawn float on the surface, and there appears to be no
evidence that ova or embryos are found on mud flats. Moreover,
several species of molluscs devoured by the gulls are useful for
bait.
As an argument somewhat stronger than any of the above, it
was pointed out that if the supply increased the price would fall.
But we have to consider that herrings are cured and exported
and that the world's population is increasing, and that by better
means of transit new markets are opened. Again on the other
hand, if catching herrings were easier, less hands and gear would
sufiice, and so the cost of production be lessened.
It is also stated that gulls devour the eggs of other sea-fowl thus
helping toward reducing their numbers.
Several of my critics say that even if the fry escaped the birds
they would be snapped up by other fish. The cod, mackerel,
gurnet, pollack, etc., being food fishes, may be perhaps forgiven —
the dog fish not so easily.
At all events, if the herring has so many enemies the more he
needs protection, and as his allies we can best begin with those
most easily got at — the birds.
Among the many critics who agreed with my view I may
mention Mr. Matthias Dunn of Megavissey, who is evidently well
informed on the question of fisheries. Writing in the Western
Morning News Mr. Dunn takes a view like that of Professor
FitzGerald, and points out that a century ago our fisheries were
primitive and local, but in the last twentyfour years alone, since
the introduction of steam and of cotton nets they have doubled in
capacity. As a natural result of this disturbing of the balance the
fish are diminishing in numbers, whole areas of the sea are
denuded of them, and the fishermen forced gradually to fish
farther off, as far north as Iceland, and as far south as Africa.
On the other hand, Mr. Dunn says since the introduction of the
close season the birds are increasing. In the interests of mankind
they and their associates should be diminished.
National Expetiditure on the Maintenance of Gulls. 69
^\Titing to The Field Mr. J. Harvie Brown states that certain
species of gull, if not all, are far too numerous not only ori
account of the fish they destroy but other birds eggs and young.
In a correspondence in The Scotsman the interest drifts also
into the increase of gulls on the upper reaches of rivers and the
destruction of trout and salmon fry there and of the young of
wild duck and grouse. Four correspondents describe reliable
evidence of this and four others express doubts since they have
not seen it.
I am informed that the Irish Fishery Board gives already i/- each
for cormorant's heads to save fresh water fish.
It is at all events well to see the subject so widely discussed
from many points of view.
J. B.
70
BLINKING OR IL L-W I S H I N a
By E. J. M'Kean, B.A.(Oxon.)
The belief in the evil eye is very old and we meet it in diverse
forms in Saga and Folktale. Medusa's glance in the well-known
Greek story and Balor Beimenach's destructive glare in Irish myth
are but instances of it. It is still dreaded, in Italy especially, and
in all countries of the world besides. The evil eye is not always
destructive : it may be used to divert to its owner things which
should have gone to another, and in this it usually is aided by
magic ceremonies. This is the form which it generally takes in
North-West Europe and which is usually found in Ulster and of
this my paper is to treat.
This kind of charming is perhaps the most important department
of witchcraft and is possibly the oldest. It involves ideas which
belong to an early stage of the human mind. It is simple,
another point in favour of its antiquity, and it requires no
extraneous aid. The 'blinker' as we call him in Ulster, can act
without the help of ghost or devil.
All witchcraft depends on the idea that some men can of their
own will alter the courses of nature by dread powers not given to
all, and this idea, which long survived the advent of Christianity,
fell finally not by persecution but by the fuller knowledge of the
universe which science gave. Like drove out like : the new
knowledge broke down the older theory of the world.
The English statute against witchcraft was repealed in 1736,
and the last condemnation for witchcraft in Ireland took
place at Carrickfergus in 171 1, yet we still have in our midst a
wide-spread belief in ' blinking ' and not a few blinkers. The
blinker seldom attacks persons but usually seeks to satisfy malice
and interest by blinking cattle and " taking the good" of milk or
crops. But nowadays the art is degenerating, its outlines are
growing dim, and we have to compare what we learn of it with
Blmking or Ill-'ivishing. 71
the lore of earlier days, of other nations, or of barbarians and
savages, to know fully its meaning.
The blinker may be either a man or a woman and I have not
found how he gets his power. Some say he serves an apprentice-
ship. I have never found any certain way of recognising a blinker.
Position is, I regret to say, no security, for in one parish in Co.
Tyrone both the collectors in church are blinkers. Undue
prosperity is ground for suspicion and it is well to bless the churn
and take a ' brash ' at it if you happen on butter-making in a
house. It is suspicious to smoke when churning is proceeding
or to ask a piece of turf out of the fire on such occasions or even
to be about if you already have the repute of a ' blinker.' A blinker
has power to become a hare at times and this belief is very old and
widespread for it is akin to the changes of the werewolf and such
like men-beasts and to our enchanted white cats and fox-princes
of the nursery stories. Sometimes the blinker uses his powers
involuntarily and then we have the evil eye in its simplest and
most unmixed form and sometimes it is beyond the will of the
owner. So a pedlar assured me that once he saw healthy cattle
yield not a drop of blood when bled previous to going to grass, as
was the old custom, and this because a blinker was present.
Yet though such is his power to hurt he must generally use
some ceremony to get control over his neighbour's kine and their
produce. Sometimes he goes to skim the dew of his neighbour's
grass, especially on May morning, that day so marked in the
Celtic calender when many uncanny things are active. Sometimes
he skims the froth off the stream from which the cows drink.
Sometimes he takes hairs from the tails of the neighbour's cows
and twists them into a rope which he trails over the dewy grass in
a neighbour's field. So it is unlucky to lend a blinker anything,
especially a piggin or a churnstaff.
All these instances have one thing in common : the blinker
wants to establish a connection with his victim, but he is satisfied
if he gets something associated in idea with it, and this is the
root-fallacy in all witchcraft whether the ill-wisher assaults by the
72 Mr. E. J. M'Keaji on
methods above-mentioned or by images of clay or wax or by
burning a lock of hair belonging to his victim.
When the spell is done and the cattle are blinked they are
distressed and ill and yield no milk, or if they remain healthy and
yield milk, no butter comes in the churn. Then either proceed of
your own knowledge to cure them or consult a wise man who will
probably give you one of two kinds of cure or perhaps both. The
first is to watch the suspected person till you are sure of his guilt
and then to get him into your house and secretly to cut off a piece
of his clothing which is burnt before the cattle. This ends the
spell. The blinker is conscious of the burning and will rush out
of the house when it takes place.
What has happened is this : — the blinker has something associated
with you through which he hurts you : you then get something of
his and hurt him through it and you are quits, or it may be you
gave his victims strength of the blinkers to make up for their
strength taken away.
There is another counterspell which I have not yet met in Ulster
but which is so common elsewhere as to deserve mention. The
blinker is connected with the milk ; well and good ! the milk is
in connection with him and he shall know it. So take some of
the milk and boil it and, if you will, put pins and needles therein.
Then he will come bawling to your door and you may make your
own terms, for the boiling milk and the pins are causing him most
awful agonies. If the cattle yield no milk or have died ; burn
them or parts of them, and you will easily find and punish the
ill-wisher, as is shown in Patrick Kennedy's " Legendary Fictions
of the Irish Celts," page 135, and in Rhy's "Celtic Folklore,"
vol. I., page 304.
The other Ulster cure probably did not once apply to witchcraft
but has come from folk-medicine. It consists in transferring the
spell from the cattle to a bottle and then burying or hiding the
bottle, in one case under a fairy thorn, in another in the suspected
blinker's field. Now to get rid of a disease by transferring it to
someone or something else is well-known in early medicine, but I
never heard of such an idea in witchcraft.
Blinking or Ill-wishing. 73
We have many charms against the bh'nker : — A stalh'on's shoe,
of the meaning of which there is much doubt. Iron is ever a
mystic metal, ghosts and fairies may not face it, some say because
they are of the Stone Age, but the insistence on the stallion seems
to point to more and we may not forget that some races have held
the horse sacred. A he-ass is a sure defence, as is a four-leaved
shamrock, a holed stone, or in some cases an arrow head of black
flint. It is well to milk a heifer at her first milking into a can
with a sixpence in it, and it is wise in shooting at a witch-hare to
use a silver bullet. Salt is a good counter-charm.
Witchcraft is no new thing and was once in high honour, for in
" Irish Magic in the Days of Cormac," an article in the " Dublin
Penny Journal," we read that Cormac had invaded Munster and
" at last the Druids got new orders from Cormac, and they flung
a baleful Druidical breath on the horses, and asses, and cows, and
sheep, and goats of Leath Mocha, and their milk was stayed, and
nothing was heard through the land but the neighing, and lowing,
and braying, and bleating, and sneezing of the cattle." So that
blinking is no new thing, and our examination of present day
Ulster has thrown light on the Ulster of the distant past when the
blinker was a friend of Kings, before Christianity put him under
its ban as a servant of the old gods, later identified with the devil.
Yet before we laugh at antiquity for its folly let us look to
ourselves. I have heard that one fashionable spiritualist in
England, firmly credited by my informant, requires all who would
know their future to hold a crystal long in their hands till it is
warm and some of their " life-fluid," as she says, has entered it
so enabling her to see the inquirer's future in it. Now this is
nothing but our old friend the fallacy that Association in Idea is
Connection, only that the old hag wears a Worth gown and charges
a guinea a seance, which makes a great difference to some people.
74
REPORT OF DELEGATE TO CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES' CONFERENCE, BRITISH ASSOCIA-
TION MEETING, 1903.
By Professor Gregg Wilson, M.A., PhD.,
D.Sc, M.RT.A.
(Abstract.)
I was present as representative of the Belfast Natural History
and Philosophical Society, at the First Conference of Delegates
of the Societies corresponding with the British Association, on
September loth, 1903. The chief business of that meeting was
to hear the President of the Association, Sir Norman Lockyer,
and to discuss his proposal for the organisation of scientific
workers. Sir Norman advocated the formation of a kind of Guild
of Science, whose function should be to promote in every way
scientific training. He pointed out that other countries were
ahead of us in applying science to industry ; that there was urgent
need that the claims of science should be pressed upon our
government, as many of the responsible authorities knew little,
and cared less about science, so that it was necessary to bring
home to these the fact that it is the duty of a State to organise its
forces as carefully for peace as for war ; that Universities and other
teaching centres are as important as battleships or big batallions,
are, in fact, essential parts of a modern State's machinery.
Sir Norman suggested that the Corresponding Societies working
in connection with the British Association might play a great part
in infusing a scientific spirit into county councils, town councils,
and district councils, and might even control votes in the House
of Commons. The future British Association he pictured as a
kind of Parliament of Science, dealing with all matters great or
small relating to Science.
The discussion that followed was not altogether to the point, but
sundry interesting facts were elicited. Principal Griffiths maintained
Report of Delegate to Corresponding Societies' Conference. 75
that what we have to do is to educate the man in the street, and
convince him that pure science is a good thing for him. The
Principal did not seem to think that we could hope to get at the
government till the masses were converted. Another speaker
advocated commencing with the " boy in the street," and others
dealt with their success or their difficulties in working this lowest
stratum, rather than with Sir Norman's proposal to force the
government to give more help.
Mr. Munn Rankin afterwards read a valuable paper on "The
Methods and Results of a Botanical Survey of Counties." He
called attention to the great interest of plant-groupings or
associations, and showed how new life may be put into the study
of systematic Botany by the consideration of plants in relation to
their neighbours and their environment. He called upon Natural
History Societies throughout the country to do their part in
mapping out the areas of the various well-marked associations.
I strongly recommend consideration of this subject to Belfast
botanists, and may mention that Mr. Praeger has already taken up
the mapping of a district near Dublin in the way suggested.
Oncers and Council of Majiagemcnt for 1^04-1^03.
PKOFESSOR JOHNSOxX SYMINGTON, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
'g5ice-jl"'rcsi6enf5 :
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d. | WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
SIR R. LLOYD PATTERSON, D.L. I ROBERT YOUNG, c.k., j.p.
r.L.s.
/aoit. 'ireasitrci- :
JOHN IIORXER.
/aon. c£tbv-attan :
JOHN H. DAVIES.
/aoit. ^ecretarg :
ROBERT M. young, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a.
@OUltciI :
JOHN BROWN, F.K.S., a.m.i.e.e.
JOHN II. DAVIES.
REV. T. HAINIILTON. d.d., ll.d., president q.c.b.
SIR JAMILS HENDERSON, d.l., j.p., a.m.
JOHN HORNER.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.i.
PROFKSSOR W. B. MORTON, .m.a.
SIR R. LLOYD PATTERSON, d.l., j.p., f.l.s.
ROBERT PATTERSON, m.r.i.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
PROFESSOR JOHNSON SYMINGTON, m.d., f.r.s.
PROFESSOR GREGG WILSON, d.sc.
ROBERT Y7)UNG, j.p., c.e.
R. M. YOUNG, B.A., J. p., m.r.i.a.
SHAREHOLDERS.
\* Denotes holders of three or more Shares ^^
♦Alexander, Francis, b.e., Belfast
Allworthy, S. W., m.d.. Manor House, Antrim Road, do.
*Anderson, John, j.p., f.g.s., East Hillbrook, Holywood, Co. Down
Andrew, John J., l.d.s., R.c.s.Eng., University Square, Belfast
Andrew^s, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong, Thomas, jun., Donegall Square West, do.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, do.
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, , do.
Barbour, James j.p., Ardville, Marino, Holywood, Co. Down
Beattie, Rev. A. Hamilton, Portglenone, Co. Antrim
Bigger, Francis J., m.r.i.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast
Bottomley, Henry H. (Representatives of), do.
Bowman, Davys, Holyrood,Malone road (Representatives of) do.
Boyd, William, Great Victoria Street, do,
Boyd, William Sinclair, Ravenscroft, Bloomfield, do.
*Boyd, J. Sinclair, m.d., Chatsworth, Malone Road, do.
Braddell, Edward, Parkfield, Park Road, Ipswich
Brett, Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, Belfast
Brett, John H., C.E., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Bristow, James R., Lismore, Windsor Avenue, do.
Bristow, John, Wellington Place, do.
Brown, John, f.r.s., a.m.i.e.e., Longhurst, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Brown, William K. (Representatives of), Belfast
Bulloch, Alexander, Eversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., m.a., m.d., Lower Crescent, do.
Calwell, Alex. M'D., do.
Calwell, William m.a., m.d., College Square North, do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
Carr, A. H. R., Waring Street, do.
78 Sha re holders.
Carson, John, \\'ali'ner Terrace, Holywood
*Charley, Phineas H , Mornington Park, Bangor, Co. Down
*Christen, Mrs. Rodolphe, St Imier, Brig o' Gairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, George S., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., Netting Hill, do.
Coates, Victor, j.p., d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p.. Queen's Elms, Belfast
Combe, George, Cranethorpe, vStrandtown, do.
Crawford, William, j.p., Mount Randal, do.
Crawford, ^^^illiam, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown, do.
Davies, John H., Lenaderg House, Banbridge, Co. Down
*Deramore, Lord, d.l. (Representatives of).
Dixon, Professor, m.a., sc.d., f.r.s., f.r.u.i., Almora,
Myrtlefield Park, Belfast
Dods, Robert, b.a., St. Leonard's, Newcastle, Co. Down
*Donegall, Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast
*Downshire, Marquis of (Representatives of).
The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Duffin, Adam, ll.d., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park
(Representatives of), Ballywalter, Co. Down
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast
Ewart, Fred. W., m.a., b.l., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart, m.a., j.p., d.l., Glen-
machan House, Belfast
Faren, Wm., Mountcharles, do.
*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
Ferguson, Godfrey W., c.e., Donegall Park, Belfast
Finlay, Fred. W., j.p., Wolfhill House, Ligoniel, do.
Finlay, Robert H. F., Cavehill Road, do.
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc, Kelvin House, Botanic Avenue, do.
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., b.a., m.lm.e., Assoc.
m.lc.e.. Eglantine Avenue, do_
Foster, Nevin Harkness, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Shareholders. 79
Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), Belfast
Gibson, Andrew, f.r.s.a.i., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, H. M., Broughton Flax Mills, Manchester
Gordon, Malcolm, Hilden, Lisburn
Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d., m.r.i.a.,
(Representatives of), Broughshane, Co. Antrim
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Cavehill Road, Belfast
Greer, Thomas, j.p., m.r.i.a., Seapark, Carrickfergus
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rev. Thomas, d.d.. President, Queen's College, Belfast
*Hamilton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, W., Eaton Terrace, London, W.
Henderson, Miss Anna S. (Representatives of), Belfast
Henderson, Sir James, a.m., j.p., d.l., Oakley, Windsor Park, do.
Henderson, Mrs. Charlotte (Representatives of), Clarges
Street, London
Henry, R. M., m.a., Belfast
Herdman, John, j.p., d.l., Carricklee House (Representatives
of), Strabane
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, j.p., Rosavo, Cultra, Co. Down
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House, Belfast
Hind, John, junr., Clifton Park Avenue, do.
Hodges, Miss do.
Hogg, John, Academy Street, do.
Horner, John, Chelsea, Antrim Road, do.
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.l., Orangefield, do.
*Hughes, Edwin, j.p., Dalchoolin, Craigavad, Co. Down
Hyndman, Hugh, ll.d., ^^■indsor, Belfast
Inglis, James, j.p., Merrion Square East, Dublin
Jackson, A. T., c.e., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgie Avenue, Belfast
Jaffe, Sir Otto, j.p., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Dalguise, Monkstown, Dublin
So Shareholders.
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, Belfast
Kidd, George, j.p., Lisnatore, Dunniurry, Co. Antrim
*Kinghan, John R., Altoona, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Kinnaird, George Y., Malone Park, do.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, Mrs., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Larmor, Joseph, m.a., d.sc, ll.d., f.r a.s., f.r.u.i., Sec.R.s.,
St. John's College, Cambridge
Leathern, R. R., m.d., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecumbe, Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down
Letts, Professor E. A., ph.d., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra, do.
Lindsay, Professor James A., m.a., m.d., College Sqr. liast, Belfast
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House (Representatives of), do.
Lytle, Joseph PL, j.p., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.l., m.i.c.e., St. Clair, Windsor Av., do.
Mackenzie, John, c.e.. 412 Lisburn Road, do.
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), do
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonville, do.
Malcolm, Bowman, m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim Road, do.
Maxton, James, m.i.n.a., m.i.mar.e., Kirkliston Drive,
Bloomfield, do.
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens, do.
Mayes, William, 5 Mount Pleasant, do.
Milligan, Seaton Forest, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.i., Bangor, Co. Down
Mitchell, Robert A., ll.b.,t.c.d., Marmont, Strandtown, Belfast
Montgomery, Henry C, Bangor, Co. Down
Montgomery, H. H., Strandtown, Belfast
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.l., Ballydrain
House, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Moore, James, The Finaghy, Belfast
Morton, Professor W. B., m.a., f.r.u.i., Nottinghill, do.
Muir, A. H., Scottish Provident Buildings, do.
Shareholders. 8 1
Mullen, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, Belfast
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p., Tudor House, Holywood, Co. Down
*Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone, do.
*Musgrave, Henry, Drumglass, Malone do.
Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., d.l., Drumglass, Malone
(Representatives of), do.
MacAdam, Robert (Representatives of), do.
M 'Bride, Henry James, Hyde Park, Mallusk, do.
M 'Bride, Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
*M'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London
*M'Cammon, Thos. P., Plaisted, Woodville, Holywood, Co. Down
M'Cance, Miss Charlotte Georgianna, Larkfield
(Representatives of), Dunmurry, Co. I-)own
MacColl Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, Belfast
MacCormac John M., m.d., Victoria Place, do.
M'Cormick, Hugh M'Neile, Cultra House, Holywood, Co. Down
*M'Cracken, Francis (Representatives of).
M'Gee, James, Woodville, Holywood, do.
Macllwaine, John H., Mornington Park Bangor, do.
M'Kisack, H. L., m.d.. University Square, Belfast
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p.. Queen's Elms do.
M'Neill, George, Beechleigh, Malone road, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Ivlartello Terrace, Holywood, Co. Down
Nicholson, Henry J., Bedford Street, Belfast
O'Neill, James, m. a., College Square East (Representatives of), do.
O'Rorke, Mrs., Dunratho, Craigavad, Co. Down
Orr, Hugh E., Woodstock Road, Belfast
Orr, Rev. R. J., Fitzroy Avenue, do.
Park, Rev. Wm., m.a., Somerset House, University Street, do.
Patterson, Edward Ferrar, Ballyholme Road, Bangor, Co. Down
Patterson, Mrs. Isabelle, Bonn, Germany
82 Shareholders.
Patterson, John, Dunallan, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Patterson, Richard, j.p., Kilmore, Holywood, Co. Down
♦Patterson, Sir Robert Lloyd, j.p., d.l., f.l.s..
Croft House, do. do.
Patterson, Robert, m.r.i.a., f.z.s., m.k.o.u.,
St. Clare, do. do.
Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a., Garranard, Strandtown, Belfast
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Knock, do.
Pim, Edward W., j.?., Elmwood Terrace, do.
Pirn, Joshua, Slieve-na-Failthe, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.e., m.r.i.a., National Library, Dublin
Rea, John Henry m.d.. University Street
(Representatives of), Belfast
Rea, William R., Gardha, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Reade, Robert H. S., j.p., d.l., Wilmont, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Riddell, Samuel, Beechpark (Representatives of), Belfast
Robertson, William, j.p., Netherleigh, Strandtown, do,
Robinson, John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc. Royal Academical
Institution, do.
Shillington, Thos. Foulkes, j,p., Dromart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, Felix Booth, Queen Street, do.
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a., j.p., d.l., Hopefield, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, m.d., f.r.c.s. Eng., Howard Street, do.
Smith, John, Castleton Terrace, do.
Smyth, John, m.a., c.e., Milltown, Banbridge, Co. Down
Speers, Adam, b.sc, Riversdale, Holywood, do.
Steen, William C, m.d., Windsor Crescent, Belfast
Steen, William, b.l.. Northern Bank, Victoria Street, do.
Stelfox, James, Oakleigh, Ormeau Park, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Symington, Prof Johnson, m.d., f.r.s.e.. Queen's College, do.
Shareholders. 83
*Tennent, Robert (Representatives of), Rushpark, Belfast
•Tennent, Robert James (Representatives of), Rushpark, do.
Torrens, T. H., j.p., Wellington Place, do.
•Turnley, John, (Representatives of), do.
Walkington, Miss Jane A., Sefton Park, Liverpool
Walkington, Thomas R., Edenvale, Strandtown, Belfast
Wallace, John, Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, j.p., f.s.a., Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard T., Kensington Villa, Knock Avenue Road do.
Whitla, Prof. Sir William, m.d., j.p., College Square North do.
Wilson, Prof. Gregg, m.a., ph.d., d.sc, m.r.i.a., Queen's
College, do.
Wilson, James, m.e., Oldforge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Wilson, John K., j.p., Donegall Street, Belfast
*Wilson, Walter H., Belvoir Park (Representatives of), do.
*Wilson, W. Perceval, do.
*Wolff, G. W., J.P., M.p. The Den, Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, The Moat, Strandtown, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., Rubane House, Glastry, Co. Down
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., d.d., The Manse, Newtownbreda, do.
*Workman, Thomas, j.p. (Representatives of), Craig-
darragh, Craigavad, do.
Workman, A\'illiam, Nottinghill, Belfast
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, C.E., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
84 Annual Subscribers.
HONORARY ASSOCIATES.
Gray^ William, m.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Belfast
Stewart, Samuel Alex., f.b.s. Edin., a.l.s., Belfast Museum do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
York Street Spinning Company, Ltd., do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.
Allan, C. E., Stormont Castle, Dundonald, Co. Down
Boyd, John, Cyprus Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast
Brown, G. Herbert, j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay, Co. Down
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Cleaver, A. S., b.a., Dunraven, do.
Davidson, S. C, Sea Court, Bangor, Co. Down
Fulton, G. F., Howard Street, Belfast
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace, do.
Green, Isaac, i\.nn Street, do.
Hanna, J. A., j.p.. Marietta, Knock, do.
Hazelton, W. D., Cliftonville, do.
Higginbotham, Granby, Wellington Park, do.
Hutton, A. W., Chichester Street, do.
Jones, R. M., m.a.. Royal Academical Institution, do.
Lynn, William H., Crumlin Terrace, do.
Annual Subscribers. 85
Morrow, W. A. G., Clifton Street, Belfast
M'Laughlin, W. H., Macedon, do.
Parr, William, St. Mark's, Ballysillan, do.
Pullman, G. H., Claremont, Knock, do.
Redfern, Prof. Peter, M.Dy f.r.c.s.i.. Lower Crescent, do.
Scott, Conway, c.e., Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
Storrar, W. Morrison, l.r.c.p., Mountcharles, do.
Swiney, J. H. H., b.a., b.e., Bella Vista, Antrim Road, do.
Thompson, John, j.p., Mount Collyer, do.
Turpin, James, Waring Street, do.
1 ■"
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BE LIF-A-ST
Natural History and Philosophical Society
SESSIOJSr 1904-1905.
BELFAST :
PRINTED BY MAVNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STREET.
(printers to queen's college.)
1905.
CONTENTS.
Technical Instruction in Belfast — Francis C. Forth, Assoc.R.C.Sc.I
Stained Glass — ^James Taylor
National Antarctic Expedition— Hartley T. Ferrar, B.A., F.
The Work of the Ulster Fisheries and Biological Association-
Gregg Wilson, M.A., D.Sc, M.R.I.A.
With the Royal Society of Antiquaries (Ireland) on a Cruise
Irish Coast— S. F. Milligan, M.R.I.A.
Russia : Its People and Politics — ^John Horner
Irish Ghost-Lore— E. J. M'Kean, B.A., B.L.
Annual Report
Balance Sheet ...
Donations to Museum ...
Additions to Library
List of Office-Bearers ...
List of Shareholders
.OC.l. ...
1
lO
.s. ...
14
Professor
15
ound the
18
24
32
37
45
46
47
56
57
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
EST-A-BLISHIEID 1S21.
CONSTITUTION.
The meml:)er.ship of the Society consists of Shareholders in the Museum,
Annual Subscribers (Associates), Honorary Members and Honorary Associates.
Shares in the Museum cost £,"] each. A holder of one Share pays an
annual contribution of ten shillings ; a holder of two Shares (in one certificate)
an annual contribution of five shillings ; while a holder of three or more Shares
(in One certificate) is exempt from annual payments. Shares on which the
annual payment as above are in arrear are liable to forfeiture. The Council
retain the right to decline to consolidate two or more share certificates into one
certificate.
Annual Subscribers (Associates) pay^i is. (one guinea) due ist November
in each year in advance.
A General Meeting of Shareholders in the Museum is held annually in
May or June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to receive the Report of the
Council and the Statement of Accounts for the preceding year, to elect
members of Council to replace those retiring by rotation or from other reasons,
and to transact any other business incidental to an annual meeting. Share-
holders only are eligible for election on the Council.
The Council elect, from among their own number, a President and other
officers of the Society.
Each Member has the right of personal attendance at the ordinary lectures
of the Society, and has the privilege of introducing two friends for admission
to such ; and he has also the right of access to the Museum and Library for
himself and family residing under his roof, with the privilege of granting
admission orders for inspecting the collections in the Museum to any person not
residing in Belfast or within five miles thereof. The session for lectures
extends from November till May.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily for the admisson of
visitors, for such hours as the Council may from time to time decide ; the
charge for admission to non-members is sixpence each. The Curator as in
constant attendance, and will take charge of any donation kindly presented to
the Museum or Library.
Any further information required may be obtained from the Honorary
Secretary.
BELFAST
NATURAL HISTORY
AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
SESSION I 904- I 905.
22nd November^ 1^04.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
in the chair.
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN BELFAST :
A RETROSPECT AND A PROSPECT.
By Fras. C. Forth, Assoc. R.C.Sc.L, Principal of the
Municipal Technical Institute.
(Abstract.)
Mr. Forth began his Address -with a short review of the paper
he had read before the Society in December, 1901, entitled,
"The Municipal Technical Institute : its Aims and Aspirations,"
touching upon, the leading points then discussed, and comparing
the work then projected with that which had since been accom-
plished.
Referring to the class entries for the First Session as compared
with the current Session, it was stated that whereas at the end of
the tenth week in the First Session the class entries totalled some
3,000, at the end of the tenth week in the present (the Fourth)
Session, the class entries totalled over 6,000 (the actual figures
being 6,180). The number of students enrolled has propor-
tionately increased, the number now being 4,555, with 103 in the
Day (or Trade Preparatory) School ; making a total of 4,658
individuals.
2 Technical Itist ruction in Belfast :
With regard to the efficiency of the work of the students it was
stated that during the past three years a marked increase had been
observed in power of appHcation, in regularity of attendance, and
in the interest shown in study ; but that comparing the students
of the present with those of three years ago, no perceptible
improvement was noticeable in regard to the educational pre-
paredness of students taking up science and technical studies.
The evening preparatory classes conducted by the Library and
Technical Instruction Committee in the Branch Schools are
attended by an earnest body of students, and quite a number of
these young people are coming forward to the higher departments
in order to study science, technology, or art. The imperfection
of training makes itself markedly felt, and to this may be traced
a distinct percentage of that falling off in attendance which occurs
as the session progresses, more especially in the elementary
classes.
Teaching Staff.
A factor which has contributed in a marked degree to the
development and uplifting of the Institute's work was the ap-
pointment of responsible Heads of Departments. The plan had
been followed that as the Institute progressed, and as a Depart-
ment could fully employ a head teacher, to make the appointment.
In this way the chief positions in art, in chemistry, in physics,
and in mathematics have been filled ; and quite recently a Head
of the Textile Department and a Head of the Mechanical
Engineering Department have been appointed. The Department
of Naval Architecture is not yet provided for ; but in view of the
immense local importance of the shipbuilding industry it is hoped
that the development of the Naval Architecture section of the
Institute's work will soon be on so satisfactory a scale as to
warrant the appointment of an expert teacher for this section
also.
The next point touched upon was the Trade Preparatory
Day School, intended for boys who have passed through the
curriculum of a national school, and who are intended to enter
A Retrospect and a Prospect. 3
into industrial occupations. In referring to this the lecturer said
he felt on dangerous ground, for possibly no branch of the
Technical Instruction Committee's efforts had been more debated
and more strenuously opposed than this one, mainly for reasons
which it might be said after two years' experience, had been shown
to be almost entirely without foundation. Continuing, the
lecturer said it was worth devoting a few moments to examining
tlie motives which actuated the Technical Instruction Committee
to embark upon this portion of their work. In planning their
earlier programme the Committee had recognised that of the
62,000 children on the rolls of National Schools a proportion of
boys leave school every year, having no opportunity under the
then existing conditions of obtaining a higher education. Of this
number a certain proportion must unquestionably enter upon
some one or other of the industrial occupations carried on in
Belfast and neighbourhood, and the problem was how to provide
educational facilities for such boys. The Department of Agri-
culture and Technical Instruction, as part of its experimental
science programme, had arranged a course of instruction in
mechanical science, and this course supplied the solution, and
enabled the Committee to provide a grade of education not
already available. The Trade Preparatory School of the Muni-
cipal Technical Institute was accordingly established. Last year
some seventy-nine pupils passed through the First Year's course,
and this year one hundred and three pupils are entered in the
books — fifty-two in the first year and fifty-one in the second year.
These boys, after completing their studies, should be found
exceptionally useful in industrial estabhshments, as their training
is being made as practical as possible, consistent with due atten-
tion being paid to the broader subjects of a general education. It
is anticipated that later on these boys will become students of the
evening division, and it is hoped to find them carrying their
studies further, and incidentally raising the whole standard of the
work in the evening classes.
It was stated that at the time of the establishment of the Trade
4 TecJmical Instruction in Belfast :
Preparatory School great fear was expressed by those interested in
Secondary Schools that the new School would act detrimentally
upon existing Secondary Schools ; but the question having been
looked into with an earnest desire to arrive at the bare facts, it
could not be discovered that such injury had resulted, and it was
asserted that the fear was rather that it would not be possible
within a reasonable time to make up the leeway and fill up the
educational gaps which abounded. The view was also given that
the Trade Preparatory School, instead of acting detrimentally, is
having the very reverse effect, for there are not wanting signs that
it has had the effect of stimulating to greater efforts more than
one local Educational Institution.
Passing on to the effect of the Technical Instruction Com-
mittee's efforts on the life of the city, it was stated that a
distinctly increased appreciation was being attached to education
in all its phases ; as evidence of this it was pointed out that an
increasing number of employers are sending their employes to
attend classes of the Institute, and are paying the fees, offering
prizes, and in other ways encouraging those who have been sent
to the School. This interest is shown not only by employers, but
is found equally amongst the artizan population, some of the
trades societies having gone the length of devoting a portion of
their funds to provide prizes to encourage members of their trade
to avail themselves of the instruction provided in the Institute.
The keenness of the students to secure tangible evidence of their
progress is also most noteworthy. The certificates won are
greatly valued and the class prizes eagerly sought after. As
independent evidence bearing upon these statements and testifying
to the general increase of interest in education, the following
letters were read. One from Sir ^^'illiam Quartus Ewart as
follows : —
Glenmachan, Strandtown, Belfast.
November 19th, 1904.
Dear Mr. Forth, — I am sorry that I cannot be present at
your lecture on Tuesday evening. Very few who see the fine
A Retrospect and a Prospect. 5
building rising in College Square for technical instruction in
Belfast can realise the change that has come over the spirit of the
people. For many years a few townsmen — perhaps ten or
twelve — who were in earnest on the subject, held their little
meetings and gathered in small subscriptions, often with difficulty ;
they held an annual meeting in the Ulster Minor Hall or other
such place, in general thinly attended, and often the little effort
was in danger of not surviving for another year. But that small
band of men, though disheartened, held on tenaciously. There
was the late Sir James Musgrave, Professor Fitzgerald, Mr. R. H.
Reade, Mr. John Malone, Mr. H. J. Nicholson, Mr. Loewenthal,
Sir James Henderson, Dr. Kyle Knox. There were others
equally faithful, whose names do not occur to me at this moment ;
and my reason for writing this letter at all is to bring forward the
fact of how much those who will benefit by the new great School
owe to those gentlemen for their foresight and self-denying
perseverance. — Believe me, yours very truly,
(signed) ^VM. Q. EWART.
Another letter was from the Secretary of the Sheet Metal
Workers' and Gas Fitters' Union. This letter, after giving infor
mation bearing upon the needs of their members in regard to
technical education, continued : — " I might also add that the
members of above Union have agreed to voluntarily subscribe
towards providing a prize for the most successful apprentice."
Referring next to the accommodation provided by the Library
and Technical Instruction Committee, a number of lantern views
were shown illustrating the extensions and developments which
have been planned in connection with the new building in order
to keep pace with the growth of the number of students attending
the Institute. Particulars were given of the building as first
planned by the architect, Mr. Stevenson, in 1900, and these were
supplemented with various details in regard to area, (S:c. It was
then shown how in 1901 these plans were found inadequate, and
a first extension took place. Another extension was made later,
and it was decided to build across the central well and to
6 Technical l7istrucfion in Belfast ;
construct a central hall. Finally, within the past eighteen months,
after considerable consideration and examination of the whole
subject, the erection of a fifth storey has been decided upon and
sanctioned by the Corporation. The total net floor area of
rooms as now provided for is 109,000 superficial feet, the gross
floor area being 1 34,000 superficial feet. The total cost of the
structure, as now planned, will be about ^^T 100,000, exclusive of
equipment, furnishing, and lighting. The Committee is making
provision for the expenditure upon these additional items.
(Here a number of slides were shown of the site as it stood
originally, and also of the different plans prepared for the building,
including the present or final scheme.)
With regard to the financial position, it was explained that the
Corporation levy a penny rate for technical instruction, and that
this rate produces about ^"4,500 per annum. On condition that
this rate is levied, the Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction make a payment which amounts in the case of Bel-
fast, in round figures, to ^^ 11,000 per annum. Added to this
there are other sources of income such as fees, science and art
grants, interest on sums invested, bringing the total income of the
Committee to close upon /"2o,ooo per annum.
It was pointed out that, for each penny raised by the rate,
about three pence is received from other sources.
In concluding, reference was made to the day technical depart-
ment which it is hoped to establish, and also to the development
of instruction for apprentices in engineering and other industries.
Mr. J. M. Finnegan proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Forth for
his able and interesting lecture. He said he fully appreciated
Mr. Forth's difficulty in regard to the want of preparation on the
part of students. Looking back to the time when he was in a
national school, he could not find in the higher class of schools at
present the same amount of thoroughly good work that used to be
done. In many a country national school a boy used to be
turned out who had a very good knowledge of algebra, arithmetic,
and mensuration. He was afraid in that direction they had gone
A Reir aspect and a Prospect. j
behind. He had often thought how long must they wait until
Belfast got a decent system of national education.
Mr. W. Swanston seconded the resolution.
Mr. Mann Harbison said, at the meeting of the British Asso-
ciation in Belfast, two years ago, they heard a great deal about
the co-ordination of education, but they had seen nothing of it
yet. 'W^ith regard to students being properly prepared for entering
the Technical Institute, he believed that was quite practicable if
it were set about in the proper way. The National Board should
look after the matter through their Inspectors, and see that a
class of boys in every school was properly prepared in the pro-
gramme that would be necessary. They might also have co-
ordination at the top as well as at the bottom ; and if diplomas
were given to the technical students, perhaps the Universities
might accept from these students one examination, in order to
obtain the B.Sc. degree.
Mr. D. B. Elliott said it was admitted that the national system
of education was very far from perfect. There was overlapping of
Boards, and until the whole system, or series of systems, were
swept away, and some national system introduced, they would
never have proper education in Ireland. Primary education was
most in need of reform. Mr. Forth had justly complained of the
want of preparation, but that was not the fault ot the teachers.
It was the fault of the system.
Mr. William Gray spoke of the necessity of correlation, and
advocated the desirability of correlating the Municipal Library,
Art Gallery, and Museum, and also the Elementary or National
Schools with the other educational agencies embraced by the
Municipal Educational Scheme, the ultimate success of which
must depend very much upon the efficiency of the Elementary
Schools, as the stability of a superstruction depends upon the
efficiency of its foundation.
Mr. F. Curley said the success which had attended technical
education under the Belfast Corporation was largely due to the
course Mr. Forth had pursued from the time he was appointed
Principal.
8 Technical histruction in Belfast :
Mr. S. F. Milligan briefly alluded to the efiforts made on behalf
of technical education before the introduction of the municipal
scheme, and said that many more names could be added to Sir
William Q. Evvart's list, including that of Mr. William Gray. He
also pointed to the warm interest taken in the subject by Sir
James Henderson.
Mr. Horner said the work done by the late Sir James Mus-
grave and others in the old technical school should not be
forgotten. As to primary education, unless something was done
to free the primary schools from all sectarian control, Mr. Forth
could not possibly get into his Institute the class of scholars that
he wanted.
Dr. Sheldon made some remarks regarding the correlation of
primary with secondary schools. Referring to the Trade Pre-
paratory School, as a ratepayer he objected to maintenance
scholarships being provided for other than the clever children of
indigent parents. He did not think public money should be
provided to keep the child of a man whose salary was, perhaps,
much higher than that of the people who paid rates. Mainten-
ance scholarships ought to be given only in cases where the
father's salary was decidedly low and the child's talents decidedly
high. From personal knowledge he could say that the training
given in the Municipal School of Art was highly satisfactory.
The Chairman said, before calling upon Mr. Forth to reply, he
would like to refer very briefly to one or two points which had
been raised in that discussion. In the first place he certainly
thought they ought to congratulate Principal Forth very cordially
on the great success which had attended his work in Belfast, and
he (Professor Symington) thought that success had been well
deserved. Mr. Forth had certainly worked very hard to instil
into the minds of a somewhat apathetic public the importance of
technical education, and if that Institute did not ultimately turn
out a great success, it certainly would not be the fault of Mr.
Forth. He was very pleased to hear from Mr. Forth that he
attached very great importance, not merely to having a very fine
A Retrospect a?id a Prospect. 9
building, but also to having that building properly manned. That
was a point on which, he thought, they ought to express them-
selves in very decided terms, as they knew from the daily papers
that objections were made to the supposed high salaries to be
given to the heads of departments connected with that Institute.
He (the speaker) happened to have had some experience of various
Universities in various countries, and he must say everyone who
had had experience knew that it was the brains that were required
very much more than bricks and mortar. He could point to very
finely-housed Institutions which were producing practically nothing
on account of the fact that the heads of the departments were not
the right kind of men ; and he could point to Institutions where
the buildings were utterly inadequate for the purpose for which
they were designed, but which, through the ability of the men
conducting these departments, were of world-wide repute. If the
Belfast Institute was to be a success it must be properly manned,
and they would not get good men unless they paid for them. It
was also necessary that they should not overburden the teachers
with work. He trusted time would be allowed to the heads of
departments to do some original work. If the Institution was to
merely extend knowledge already gained, and had nothing to do
with the acquisition of new facts and the evolution of new theories,
it would fail in an extremely important function. In conclusion,
he would convey to Mr. Forth the thanks of that Society for his
extremely interesting lecture.
Mr. Forth, in replying, said he was especially pleased at the
very healthy and vigorous discussion which had taken place. He
held that the educational question was of such a character that
they would only arrive at practical results by free and full discus-
sion. In reply to Mr. Harbison's suggestion, they hoped to issue
a certificate that would have a very definite value to students.
In conclusion, he thanked them very much for their expression of
opinion on his lecture.
20th December^ igo4.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
President, in the chair.
STAINED GLASS.
By James Taylor.
(Abstract.)
This curious and beautiful Art was so long relegated to a position
of obscurity and neglect that it may be said to have altogether
ceased to exist. In Oxford itself it had so far ceased to interest
even Antiquarians that until a few years ago the many beautiful
examples of medieval glass in that venerable City had never been
so much as catalogued. The modern Revival of Stained Glass as
a fine art dates back to the beginning of the XIX. century, the
same movement which reawakened interest in Gothic Architecture
leading to a corresponding interest in what was supposed to be
Gothic Glass. At that time, however, glass was merely welcomed
as a helpful accessory in an Ecclesiastical Revival, no idea of
developing its use for the legitimate expression of artistic feeling
having entered the heads of the RevivaHsts. The glass worker
was neither asked nor expected to utilise whatever talent he may
have possessed in his particular craft — the demand was simply for
windows which were supposed to resemble those of the XIII.
century. That was the first great misfortune which befel the
Art ; but it was not very long before a still greater misfortune
overtook it. Few, if any, real artists were connected with the
craft, and as the demand was a growing one, the making of
windows fell into the hands of enterprising business houses, who
Stained Glass. ii
soon began to do a lucrative trade in whatever style happened to
be in vogue.
Practically nothing had been done in England until 1838 to
raise the standard of Glass painting, or to acquaint the public
with its true principles ; but in that year, Mr. Charles Winston, of
the Inner Temple, who had devoted much time and energy in its
study, compiled a treatise in which he classified the various
medieval styles on the lines of Rickman's " Classification of
Gothic Architecture." This treatise developed into the larger
"Enquiry" which was published in 1847, and that work still
retains its position as one of the foremost authorities. Winston
was one of the first to impress upon the public the self-evident
truth that Glass Paintings are likely to rank as works of art only
in so far as they are the creation of artists, and he strove in-
cessantly to liberate the craftsmen of his day from the mechanical
imitation of ancient workmanship.
Near the close of Winston's career, Mr. Dante Gabriel Rossetti
directed the attention of Messrs. Powell, the well-known Glass-
makers of Whitefriars, to the work of a young artist — Edward
Burne-Jones — whose talents were rapidly obtaining recognition
amongst patrons of art. Burne-Jones executed several designs for
Messrs. Powell, notably the " St. Frideswide " window in Christ
Church Cathedral, Oxford ; but his name soon became associated
with that of William Morris, v>ho had by this time thrown him-
self heart and soul into the cause of art, and until Burne-Jones'
death, his designs for windows were executed by the little colony
of workers at Merton Abbey, founded by Morris. Morris not
only brought together a band of gifted men sincerely devoted to
art, but he worked in Stained Glass with his own hands, and in
co-operation with his friend. Sir Edward Burne-Jones, who, as I
have said, furnished the designs, he gave to the world a series of
windows which exhibit an originality of thought, a delicacy of
expression, and a splendour of colour never before attained by
contemporary craftsmen. Old vices die hard, however, and not-
withstanding the influence of ^Vinston and Morris, a great deal
1 2 Mr. James Taylor on
remains to be done in the furtherance of this attractive form of
art. Many popular misconceptions call for correction, and the
warfare against the trafific in commercial glass must be carried on
almost as relentlessly as ever. The notion that modern craftsmen
should model their designs after those of medieval times is still
widely held, and although the commercial houses have been com-
pelled to raise the general standard of their work, both as regards
colour and design, it still remains true that a large proportion of
present-day work is entirely destitute of aitistic value. Real
progress will only be possible when the public come to under-
stand that stained glass is a decorative art whose expression and
application alike are governed by technical conditions, and that
the glass painter cannot enter into any sort of rivalry with the
painter in oils or water colours. The uninitiated invariably
insist on obtaining the effects of pictorial aft, but this is exactly
what the glass painter cannot supply. The primary object of a
window is to admit light and to exclude the atmospheric elements,
and the decorative possibilities of the glass are secondary to that
object. In so far, indeed, as the glass painter is a genuine artist,
his work will frankly recognise and turn to good account the iron
bars and lead lines which the untrained mind would so gladly
dispense with. Knowing the technical limitations under which
his material is applied, his chief concern will be to enhance the
beauty of the glass itself. Window decoration of the best kind
has always been, and is still, a mosaic art, and the laws of mosaic
prevent the glass-worker competing on equal terms with the
painter in oil or water colours. To say so is not in any way to
despise the power of glass in the hands of a competent artist.
Every form of art is more or less limited in its application. The
painter in oil or water colours can never attain to the perfection
of rounded form produced by the sculptor's chisel, nor can the
glass-worker apply his colour with the subtle gradation of tone
demanded by the more complicated forms of pictorial art. His
composition is executed in innumerable pieces of coloured glass
arranged within a framework of arbitrary formation, and such a
Staified Glass. 13
composition cannot possibly be appreciated or understood if it be
thought of as a picture.
Nothing is more striking in ancient glass than the evidence it
affords of the primitive worker's grasp of the essential conditions
of his art. To him nothing was so priceless as the inherent
beauty of the glass itself. All his efforts were directed to bring
out the glorious colours of which the material is capable. Window
decoration was the object he aimed at — never the making of glass
pictures.
Probably the oldest glass to which a definite date can be
assigned is to be found in Le Mans Cathedral ; but very early
windows are to be seen almost everywhere on the Continent
(more especially in France), as well as in some of the English
Cathedrals. By far the finest ancient glass in existence is in the
Cathedrals of Chartres and Bourges ; but the student can begin
his studies much nearer home. York Minster contains not only
a fine example of ancient Grisaille in the famous "Five Sisters"
window, but almost the whole field of glass painting from the
XIII. to the XVI. centuries is to be found there. Wells Cathedral
contains an exquisite "Jesse" window of late XIII. or early XIV.
century work, and beautiful XIII. century glass is to be found in
Lincoln Cathedral. XVI. century glass may be conveniently
studied in the Lady Chapel of Lichfield Cathedral, Fairford
Church (Oxfordshire), and King's College Chapel, Cambridge.
But however fascinating the study of ancient glass may be, it
must never be forgotten that if the art is to be rekindled into
life in our midst, this can only be effected by encouraging the
modern craftsman to put whatever individuality he is possessed
of into his workmanship. When all is said, the modern worker
has many advantages over his primitive rival. He has a much
larger range of coloured glass to choose from, and his draught-
manship is incomparably superior. Given a subject suitable to
the situation of his window, he is without excuse if he fails to
produce an effecting work of art.
Anyone who is inclined to despair of the future of stained glass
14 Mr. J. Taylor on Stained Glass.
should see the Morris windows in Manchester College, Oxford,
and Oxford Cathedral,- or Henry Holiday's " St. Hugh " window
in Lincoln Minster. Windows such as these show what the art is
really capable of in the hands of artists. They demonstrate con-
clusively that the chief barrier in the way of progress lies with the
public, who go on from year to year filling church windows with
the mechanical productions of tradespeople. The charm of
stained glass lies in its richness of translucent colour, its tones of
glittering contrasts, its solemn splendour and wistful impressive-
ness. Beautiful, it may be, alike in arrangement and design, but
in the final analysis its glory will be found in its colour.
On the motion of Mr. Forth (Principal of the Municipal Tech-
nical Institute), seconded by Mr. John Brown, and supported by
Dr. Sheldon, a hearty vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Taylor.
4th January., JQOJ.
The Lord Mayor (Sir Otto Jaffe, J.P.) in the chair.
NATIONAL ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION.
By Hartley T. Ferrar, B.A., F.G.S.
A lecture, illustrated by lantern views, delivered in the Young
Men's Christian Association Hall, Wellington Place.
15
8th February^ ^90S-
Mr. W. H. Patterson, M.R.I.A., in the chair.
THE WORK OF THE ULSTER FISHERIES
AND BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.
By Professor Gregg-Wilson, M.A., D.Sc, M.R.I. A.
(Abstract.)
Dr. GREGfi-WiLSON said the Ulster Fisheries and Biology Asso-
ciation was started nearly two years ago. It was soon decided to
establish a marine laboratory at Larne Harbour with a view to the
investigation of local waters. Larne was chosen because the
lough offered shelter in almost all conditions of weather and
because the neighbourhood was so varied in character that large
tracts of sea-bottom covered with mud, sand, gravel, and rocks
might be found close at hand. A small house in Ship Street was
rented, and fitted with all the necessaries for studying and pre-
serving marine animals. A launch was procured, and collecting
apparatus of various kinds. Then Mr. Joseph Pearson, B.S., was
engaged as naturalist, and the services of a very efficient boatman
were secured. The ordinary work of the Association was largely
carried on by means of the dredge and tow-net. With the former
the animals that lived on or in the bottom of the sea were cap-
tured ; with the latter such creatures as drifted with the tides were
obtained. Fishing with larger nets for the more active inhabi-
tants of the sea was practised, and shore hunting with spade or
graip or hand-net was also largely pursued. The results of the
work of the Association had been many. In the first place, the
waters of the Larne district had been sub-divided into areas, and
1 6 Professor Gregg- Wilson on
records of all animals found in these had been kept. They were
thus gradually getting an idea not only of all the local animals,
but of their associations. In the course of this work a considerable
number of species not known previously as Irish had been met
with, and a few of these had been recorded in the " Irish
Naturalist." Further, in connection with the local work it had
been found necessary to prepare lists of all known Irish species
of some groups, and several such lists had been compiled. One
of them — a list of the copepoda of Ireland, by Mr. Joseph
Pearson — was now in the printer's hands, and would be published
by the Fisheries Branch of the Department of Agriculture. This
list would be of great use as showing in handy form the results of
all previous work at Irish copepods, besides recording new species
obtained by Mr. Pearson. The group was one of the most im-
portant for the marine biologist, as members of it were largely fed
on by fishes. Besides their lists of marine animals they had now
a list of the sea-weeds of Ulster, prepared by a Dublin visitor to
their laboratory — Mr. J. Adams. A totally different but equally
important kind of work had been carried on by Mr. C. Cunning-
ham, who had undertaken the investigation of the drifts of our
waters by means of bottles containing postcards. The bottles
were prepared so as just to float, with very little surface exposed
to the action of the wind. They were distributed at intervals
along definite tracts, and the distribution was repeated with
changed conditions of wind and tide. From such work very
definite results had already been obtained, and these would soon
be published. The facts were important in connection with the
drift of floating eggs of fishes, as well as with reference to the
movements of minute animals that served as food for fish. A
great deal of attention had been given of late by members of the
Association to the study of the herring. This fish was increas-
ingly important for Ireland, but very little was really known as to
its habits and the reason of its movements. Yet every stage of its
life-history offered problems for study. Its eggs were eaten by
fishes and destroyed by fishermen, but the numbers of adults
Ulster Fisheries and Biological Associaiiott. 1 7
were maintained wonderfully. The larval forms and young were
consumed in vast numbers by other fishes, by porpoises, and by
birds ; and the very interesting question arose as to the wisdom of
our not waging war on these enemies of the herring. The
migrations for food with a view to spawning were no less in need
of study. It was necessary, however, before pronouncing on such
subjects to take a broad view of the facts, and the work of the
Association would, it was hoped, help them to obtain that. With
regard to the future, it might be said that, besides carrying on the
present investigations, it was proposed to make a special study of
plant associations in their waters, to greatly extend their work at
Lough Neagh, where poUan, eels, and mysis all were attractive,
and to endeavour to secure for the Association a new and suitable
laboratory at Lame Harbour. That would be of the greatest
service to workers, and would probably be of great use for future
teachers of nature knowledge.
Mr. John Dickson, in proposing a vote of thanks to the lec-
turer, urged the necessity for a thorough investigation into the
question of fish food and spawning. By so doing the Association
would confer a great benefit on both Irish and English fisheries.
Mr. William Faren formally seconded the motion, which was
passed.
Professor Gregg-^^'ilson briefly replied.
14th March, 1905.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.,
in the chair.
WITH THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES
(IRELAND) ON A CRUISE ROUND THE IRISH
COAST.
By S. F. Milligan, M.R.I. A., Vice-President for Ulster.
Thp: cruise, which commenced on 21st June, 1904, was the
fourth inaugurated by this Society, and was a source of un-
diminished pleasure to all concerned.
There were two previous cruises around portions of the Irish
coastline, and another to the Hebrides, but this was the first
occasion on which a tour was made all round Ireland from Bel-
fast to Kingston, going by the North, the Western, and Southern
shores, and calling at all points of special interest efi route.
The s. steamer " Magic," belonging to the Belfast Steamship
Company, started at lo-o o'clock a.m. with about 140 members,
including a number of the members of the Cambrian Society, who
were privileged to join.
The sail along the Antrim Coast was very pleasant, as the
course was quite close to the shore until Rathlin was reached,
when a stop of about two hours was made. The vessel anchored
in Church Bay, close in, and a good view of that part of the
Island was obtained.
It had been arranged to land here, but when it was considered
how few objects of antiquarian interest were within reach, it was
decided by the majority that we should proceed around the North
Coast as closely as possible and enjoy the view, the weather being
A Cruise Round f/ie Irish Coast 19
most favourable. Fair Head is always a most striking object on
the Northern coast, and looked very fine on this occasion. The
headlands of the Causeway soon came into sight, and an extremely
fine view of it was obtained, as well as of the White Rocks towards
Portrush. After passing quite close to the well-known Northern
watering-place, the vessel steamed straight for Malin Head, the
most Northern portion of Irish land. There is always, even on
the calmest day, a jumble in the water between the Island of
Innishtrahull and Malin Head, and the present was no exception.
We soon entered Lough Swilly and got into quiet water, anchor-
ing close to the little town of Buncrana. It was a lovely moonlight
night, and a large number, after dinner, landed to inspect the town
of Buncrana, which is a charming little watering-place, with good
golf ground, connected with Londonderry by rail, from which it is
distant about 15 miles. The castle of Sir Cahir O'Doherty is the
principal object of interest at Buncrana. Sir Cahir was a notable
personage in Innishowen in the days of good Queen Bess, and
his castle and grounds are now owned by Mr. Richardson, of
Belfast. Lough Swilly is notable in Irish history as the place
from which the Earls took their flight from Ireland — viz., Tyrone,
and O'Donnell. It was also from here that young Hugh
OT)onnell was enticed aboard an English merchant ship, and
conveyed a hostage to Dublin Castle, from which he afterwards
escaped. The scenery of Lough Swilly is very fine, high moun-
tains surrounding it on all sides, and the entrance and some of
the islands are strongly fortified, so that it can be used as a naval
base in time of war.
We left Lough Swilly early on the morning of Wednesday,
22nd, for a very long sail — viz., for Blacksod Bay on the coast
of Mayo. A delightful view of the coast of Donegal was
obtained, also of Horn Head, and on to Torry Island, on which,
however, we did not land, having visited it before. A view of
ever varying beauty was unfurled as the vessel's course lay along
the indented coast of Donegal, passing Glen Head, and reaching
Slieve Liag, to which we approached very closely, and a fine view
20 Mr. S. F. Milligan vn
was obtained of these noble cliffs, rising 2,000 feet in perpen-
dicular height, and extending for miles in length. The course was
now for the Island of Innishmurray, in Sligo Bay, a veritable store-
house of ancient Irish structures, and which we visited in 1895.
It contains a cashel, in which are bee hive huts, ancient churches,
standing stones, and altars, dating back to Pagan times, all of
which have been minutely described in our transactions.
The kindness and hospitality of the people is well known, and
many old customs still continue, including the use of stone querns
or hand mills, which are still in use.
We left the Island about 6-0 o'clock p.m., and steered for
Blacksod Bay, which was reached at lo-o p.m. Here we
anchored for the night in perfectly smooth water, being protected
by a long strip of land called the Mullet, about eighteen miles in
length, running north and south, and giving perfect shelter from
the Western Atlantic. The Island of Achill lay south of us, and
the huge mountains of Slieve More and Crohaun rose high in the
moonlit sky, and added greatly to the charm of the scenery.
Next morning, mid-summer day, we called at a little village
called Falmore, and examined the ruins of an ancient church and
a holy well close by the church. The latter possesses many
points of special interest. We continued our course around the
great cliffs of Achill, and entered Clew Bay, making for Clare
Island, which we reached in the afternoon, and landed. We
visited a little village where are the ruins of Grace O'Malley's
castle, and walked across the Island for a couple of miles to the
ruins of a small Monastery of the Cistercian Order, which is
probably early 15th century date.
The Congested District Board have bought the Island, and
divided it into separate farms, and have in many ways greatly
benefitted the inhabitants, who are now fairly prosperous. We
procured a pilot at Clare Island, and sailed to the opposite coast
of Mayo, and entered the well-known estuary of Killery Harbour,
which runs up amongst the mountains for fully seven miles from
the sea. The great mountain of Mweelreagh, 3,000 feet in
A Cruise round the Irish Coast. 2 1
height, guards its entrance on the northern side, and as the vessel
proceeded amongst the hills a scene of ever-changing beauty was
presented to the view. The Channel Pleet, some nine large
vessels, have gone up the channel and anchored almost within
sight of M'Keown's Hotel at Leenane.
When we anchored, a steam launch belonging to the " Magic,"
with a number of life-boats in tow, proceeded and landed us close
to the hotel. Being Mid-summer Eve, a number of Baal fires
were burning on the high grounds all around, a custom which is
not yet abandoned in the Irish-speaking districts of Ireland.
Leenane is the finest centre from which to see Connemara ;
tourist coaches pass to Westport and to Clifden, there is good
fishing, boating, and shooting, and splendid mountain and sea
air.
The party enjoyed themselves at Leenane, where there were
Irish fiddlers, Irish jigs, and Irish songs galore. An early start
was made next day, after taking in a supply of salmon fresh out of
the water, fresh meat, eggs, &c., which had been previously
ordered. The Arran Islands was the next stopping place.
Innishmore, or the great Island, was reached early on Friday,
24th, and on the remainder of that, and the following day (Satur-
day), was spent visiting the points of interest in the three Islands ;
but as they have been so frequently described, we shall only add
that for very early churches and prehistoric forts they stand
unrivalled in Europe. On Saturday afternoon we sailed up to
Galway City, and anchored at Mutton Island. A number of the
members visited the city on Saturday evening, and also on the
forenoon of Sunday to worship in the various churches. A special
early service was held in St. Nicholas' Church for members of our
party, at 8-0 a.m., and a great many attended and greatly enjoyed
the service.
We left Galway at 3-0 o'clock p.m. on Sunday, and sailed
direct for Dingle Bay, anchoring for the night in Ventry Harbour.
The magnificent panoramic view of the Western coast of Ireland
from Galway Bay to Dingle, on a brilliant day in June, sailing
22 Mr. S. F. Milligan on
close to the coast, is one which will never be forgotten by those
who were privileged to see it. We passed close to the cliffs of
Moher, and saw Kilkee shining brilliantly in the sunlight, and on
southwards past Tarlee Bay, Smerwick Harbour, the vast
mountain chains of Slieve Mish and Brandon, ending in Brandon
Head. Before entering Dingle Bay the group of islands known as
the Blasquets were passed, and then Ventry Harbour. Here we
anchored for the night ; the moon was full and shining brightly,
the little inlet was unruffled, the tide flowing gently in, and on
board a choir of ladies and gentlemen singing hymns, being led
by a lady at the piano — the whole was soothing and restful after
the week's excursions.
Next morning, after landing, a start was made. We had a walk
before us of six miles, as no vehicles were obtainable. The walk
led along the coast from Ventry to Dunmore Head, and the whole
coast line was dotted with prehistoric buildings, bee hive huts, in
groups and singly, between Dunbeg and Dunmore. It is an Irish-
speaking district, English is not spoken or understood except by
some of the children, who speak both tongues. Space will not
permit any attempt at describing the unique fort of Dunbeg,
which is a fortified headland, or the lovely scenery or the bee hive
huts, which have been called the ruined City of Fahan, in the
district of Glen Fahan.
The steamer followed us, and we embarked in boats at a
pier built by the Congested Board, and rejoined the " Magic,"
starting at once for the Skellig Rocks. A boat load of about
twenty-eight persons got landing on Skellig Michael, of which the
writer was one. It was intended others should follow, but when
the sailors who landed our party returned to the ship, they refused
to bring any more out, saying it was too great a risk. It was a
great disappointment, but I believe the sailors acted wisely, as the
landing-place is very dangerous. The walk up the cliff, cork-
screw wise, and then the final climb to the top of 650 steps, or
rude stone stairs, required good climbing powers. The view was
glorious beyond description. There were birds everywhere, the
A Cruise Round tJte IrisJi Coast. 23
only occupiers besides the birds being three Hghthouse keepers.
The smaller Skellig was white as snow with the birds, which are
very tame, and would sit on the rock till touched.
We rejoined the ship, happily without accident, and the visit to
the Skelligs terminated. Many were disappointed at not landing,
but that could not be helped. We continued our course, and
entered Bantry Bay, one of the finest, if not the very finest, in the
United Kingdom, and sailed past Beare Island, anchoring close
to Glengarriff. ']'he Channel Fleet was lying at anchor in the
bay — some ten vessels — as we passed, which added very much
to the effect, combined with the splendid scenery.
On Tuesday morning we left Bantry Bay, calling at Clear
Island, and afterwards at Baltimore, the great fishing village of the
South. On an island here is Sherkin Abbey, built for the Fran-
ciscan Order. We left Baltimore for Cork Harbour, which we
reached after a fine sail along the South Coast, in the track of the
American liners, one of which we passed. We stayed at Queens-
town for the night, and left the following morning, calling at
Ardmore, in County Waterford, to visit the ecclesiastical an-
tiquities of that well-known place — viz., round tower, ancient
church, and 15th century cathedral, holy well, &c. We next
called at Bag-in-Bun, in County Wexford, the spot where the
Anglo-Normans first landed in Ireland, and after examining the
earthworks supposed to have been made by Raymond-le-Gros, we
proceeded to Kingstown, which was reached as the clock at the
harbour was striking 9-0 p.m., the hour arranged in our pro-
gramme before we started. The English and Welsh visitors
remained on the " Magic," which proceeded direct to Liverpool,
and the others proceeded homewards by rail. Thus ended the
most delightful cruise that the Society have so far carried out.
24
4th April, igoS-
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
President, in the chair.
RUSSIA : ITS PEOPLE AND POLITICS.
By John Horner.
(Abstract.)
Mr. Horner said at the present time, when Russia was ab-
sorbing so much of the attention of the world, it might be
considered not unprofitable to initiate a discussion with the object
in view of arriving at a better understanding of her people and her
politics, and of forming an opinion of the mighty struggle for
mastery in Asia with somewhat less of partiality. It was difficult
for them to look upon Russia in any other light than that of a
hereditary enemy, whose aggression would interfere with their
established rights, and it must be confessed that fears of such
aggressions were not unfounded, for Russian Foreign policy from
the time of Peter the Great had been one of expansion. Up to
the 1 6th century little was known to other European nations of
that great country ; its intercourse with them was thus of com-
paratively modern origin. The various events relating to the
Russification of Poland and Finland having been referred to by
Mr. Horner, he showed that for the absorption of those countries
Russia was defended by reasons geographical and strategic.
Although they looked with suspicion on her southward march,
they must in full justice give credit to her for keeping alive the
spirit of Christianity in the Balkans. An impartial study of the
history of Turkey and her dealings with her Christian subjects
Russia : Its People and Politics. 25
would show conclusively that Russia's interference was not one
solely of land-grabbing. Her motives were higher, and those
motives seemed to be recognised when in her last war with Turkey
Europe stood aside and permitted the Turk to receive the chas-
tisement he so richly deserved. Turning to the acquisitions of
Russia in Asia, and tracing them step by step through the vast
continent, they found Russia now at the Pacific Ocean and face
to face with Japan, a foe more formidable than any she ever faced
in Europe. Russia's first advent in Asia began in the early part
of the 1 8th century, although long prior to that time a considerable
fur-hunting trade had been established. Her march through Asia
had left in its train order and civilisation. It was but natural
that a great and civilised Power like Russia should extend her
influence over Siberia, bringing under subjection the barbarous
hordes which for centuries had run riot. They, therefore, found
along the line of the trans-Siberian Railway flourishing towns en-
dowed with universities and first-class educational establishments
and technical schools of a high order, and as a natural conse-
quence of those manufacture, trade, and commerce extending.
The barbarities which made Central Asia a hell upon earth had
passed away, and the horrible tortures perpetrated had been
abolished. Russian rule in Mohammedan Asia kept in check
any possibility of a pan-Islamic movement of the Crescent against
the Cross, which the fierce religious fervour of the Mussulmans
was only too prone to bring into great activity. A spark would set
the movement ablaze but for Russian power, and start again the
vengeful wars and cruel massacres which for centuries were rife in
Turkestan. Let them glance at the present war and the probable
outcome of its results. Russia, as shown, had marched steadily
across Asia. Her work in reducing to subjection the nurnerous
tribes which opposed her path had been fraught with great benefit.
A huge railway had been built at a cost of ^ 100,000,000 sterling,
which enabled the Atlantic and Pacific to be united across two
continents. This work had been done at the cost of valuable
life and treasure, and the natural return for all this outlay was a
2 6 Mr. John Hornier on
free Pacific seaboard. The trans-Siberian Railway was built
politically for Russia, commercially and practically for the whole
of Europe. The trade which Russia had opened up in Asia was
carried on in a greater degree by Europeans. The railway gave a
great stimulus to thatjrade, and the result of the present war
would probably lead to the abandonment by Europe of a com-
merce which had every prospect of being large and profitable. A
momentary look at the commercial relations of the two con-
tending Powers with other nations would serve to explain what
was meant. Russia was free to foreign enterprise, as free as
Britain or the United States. Most important manufacturing
interests were owned by these countries and other nations, notably
France, Germany, and Belgium. Flax and cotton manufacturing
concerns, machine works, and other commercial and industrial
enterprises were owned and controlled by different nationalities,
every facility being given and every protection accorded. Besides
this, Russia was a good customer to other European States, con-
suming some ;^7o,ooo,ooo sterling of goods annually. What of
Japan ? European trade there was very limited. The Japanese
were rapidly becoming dangerous competitors. Commercially,
Japan was closed to foreign settlement. No foreigner was
allowed to own land or engage in industrial pursuits. The natural
imitative faculty of the Japanese enabled them to produce goods
of European design, stamped with European trade marks, perhaps
not yet equal to European standard, but quite good enough for
Asiatic consumption. Our vast floating capital, with loss of
interest and freight and insurance charges, was saved. A Jap
would live at one-fifth the cost of a European. Consider, then,
that Japan was making all and more than she needed for herself
how enormous w^ere the advantages she had against her com-
petitors in Asiatic markets. They had often heard of the yellow
peril and of the possibility of the Mongol race one day dominating
the world. Did there not seem a possibility of Asia being com-
mercially dominated by the yellow race at no very distant period
of time. Once Corea and Manchuria got into the hands of Japan
Russia : lis People atid Politics. 2 7
or under Japanese jurisdiction, the outlets of the trans-Siberian
Railway would be theirs at the expense of Europe. The Mon-
golian Powers were geographically divided. Manchuria stood
between Japan and Corea and China. Manchuria in the hands of
Japan would remove this impediment, and a victorious Japan,
with all the power and prestige gained by war, would be in a
position to undertake the regeneration of the Mongolian people.
When the countless millions of China were brought under
economic and military organisation by Japan they might say good-
bye to European prospects, commercially or otherwise, in Asia.
Agriculture was the main industry in most countries, but more
especially in Russia, where the peasants numbered 82 per cent, of
the entire population, a proportion somewhat similar to Ireland,
and the agrarian question there, as with us, was the most im-
portant question of internal politics. A character sketch of the
peasant serves as a sketch of the people. One thing which
impresses a stranger was the extreme devoutness displayed by the
people. A Holy Shrine was never passed without due reverence
being paid to it ; the churches were filled with kneeling, prostrate
forms. Naturally one asked the question — Was all this real ?
Tolstoi said it was. On the other hand, a Russian historian
stated that the people were remarkable for a state of religious
indifference, as to be without parallel in the annals of Christian
nations. These opinions app^eared conflicting, but if analysed
showed a harmony. The Russian peasant was undoubtedly in-
different to religion, as we term it, for the simple reason that he
did not understand it ; but apart from religious doctrines, he
carried with him into his everyday life the moral principles which
regulated the relations between himself and others. The want of
religious knowledge — of theology — was to be attributed to the
relations existing between the peasant and his priest, or pope,, as
he was called. It was an extraordinary fact that the Russian
revered his church and despised his priest. There was un-
doubtedly no spiritual relation between the Moujik and his pope,
the latter had no influence, moral or otherwise, over the masses,
28 Mr. John Horner on
and enjoyed no confidence among them. They were looked
upon by the people simply as traders, who made a profit by per-
forming the Sacraments. Beyond such functions the power of the
priest was not felt. It was said that the Russian Moujik may be
called religious if the term is applied to social philosophy based
on ethics, and not on theology. There was a system of moral
principles dominating the life of the Russian peasant which, from
whatever cause it sprang, may be termed religious, although it may
be apart from any religious doctrine. The moral principles
taught by the church have been inculcated, owing probably to the
fact that the people were predisposed to accept them, although
they seemed to have little conception of the general structure of
their religion. Living in communities as they did, they were
loyal to each other, and more than charitable, not alone to, mem-
bers of their own class. One writer spoke of "The wonderful
preservation of the purity of the moral character of the Russian
people through such a terrible ordeal as three centuries of slavery,
which passed over without ingrafting into it any of the vices of
slavery ' could find no other explanation than this,' the
peasant was never separated from the ploughshare, from the all-
absording cares and poetry of agricultural work." There was one
vice, however, to which the Russian peasant was addicted — viz.,
that of imbibing strong drink when he has money enough to give
him the opportunity. The Government was now grappling with
the question, and had succeeded in mitigating the evil consider-
ably. It was to be wondered that in the midst of all his
surroundings the Russian peasant was what he was — good
humoured, kindly, sociable, and hospitable. His privations were
often great, his earnings at the most scanty. Hygienic arrange-
ments were poor, and disease and death rife, and still he remained
working hard for mere existence, and fighting his terrible winter
with a dignity all his own. A Russian writer thus spoke of him :
" Through all the varieties of types, tribes, and past history, the
millions of our rural population present a remarkable uniformity
in those higher general ethical and social conceptions, which the
Russia : Its People and Politics. 29
educated draw from the divers social and political sciences, and
the uneducated from their traditions, which are the depositories of
the collective wisdom of past generations." Statistics recently
taken showed only 20 per cent, of recruits literate. This is a most
deplorable state, but it seemed to point to what the future of
Russia must be when some 60 millions of her peasantry received
the benefits of an education which would enable them to rise to a
sense of their duty to their country and themselves.
President Hamilton said he was not one of those who were
possessed by a great admiration of Russia. Mr. Horner, he
believed, was, as he knew from personal conversation with him.
But it did not seem to him that the Russian Empire ought to be
very much an object of admiration. One ought, however, to draw
a distinction between the moujik and the empire. The Russian
peasant was all, he thought, that had been claimed for him by Mr.
Horner — a well-meaning, honest, ignorant man — but, taking the
country as a whole, it seemed to him (the speaker) to be a vast,
unwieldy mass of semi-educated, semi-barbarous people, governed,
he supposed, by one of the worst systems of government which
had ever cursed a nation. Mr. Horner had held up before them
a picture of what might happen to them from what was currently
described as the yellow peril ; but he did not know that they need
very much dread the ascendency of the yellow race if that yellow
race was to be such a people as they had seen in recent years
the Japanese prove themselves to be. It might be that Russia
could call itself Christian, while Japan was not Christian ; but
he confessed if he had to make a choice between seeing Asia
dominated by a Christian nation of the type of Russia, or by a
non-Christian nation of the type of Japan, he should not for a
moment hesitate to choose the latter. They had within the last
year had a marvellous revelation of what a little nation by means
of education, by means of a splendid patriotism, and by means of
adapting itself to Western ideas, had been able to accomplish in a
short space of time. He very much questioned if throughout the
entire audience that evening there could be found half a dozen
30 M?-. JoJm Horner nn
people who would prefer to see Asia ruled by Russia to Asia
dominated by ideas and sentiments such as they had seen put to
the test in the case of Japan. He had been very much interested
in the latter part of the paper, in which Mr. Horner had described
to them so vividly and accurately the internal economy of Russia ;
and, although many of them differed from the lecturer, they were
indebted to him for the mass of information he had placed before
them, and for the pains he had taken to give it to them in a
manner so succinct and interesting.
Mr. William Armstrong asked if it was not the case that the
import duty in Russia was heavier than in Japan.
Mr. Seaton F. Milligan said Mr. Horner had not dealt with a
subject which he expected to gain some information upon ; that
was as to the system of bribery and corruption which was so
flagrant in Russia. He believed the Japanese would be a
Christian nation before the end of this generation, and that the
danger of the yellow peril referred to by Mr. Horner was not so
great as he represented.
The Chairman regretted that Mr. Horner's paper had not
excited keener discussion. One would have thought it was only
necessary to mention the name of politics in this town to provoke
very keen discussion, and apparently they had fallen upon very
peaceful days.
In replying, Mr. Horner said he had purposely made the paper
pro-Russian to evoke discussion. There was a feeling of an-
tagonism to Russia which he honestly believed was not a true one.
There was no question, he thought, that the Mongols despised the
European races. They had a religion, a philosophy, of their own
which was far older than theirs, and they looked upon it with so
much reverence that he very much feared that the next generation
would not see the Mongol races Christianised. Even the
civilisation which Japan had copied showed that that country was
open to adopt what she might consider right for her best interests,
but she had not copied their philosophy or religion. Mr. Arm-
strong had asked regarding the duty versus Russia and Japan.
Russia: Its People and Politics. 31
He could not say, but he believed it was a fact that Japan's
imports were small in comparison to Russia's. Japan was prac-
tically making everything she wanted. Mr. Milligan had alluded
to bribery and corruption. He had not referred to that subject
owing to the exigencies of time. He had stated that the Govern-
ment of Russia was one of the worst which ever cursed a nation.
He thought the bribery and corruption which came from that
system of government could not be defended by him or anyone
else. Bribery, which at one time was exceedingly rife in Russia,
was largely diminished during the reign of Alexander HI., who
did much to purify Russian officialism in this respect. Mr.
Horner proceeded to defend the Russian Church from the charge
of intolerance, and in conclusion referred to certain authorities,
the reading of which he was sure would give them a more favour-
able idea of the Russian people.
32
IRISH GHOST-LORE.
Bv E. J. M'Kean, B.A., B.L.
Even the most superficial collector of Irish folk-lore cannot fail
to see that in Ireland we have a really enormous number of ghost
stories. This statement is true of all parts of the island, and
these stories have been greatly neglected.
Our Irish ghost-lore is scattered broadcast through town and
country. Perhaps no Irish town is without its ghost or spectre,
or at least a phantom carriage. Probably it is not too much to
say that every country parish has its "bad spot." A "bad spot"
means an uncanny place where eerie things happen, nothing very
alarming, but plenty to cause goose-flesh. These " bad spots "
are generally on the roadside, and often enough no one knows
how they come by their reputation.
There are, too, abundant stories of wraiths. In and round
Belfast it is said that to see a wraith in the morning is of good
omen, and fortells a long life ; but if seen at night it bodes death.
W. S. Smith, in one of his pamphlets, says "sudden death," but I
have never heard of this belief, if he does not mean " speedy
death." A Waterford working-man told me that the wraith is seen
seven years before death, during which time the doomed man or
woman " is with the fairies."
The stories I am going to narrate all came under my notice as
I was collecting folk-lore, and most of them are, so far as I know,
quite new. One of the tales is indeed well known, but I think I
am justified in telling it once more to a Belfast audience, if only
to show that it probably still lives in tradition.
A ghost said to be well-known in several parts of Ireland is
Petticoat loose. There is a story that she is a woman who
danced her feet off, but this tale I have on no authority, nor do I
know whence the account comes. She used to appear at one
Mr. E. J. M'Kean on Irish Ghost-Lore. 33
place near Dungarvan, County Waterford, and the Waterford man
above-mentioned told me she haunted a road near the town. So
strong and fierce was she that she would kill passers by at her
caprice. She also at times jumped up on a horse's back behind
butter kegs going to the market, and so heavy was she that she
sometimes killed the horse. At last a priest laid her "by his
calling," and she is now at the Red Sea making ropes of sand.
Dublin has a copious ghost-lore, but I was unfortunately not
much with those who could best tell me it. For this reason I
have been obliged to pass over many tales as worthless to me
because I know nothing of their origin, or because they are
obviously either made or moulded by educated persons. Still,
one fine day late in October, 1903, I walked up past Glasnevin
Cemetery, and found a labourer leaning against the bridge over
the Tolka. He after some time yielded me up the following two
stories : —
There was a house near Glasnevin supposed to be haunted.
Some people took it, and one evening when a little girl was there
alone a man, or woman, in white came out of a door of one of the
rooms and blew at her. The child pined and died. The tenants
got a priest to come and say Mass in the house, and since then it
has been quite safe.
He also told me that his grandfather, who lived to be over a
hundred, said that once in his youth he knew a man named Mike
(I am not quite certain of the name). This man had a piece of
land near Glasnevin, and employed there a labourer named John
Byrne, who was with him a long time. This Byrne had a
daughter who died. Some four years after her death Mike was
going along the road to his field, and, as he thought, passed the
girl. He wondered, but went on. On his return he again met
her, and said, " In the name of God, is that Maggie Byrne?'''
" It is," said the girl. " But I thought you were dead." " I have
been dead four years : but don't be afraid ! Take your boots off,
turn them upside down, and stand on the nails." She then asked
him to do for her some commission, which he never told ; and she
34 Mr. E. J. M'Kean on
further told him that he would be dead within twelve months.
'And sure enough, he died on that day twelvemonth.'
There is a belief in Dublin that to have any dealings with a
ghost means death within the year.
Another town of superstitions is Drogheda. There is a ghost in
the barracks there, said to be that of the occupant of an old
barrow on which part of the barracks is built ; and a fairy dog is
seen in one of the streets at twelve o'clock each night. The fol-
lowing story was given me by a servant coming from this town :
A landlord in the neighbourhood of Drogheda, as he lay dying,
had all his live-stock brought under the window of his room,
where he could see them. As he died, he exclaimed, " — town,
beautiful — town ! how can I leave you ? " After his death " his
spirit " haunted the place for many a day. It attacked men in the
grounds and "walloped them so that they never got over it." No
one could live about the place, and priests were got to lay the
ghost. The first ten or eleven priests were unsuccessful, and none
got over their dealings with the fierce spirit. The eleventh or
twelfth priest succeeded. When the ghost saw him, " having got
leave to speak," he said, " You're the man for me." The priest
got him into a " wee red house " that had been built on the hill,
and there he remains. He was the great-grandfather of the
present owner of — town.
Belfast is a more modern city than any of these three places,
yet it has its ghost stories.
Donegall -Street has had its ghost, that of a well-known Belfast-
man, who was seen after death walking about his office and
sometimes coming to the window and looking out. He always
appeared after nightfall, and was always in evening dress.
Another ghost came every night for his horse. He was not
seen, but at twelve o'clock each night three blasts of a horn
were heard, the horse went out of its stable, and was afterwards
found covered with mud. This ghost was laid by a priest, as I
was told by an old beggarman. The priest — who was afterwards
Roman Catliolic Bishop of Belfast — laid the ghost by long fasting
Irish Ghost- Lore. 35
and prayer. He fasted four days, " reading " all the time, and the
ghost appeared to him. He then compelled the ghost to enter a
bottle, but without saying a word to him. " The Word " was
sufficient, says my informant. The priest then banished him in
the bottle to the Red Sea, where he is to remain for the rest of
his " natural life," which was explained to mean "as long as there
were people living on the earth."
There is said to be a tombstone in Newtownbreda Churchyard
laid flat on a grave. This covers the bones of a man who said
that whatever was done he would not rest quiet in his grave. His
wife was resolved that he should, and laid a heavy stone above
him. But the restless ghost is always struggling to escape, and, it
is said, has already broken two tombstones, and by this time has
succeeded in cracking a third.
A servant girl told me that there is a ghost laid in Ballydrain
Lake. She did not know much of the story ; but it seems this
ghost used to appear frequently to a Roman Catholic girl who
lived near the lake. She complained to her priest, who asked her
where she would have it laid. She told him to lay it in the lake,
and it was laid there. Many are afraid to pass the place after
dark.
From the same girl I got an account of the best known of all
our local ghosts — James Haddock. She gave me the traditional
account; but as she told me she got it "from a newspaper, and
also from hearing people talk about it," I cannot be sure that the
tradition is still current in the countryside.
James Haddock, of Drumbeg, at his death, told his wife to
keep his farm till his son was twenty-one, and then to hand it
over to him. Instead the wife remarried, had a second family,
and with them continued to live on the farm. At this Haddock
came to a man whom he met on horseback on the road, and told
him to tell her to do as he had desired. If she refused, the
messenger was to tell her "that he (the ghost) would wreck the
whole place." The ghost got up behind the rider to tell him this.
At first the man did not go, and Haddock appeared to him
36 Mr. E. J. APKean on Irish Ghost-Lore.
several times, the second time " at a dinner-party, when he went
into a room by himself." The haunted man went at last to the
lawyers, who laughed at him and asked him for his witness,
refusing to pay heed to the ghost. The disappointed suitor then
went back to the ghost, who said, "They were to call him three
times, and he would appear in court " as a witness. The triple
call was made, and " a hand and part of an arm appeared and
struck the table three times," so that the court shook. The
lawyers then believed, and gave the lad the farm. The man
went back, and the next time he met the ghost asked him if he
was satisfied. The ghost said he was, and thanked the man
greatly. Some one had put the man up to ask the ghost whether
"he was happy," but the ghost told him that if it was any one
else he would have torn him in pieces for the question. They
have thrown down his gravestone in Drumbeg Churchyard to
keep Haddock down, and it remains so to this day.
In the Ulster Journ. Arch. III.,* 325, W. Pinkerton has an
excellent article on this story, giving the tradition and also the
old accounts from More's editions of Granvil's " Sadducisinus
Triumphatus " and Richard Baxter's " Certainty of the World of
Spirits."
It will thus be seen that everywhere about us is a multitude of
these stories. They are well worth collecting, if only for the
dramatic nature of some of them ; but if they are collected at all
they should be most carefully committed to paper or they are of
no value as folklore.
ANNUAL REPORT, igoS.
The Annual Meeting of the Shareholders of this Society was
held on 14th July, in the Belfast Museum, College Square North.
The President (Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S.)
occupied the chair, and there were also present — Sir James
Henderson, D.L. ; the President of Queen's College (Rev. Dr.
Hamilton) ; Dr. Wm. Calwell ; and Messrs Robert Young, J. P. ;
George Kidd, J. P. ; R. M. Young, B.A., J.P., M.R.I. A. (Hon.
Secretary) ; John H. Davies ; Wm. Gray, M.R.I. A. ; Seaton F.
Milligan, M.R.I. A. ; W. R. Rea ; Wm. Armstrong ; Joseph
Wright, F.G.S. ; John Horner ; William Workman ; H. C.
Montgomery ; D. A. Maxwell ; Isaac W. Ward, and Nevin H.
Foster. An apology for inability to be present was received from
Sir Robert Lloyd Patterson, D.L. The minutes of the last
meeting having been read and confirmed,
Mr. R. M. Young (Hon. Secretary) submitted the Annual
Report, which stated : —
The Council of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
Society desire to submit their Report of the Working of the
society during the past year. The Winter Session was opened
in the Museum on the 22nd November, 1904, when an illustra-
ted lecture was kindly delivered by Mr Francis C. Forth, Assoc.
R.C.Sc.L, Principal of the Belfast Municipal Technical Institute,
on "Technical Instruction in Belfast : a Retrospect and a Prospect",
followed by a discussion in which the President and other educa-
tionalists took part.
The Second Meeting was held on 19th December, 1904,
when Mr. James Taylor kindly gave a lecture on "Stained Glass,
Ancient and Modern," illustrated by a series of special lantern
slides,
38 Annual Meeting.
The Third Meeting was held on the 3rd January, 1905, in the
Wellington Hall, with the Lord Mayor (Sir Otto Jaffe) in the chair,
when an illustrated lecture on " Some Results of the National
Antarctic Expedition " was kindly given by Mr. Hartley T. Ferrar,
B.A., F.G.S., geologist to the "Discovery" Expedition 1901-04.
The Fourth Meeting was held on 7th February, 1905, when a
lecture was given by Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc. M.R.I A. ;
subject, "The Work of the Ulster Fisheries Association," illustra-
ted by numerous lime-Hght views.
The Fifth Meeting was held on 14th March, 1905, when Mr.
Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.I. A., delivered a lecture ; subject,
"Cruise around Ireland with the Royal Society of Antiquaries,
June, 1904," illubtrated by lantern views.
The concluding meeting took place on 4th April, 1905, when
the following papers were read: — (i) "Russia: Its People and
PoHtics," by Mr. John Horner ; (2) Some Irish Ghosts," by Mr.
E. J. M'Kean, B.A., B.L.
There was a good attendance of the members, and of the
general public at all these meetings. The different societies who
hold their Meetings in the Museum continue to do so. As usual
the public were admitted to the Museum at a nominal charge
during the Easter Holidays, but the attendance was not as large as
on some previous occasions, probably owing to the fine weather and
various counter attractions.
The Members of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland
attending the Ulster meeting in July were admitted free to the Mu-
seum, as on the last occasion of their visit in 1892. Those visiting
the Museum expressed their gratification at seeing such a fine col-
lection of Irish Antiquities belonging to a provincial society as
contained in the Benn Room, especially such recent additions as
the recent inauguration chair of the O'Neils, and other local
objects. In regard to the museum collections there have been no
changes of any note to report during the past year. The assistant
curator has been much occupied in the cleaning, re-labelling, and
otherwise looking after the collections in the various rooms. Some
Annual Meetins:.
39
valuable donations have been received during the year, especially
a set of fine quartzite primitive implements from India presented
by Mr. H. W. .Seton Karr. A large number of valuable publica-
tions issued by the various scientific societiesin the United Kingdom,
and in foreign Countries have been received. Many of these
works are of much interest. In this connection a notable addition
is the highly illustrated work of the American Ethnological
Survey of the Philipines. The United States Bureau of Ethnology
continues to send us their important publications illustrative of
the habits and customs of the various aboriginal peoples of
America.
In accordance with the constitution of the Society, five members
of council retire from office, all of whom are eligible for re-election.
These are Mr. John Brown ; Sir James Henderson ; Mr.
S. F. Milligan ; Mr. Robert Patterson, and Mr. William
Swanston.
Mr. Horner presented the financial statement, which showed
that the total income for the year had been ^209 5s. 2d, includ-
ing subscriptions amounting to ^97 17s, and that the expenditure
had been ^199 2s. 5d, leaving a balance of £^\o 2s. 9d. He
regretted to say that during the year the Easter receipts had fallen
off nearly ;^6, which was to be expected owing to the fine weather,
and the subscription account had been reduced by ^9 5s, princi-
pally in annual subscribers. He would like to draw attention to
the fact that either more annual subscribers or more members
should be introduced for the purpose of keeping up the funds of
the Society.
Rev. Dr. Hamilton, in moving the adoption of the Report,
said there was nothing very outstanding in the history of the
Society during the year. The report was a record of plain, hard
good work done in the interests of the objects for which the
organisation was founded many years ago, and it was pleasant to
them all to find that it continued to prosper. That was the second
year during which Professor Symington had presided over the
Society, and it was a matter of satisfaction to them all — and he
40
Annual Meeting.
was sure a matter of surprise to no one who knew him — to discover
that during those years it had not only held its ground, but had
increased in prosperity and usefulness. He only hoped the
president would be s xceeded by another who would maintain
the traditions of the society as honourably as he had done, or it
would be still better if for a third year he could be prevailed upon
to succeed himself. The Natural History Society occupied in his
opinion a very useful place in Belfast. It would be a pity if
they had no such organisation to be a rallying place for those who
were interested in the subjects which that .Society sought to look
after, and it would be a still greater pity if the scientific worthies
whose portraits hung on the walls of that building, who were the
pioneers of their local scientific research — men like William
Thompson and Robert Patterson — had no successors in these
days when Belfast had reached a height of prosperity of which
they in their day little dreamed. Even if the Society did almost
no work it would be a good thing to have it there for these reasons,
and at the same time for this additional reason — to hold up the
torch of science before the inhabitants of their City, and to keep
them in continual mind that men had something else to live for
than the making of money.
During the past winter many useful papers have been read, and
many important discussions had been held, and he had no doubt
a great deal of valuable information had been diffused. The
Society's collections in zoology, geology, palaeontology, and archae-
ology were an honour to Belfast, and ought to be more generally
availed of than unfortunately they were. They were exceedingly
valuable, and they would be poorer without them. They had a
small balance to carry forward, and he hoped the public would not
forget the appeal Mr. Horner had made for additional help. The
only thing they required was a little more money. The Society
was pursuing the even tenour of its way successfully and creditably,
and he hoped it would long continue in Belfast, maintaining the
honourable traditions of bye-gone days.
Mr. William Gray, in seconding the motion, said he had a great
Annual Meeting. 41
respect for the Society, and he joined Dr. Hamilton in hoping
that it would maintain its position for many years to come. It
would be a disgrace to the City if it was not properly supported
and enabled to continue its good work. There was a field open
to the Society independent of making a collection in which they
had been so successful up to the present, and now the time had
come when it might be judicious to separate the two interests —
Natural History Society proper and the collection. He did not
think that with all the surroundings the Society could be expected
to maintain efficiently the collection of which they had now
charge, and there should be some effort on the part of the public
outside to come in and relieve them to some extent of that
responsibility.
Mr. John H. Davies, in supporting, said it might be of interest
to mention that when recently on a visit to Kew he met there
some distinguished botanists, one of them being his old friend
Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., and the latter informed him that the
high standing of Mr. S. A. Stewart — who was so well known to
them all — as a systematic botanist, and the value of the wide
service he had rendered to the knowledge of Irish Botany, were
fully recognised. When his name was brought before the
Linntean Society for election for the distinction of associate the
proposal was received with the utmost cordiality and approval
and it was considered that the name of no one more worthy of
the honour could have been submitted. He thought it would
be gratifying to Mr. Stewart's many friends in Belfast to know that.
The resolution was carried.
On the motion of Mr. W. Gray, seconded by Mr. Nevin H.
Foster, the five retiring members of the Council were re-elected —
Sir James Henderson, and Messrs. John Brown, S. F. Milligan,
R. Patterson, and W. Swanston.
Sir James Henderson, in moving a vote of thanks to the
chairman, said he wished to endorse all that the President of
Queen's College had said regarding Professor Symington. They
were all so pleased with the way in which he had assisted in
42 Annual Meeting.
carrying on the work of the Society during the past year that,
though they could not forestall what might take place at the
Council meeting, they would be glad if he would consent to fill
the office for a third year. Personally he thought no man was
more entitled to a position of that kind than Professor Symington,
and he was very pleased indeed to see him in the chair.
Mr. George Kidd seconded the motion, and it was heartily
passed.
The Chairman said he was exceedingly obliged for the manner
in which they had shown their appreciation of any small services
he had been able to render to the Society. It had been a matter
of extreme regret to himself that it had not been possible for him
to devote more time to the general interests of the organisation,
but his other duties kept him busy, and he had not very abundant
leisure for outside work. At the same time he thought it was the
duty of himself and of all persons occupying similar positions to
do everything they could to maintain that Society. It seemed to
him, as had already been stated by the President of Queen's
College and Mr. Gray, that it would be a disgrace to a city of the
size and importance of Belfast if it could not support a society of
that character. In the first place, they started with very high
traditions. The Society had, he believed, been in existence for
more than eighty years, and for a very considerable time it had
possessed an extremely valuable collection of objects illustrating
the zoology, botany, geology, and archaeology of that district.
Then it had enabled the workers in any or all of those branches
of knowledge to bring their views before the members and the
public generally. 'J'hey also possessed a very valuable library. It
was well known that while text-books of science very soon lost their
value, the "proceedings" of learned societes in many cases increa-
sed in value as time went on, and it was very difficult to get a
complete set of some important journals of that kind. They had
in their library very valuable " Proceedings," extending over long
periods. It would be a shame if the Society could not find in
Belfast sufficient persons interested in the subject to maintain it
Annual Meeting:;. 43
and to increase its reputation. Perhaps he might be pardoned for
referring to various observations that appeared in the newspapers
in the spring of this year with regard to the fate — not of the Society
he was glad to say — but of its museum. He thought it should
be clearly understood that the gentlemen who wrote to the news-
papers did so on their own responsibility, and that they had not
any special authority from the Council to express any views on
that very debatable subject. He occupied the same position — he
had no authority from the Council to express any opinion — but
they must admit that they were surrounded now by altered
circumstances from those which attended the earlier work of the
Society. The city — he was not quite certain from what reason,
whether from an innate love of the subject or in order to carry
out some Act of Parliament^ — had undertaken to do the work that
that Society did to some extent. He was thoroughly in sympathy
with the idea of the city undertaking work of that kind. There
was no doubt there were many advantages connected with the
maintenance of museums either by Government or municipal
authorities. At the same time, there were undoubtedly advantages
associated with the direction of a museum by persons who had
evinced a personal interest in the subject. He presumed that
none of the members of the Corporation were elected for their
knowledge of archceology or any of the sciences with which that
Society was specially identified, though they were perhaps quite
qualified to undertake that work. Speaking for himself, it would
be with some reluctance, though it might be necessary, that he
would see an extremely interesting and valuable collection passing
out of the keeping of those specially interested in the subject.
Then he would like, with reference to the general affairs of the
Society, to say that it seemed to him that it would be a calamity
for the organisation to part with its building. Some people thought
that a Society like that should dispense not only with its museum,
but also with its building, and trust to charity to find the members
occasional accommodation for their meetings. He believed it was
extremely important to the healthy life of the Society and for the
44
Annual Meeting.
cultivation of the subjects in wliich they were interested that they
should have a building of their own. Whatever might be the fate
of their museum, it was essential that for the continued success of
that Society a larger number of their citizens should take a more
active interest in the organisation. Fifty years ago there were
probably a larger number interested in the Society than at the
present time and it said very little for their advance in civilisation
and their improved methods of education if a society of that kind
was as successful half a century ago as it was to-day. They ought
to have a very much larger membership and to be engaged very
much more actively in the work of the Society. He trusted all
the members present would do their best to induce others to join.
Whatever might be in store in the future, they had in the mean-
time to keep the Society going and to add to their collection, as
well as to preserve the specimens they had, and they could not do
that unless they were adequately supported. He had felt that he
should be relieved of the duties of president, but if it was the
wish of the Council and the Society generally that he should
continue in office for another year he would be very happy to do
his best for them.
The Proceedings then terminated.
A meeting of the Council was subsequently held, with the
President of the Queen's College (Rev. Dr. Hamilton) in the chair.
On the motion of the Chairman, seconded by Sir James
Henderson, Professor Symington was unanimously re-elected
President for the ensuing year, and he kindly consented to accept
the position.
The other office-bearers appointed were — Vice-Presidents, the
Presid<;nt of Queen's College (Rev. Dr. Hamilton), Sir James
Henderson, M.A., D.L. ; Sir R. Lloyd Patterson, D.L., F.L.S.,
and Mr. W. Swanston, F.G.S. ; Honorary Treasurer, Mr. John
Horner ; Honorary Librarian, Mr. John H. Davies ; Honorary
Secretary, Mr. Robert M. Young, B.A., J.P., M.R.LA.
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46
DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, 1904-1905.
From Mr. W. Seton Karr, M.P.
Thirty-three quartzite implements from Cuddapah, India.
From Mr. William Parr.
An ancient Greek coin found near Ligoniel, Belfast.
From Rey. W. C. Cunningham, Ballyrashane.
A beggar's badge of Dunluce.
From Mr. John Brown, F.R.S.
A specimen of the shell of Tellina balthica found, sub fossil, in
esker gravels, near Dunmurry.
From Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S.
A microscope slide of a spicule of Synapta, a rare Holothurian
from Lias clay at Gloucester, England.
From Mr. Thomas Nolan Murray, Hon. Sec. Ulster
Amateur Photographic Society.
A photograph of the gigantic plant, Giinnera manicata, which is
growing at Narrowater, Co. Down.
From Rev. Canon Bristow.
Thirty-six cameos and two agates.
From Mr. J. H. MacIlwaine.
A tomtit's nest and eggs found in the heart of a large tree when
sawn open.
From Mr. Quinton Dunlop.
Letters patent, dated 1869, and massive seal attached thereto.
From Mr. W. Guiney.
A cast of the shell of a fossil Pecten, from Malta.
47
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, ist MAY, 1904, till
1ST MAY', 1905.
Adelaide. — Transactions of the Royal Society of South
Australia. Vol. 28, 1904. The Society.
Basel. — Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Basel. Vol. 15, part 3, and vol. 17, 1904.
The Society.
Belfast. — Report and Proceedings of the Belfast Naturalists'
Field Club. Sen 2, vol. 5, part 3, 1904.
The Society.
Bergen. — -Bergens Museum Aarsberetning for 1903 and 1904.
Aarbog, parts, i — 3, 1904. Also Account of the
Crustacea of Norway, vol. 5, parts 3 — 6, 1904,
and parts 7 and 8, 1905.
The Director of the Aluseiim.
Birmingham. — -Records of Meteorological Observations for 1904.
Birmingham and Midland Itistitute.
Bologna, — Rendiconto della R. Accademia delle Scienze. New
ser., vol. 4, 1904. The Academy.
Boulder.— University of Colorado College Studies. Vol. 2,
Nos. I — 3, 1904. The University.
Breslau. — Zeitschrift fiir Entomologie vom Verein fiir Sclessiche
Insektenkunde. New ser. part 29, 1904.
The Society.
Brighton. — Abstract of Papers and Annual Report of Brighton
and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society, 1904. The Society. •
Brooklyn. — Memoirs of Art and Archaeology. Vol. i, Nos. i
and 2, 1902, and No. 4, 1904 : also Memoirs of
Natural Sciences. Vol. i. No. i, 1904.
Brooklyn Institute.
48
Brussels. — Bulletin de la Societe Royale de Botanique de
Belgique. Vol. 41, part 3, 1904.
The Society.
„ Annales de la Societie Entomologique de Belgique.
Vol. 47, 1903, and 48, 1904. T/?e Society.
„ Annales de la Societie Royale Zoologique et Mala-
cologique de Belgique. Vol. 38, 1903.
The Society.
Buenos Ayres. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.
Ser. 3, vol. 2, 1903. The Director.
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Vol.
32, part 4, 1904, vol. 35, part 3, 1904, and vol. 36,
part I, 1904. Palffiontologia Indica, ser. 15, vol.
4 (one part only), 1903. Records of the
Geological Survey of India. Vol. 31, parts 1—4,
1904, and vol. 32, part i, 1905.
The Director.
Cambridge." — Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Vol. 12, part 6, 1904, and vol. 13, part i, 1905.
The Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Anatomy. Vol. 39, No. 9, 1904; vol. 43, Nos. 2
and 3, 1904; vol. 44, 1904; vol. 45, Nos. 2 — 4,
1904, and vol. 46, Nos.. i and 2, 1904.
The Keeper of the Musaun.
Cardiff. — Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists' Society. Vol.
36, 1903. The Society.
Christiania. — Forhandlingar i Videnskaps-Selskabet i Christiania,
1903. Den Norske Sindssygelovgivning Fore-
lesninger, i 901.
Royal Norske Frederiks University.
Colorado Springs. — Colorado College Studies. Vol. 12, Nos.
15— 17> 1904-
Colorado College Scientific Society.
49
Dantzic. — -Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig
New Series, vol. ii, parts i and 2, 1904; also
Library Catalogue, 1904. Thi Society.
Dublin. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey — the Geology of the
country around Belfast, 1904. The Survey.
Edinburgh. — Transactions and Proceedings of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 22, parts i, 1901,
2, 1903. 3) 1904, and part 4, 1905.
The Society.
„ Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society. Vol.15,
No. 2, 1904; vol. 16, No. I, 1904, and No. 2,
1905. The Society.
Emden. — Jahresbericht der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Emden, 1904. The Society.
Genoa. — Rivista Ligure. Vol. 26, fasc. 2 — 6, 1904, and vol. 27,
fasc. I, 1905.
Societa Letture e Conversazione Scieiitifiche.
Glasgow. — Transactions of the Natural History Society of
Glasgow. New sen, vol. 6, part 3, 1905.
„ Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow. Vol. 35, 1904. The Society.
GoRLiTZ. — Abhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu
GorHtz. Vol. 24, 1904. The Society.
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen Karpathen Vereines, 31st year,
1904. The Society.
Indianopolis — Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences.
Volumes for 1902 and 1903. The Academy.
Kharkow. — Transactions of the Society for Physico Chimiques
of Kharkow University, No. 31, with two
Supplements, 1903. The Society.
KiEw. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of Kieff. Vol. 18,,
1904, and vol. 19, 1905. The Society.
Lausanne. — Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles. Vol. 40, Nos. 147 — 151, 1904.
The Society.
5°
LwvRENCE. — Bulletin of the University of Kansas. Vol. 2 No. 7
1 901, and vol. 4, Nos. 6 and 8, 1903.
The University.
Lkipsic. — Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig.
Part I, 1903. The Society.
„ Sitzungsberichte der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu
Leipzig. 28th and 29th years, 1901 and 1902.
The Society.
Lima. — Boletin del Cuerpo de Ligenieros de Minas del Peru.
Nos. 4 and 5, 1903, 6 — 18, 1904, and No. 19,
1905. The Director.
London. — Report of the Southport Meeting of the British
Association, 1903. The Association.
„ Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical vSociety. Vo^l.
54, and 5 appendices, 190 1-4, vol. 55, ana'
appendix, 1904. The Society.
„ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London.
Vol. 60, Nos. 237 — 240, 1904, and vol. 61, No.
241, 1905 ; also Geological Literature for 1903,
and List of Fellows, 1904. The Society.
„ Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, parts 3 — 6,
1904, and parts i and 2, 1905. The Society.
„ Transactions of the Zoological Society of London.
Vol. 17, part 3, 1904. Proceedings, vol. i, parts
I and 2, 1904, and vol. 2, part i, 1904, also List
of Fellows for 1904. The Society.
„ Guide to the Fossil Mammals and Birds in the British
Museum . 8th ed., 1904. Guide to the Gallery
of Birds, 1905, and pamphlets on Diptera and
Blood Sucking Flies.
The Trustees of the British Museum.
Madison. — Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts, and Letters. Vol. 13, part 2, 1902, and
vol. 14, part I, 1903. The Academy.
51
Madison. — Bulletin of Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
Survey. Nos. ii and 12, 1903.
The Commissioners of the Survey.
Madras. — Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum. Vol. 5,
No. I, 1903, and Administration Report, 1904.
The Stiperintendent.
Manchester. — Journal of Manchester Geographical Society.
"A^ol. 19, Nos. 4 — 12, 1903, and vol. 20, Nos.
I — 3, 1904. The Society.
„ Transactions of Manchester Geological and Mining
Society. Vol. 28, Nos. 13 — 15, 1904.
The Society.
Marseilles.— Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Vol. 14, 1904. The Librarian.
Melbourne. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria
New ser., vol. 17, part i, 1904, and part 2, 1905.
The Society.
Mexico. — Anuario del Observatorio Astronomico de Tacubaya.
Ano 25, 1904. Boletin Mensual del Observatorio
Meteorologico de Mexico. No. 3 and Nos. 6 — 8,
1902. The Director.
„ Parergones del Instituto Geologico de Mexico. Vol. i,
Nos. 2- — 6, 1904. ■ The Institute.
Milwaukee. — Twenty-second Annual Report of the Trustees of
Milwaukee Public Museum, 1904.
The Trustees.
Missoula. — Bulletin of the University of Montana. Nos. 21 — 23,
1904, and Biological Series, No. 5, 1903, and
No. 7, 1904. The University.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo.
Ser. 2, part i, 1904. Section Historico Filosofica,,
Vol. I, 1904. The Director.
Morelia. — Relacion de los Ceremonias y Ritos y Poblacion y
Gobernacion de los Indios de la Provincia de
Mechuacan.
52
Moscow. — Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of
Moscow. No. 4, 1903, and Nos. 2 — 4, 1904.
The Society.
Nantes. — Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
rOuest de la France. Ser. 2, vol. 3, Nos. 3 and 4,
1903, and vol. 4, Nos. i and 2, 1904.
TJie Society.
New York. — Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Vol. 14, part 4, and vol. 15, parts 2 and 3, 1904.
The Acadetny.
„ Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.
Vol. 36, Nos. 3 — 12, 1904, and vol. 37, Nos. r
and 3, 1905. The Society.
Odessa.— Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of New Russia.
Vol. 25, part I, 1903, part 2, 1904, vol. 26, 1904,
and vol. 27, 1905. The Society.
Oporto. — Annaes de Sciencias Naturaes. Vol. 8, 1903.
Sefior Augusta Nobre.
Ottawa. — Contributions to Canadian Palaeontology, part 3, 1904.
Canadian Birds, part 3, 1904, and also Dictionary
of Altitudes in Canada, 1903.
The Director of the Canadian Geological and Natural
History Survey.
Padua. — Atti della Accademia Scientifica Veneto-Trentina-
Istriana. New ser., Anno i, fasc. i and 2, 1904.
The Academy.
Philadelphia, — Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of
Natural Sciences. Vols. 65 and 66, 1904.
The Academy.
„ Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society. Vol. 40, No. 167, 1901, and vol. 43,
Nos. 175 and 176, 1904. The Society.
Pisa. — Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Processa
Verbali. Vol. 14, Nos. 3 — 5, 1904.
The Society,
53
Rennes. — Travaux Scientifiques de I'Universite de Rennes.
Vol. 2, 1903. The University.
Rio de Janeiro. — Archivos do Museo National do Rio de
Janeiro. Vol. 10, 1899, vol. 11, 1901, and
vol. 12, 1902. The Director of the Miesemn.
Rome. — Journal of the British and American Archaeological
Society of Rome. Vol. 3, No. 6, 1904.
The Society.
„ Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Ser. 5, vol. 13,
semestre i, fasc. 7 — 12, 1904; semestre 2, fasc.
I — 12, 1904; vol. 14, semestre i, fasc. i — 7,
1905, and Rendiconto Adunanza Solenne, 5 June,
1904. The Academy.
, Bollettino della Societa Zoologico Italiana. Vol. 5, fasc.
I — 8, 1904, and vol. 6, fasc. i — 3, 1905.
The Society.
St. Louis.— Fifteenth Annual Report of Missouri Botanical
Garden, 1904. The Director.
Stavanger.- — Stavanger Museums Aarshefte. Fourteenth year,
1904. The Mifsetim Trustees.
Stirling. — Transactions of Stirling Natural History and Archseo-
logical Society, 1904. The Society.
Stockholm. — Kungl Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Hand-
lingar. Vol. 37, Nos. 3 and 4, 1903, and Nos. 7
and 8, 1904 ; vol. 38, Nos. 1—5, 1904. Arkiv
for Botanik, vol. i, part 4; vol. 2, parts i^ — 4,
and vol. 3, parts i — 4, 1904. Also Arkiv for
Matematik, Astronomi, och Fysick, vol. i, parts 3
and 4, 1904. Arkiv for Mineralologi, Kemi, och
Geologi, vol. I, parts 3 and 4, 1904. Arkiv for
Zoologi, vol. I, parts 3 and 4, 1904, and vol. 2,
parts I and 2, 1904, and Arsbok, for 1904. Also
Les Prix Nobel, 1901-1904. The Academy.
Sydney. — Science of Man. Vol. 7, Nos. 2 — 7, 1904.
The Anthropological Society of Australasia.
54
Tokyo. — Mittielungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur und
Heilkunde Ostasien. Vol. lo, part, i, and
Supplement, 1904. The Society.
Toronto. — Transactions of the Canadian Institute. Vol. 7, part
3, and Proceedings, vol. 11, 1904.
The Instihite.
Vienna. — Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Koniglichen Geolog-
ischen Reichsanstalt. Nos. 5 — 18, 1904, and
Nos. I and 2, 1905. The Society.
,, Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich Koniglichen Zoologisch-
Botanischen Gesellschaft. Vol. 44, 1904.
The Society.
Washington. — Year Book of the United States Department of
Agriculture, 1903.
„ Water Supply and Irrigation Papers, Nos. 80 — 87,
1903. Professional Paper, No. 9, 1903, No. 10,
1902, and Nos. 13 — 15, 1903.
The Director of the U.S. Geological Survey.
„ Twentieth Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, 1903.
The Director of the Bureau,
,, Report of the United States National Museum
for 1902, and Proceedings, vol. 27, 1904, also
Special Bulletin. American Hydroids, part 2,
1904. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.
Vol. 45, parts I — 4, 1904; vol. 47, i, 1904;
No. 1,374, 1903, and Nos. 1,417, 1,441, 1,543,
and 1,544, 1904.
The S7nithsonian Instittition.
York. — Annual Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
for 1903. The Society.
Zurich. — Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturfoschenden Gesellschaft in
Zurich, 94th year, parts i and 2, 1904.
The Society.
55
J'rom The Author, Mons. Charles Janet, Limogp:.s. —
Observations sur Guepes, 1903. Observations
sur les Fourmis, 1904. Anatomic du Gaster de
la Myrmica rubra, and seven other of his
Zoological Papers, 1 894-1 899.
I<rom Professor Rupert Jones, F.R.S. — His Paper on the
Estheriella Shales of the Maylay Peninsula ; also
Paper on some Palsezoic Ostracoda from Mary-
land.
From Mons. Emile Boulanger. — Germination de I'Ascospares
de la Truffe, 1903.
BELFAST NATURAL HISTORY
AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Officers and Council of Managemetit for igoj-igo6.
Iprc0(&ent :
PROFESSOR JOHNSON SYMINGTON, m.d., f.r.s., f.r.s.e.
DiceslpresiDents
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d
SIR R. LLOYD PATTERSON,
F.L.S.
SIR JAMES HENDERSON,
A.M., D.L., J.P.
WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
1f>on. C^reasurer :
JOHN HORNER.
Ibon. ILibraiian :
JOHN H. DAVIES.
Ibon. Secretary :
ROBERT M. YOUNG, b.a., j.r., m.r.i.a.
Council :
JOHN BROWN, F.R.S.
JOHN H. DAVIES.
REV. THOMAS HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d., president q.c.b.
SIR JAMES HENDERSON, d.l., j.p., a.m.
JOHN HORNER.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN, m.r.i.a.
PROFESSOR W. B. MORTON, m.a.
SIR ROBERT LLOYD PATTERSON, D L., f.l.s.
ROBERT PATTERSON, m.r.i.a.
W. H. F. PATTERSON.
WM. SWANSTON, f.g.s.
PROFESSOR JOHNSON SYMINGTON, m.d., f.r.s.
PROFESSOR GREGG WILSON, d.sc, m.r.i.a.
ROBERT YOUNG, c.e., j.p.
ROBERT M. YOUNG, h.a., j.p., m.r.i.a.
SHAREHOLDERS.
^Denotes holders of three or more Shares?\
*Alexander, Francis, b.e., Belfast
Allworthy, S.W., M.D., Manor House, Antrim Road, do.
*Anderson, John, j.p., f.g.s.. East Hillbrook, Holywood, Co. Down
Andrew, John J., l.d.s., r.c.s.kng., University Square, Belfast
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong, Thomas, jun., Donegall Square West, do.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, do.
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, do.
Barbour, James, J.P., Ardville, Marino, Holywood, Co. Down
Beattie, Rev. A. Hamilton, Portglenone, Co. Antrim
Bigger, Francis J., m.r.i.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast
Bowman, Davys, Holyrood, Malone Road (Representatives of) do.
Boyd, William, Great Victoria Street, do.
*Boyd, J. Sinclair, m.d., Chatsworth, Malone Road, do.
Braddell, Edward, Parkfield, Park Road, Ipswich
Brett, Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, Belfast
Brett, John H., c.e., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Biistow, James R., Prospect, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Bristow, John, Wellington Place, Belfast
Brown, John, f.r.s., a.m.i.e.e., Longhurst, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Brown, William K. (Representatives of), Belfast
Bulloch, Alexander, Eversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., m.a., m.d.. Lower Crescent, do.
Calwell, Alex. M'D., do.
Calwell, William, m.a., m.d., College Square North, do.
*Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), do.
58 Shareholders.
Carr, A. H. R., Waring Street, Belfast
Carson, John, Walmer Terrace, Holy wood, Co. Down
*Charley, Phineas H., Mornington Park, Bangor, do.
*Christen, Mrs. Rodolphe, St. Imier, Brig o' Gairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, George S., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., Notting Hill, do.
Coates, Victor, j.p., d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p., Queen's Elms, Belfast
Combe, George, Cranethorpe, Strandtown, do.
Crawford, William, j.p.. Mount Randal, do.
Crawford, William, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown, do.
Davies, John H., Lenaderg House, Banbridge, Co. Down
*Deramore, Lord, d.l. (Representatives of).
Dixon, Professor, m.a., sc.d., f.r.s., f.r.u.i., Almora,
Myrtlefield Park, Belfast
Dods, Robert, b.a., j.p., St. Leonard's, Newcastle, Co. Down
*Donegall, Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast
*Downshire, Marquis of (Representatives of).
The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Duffin, Adam, ll.d., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park
(Representatives of), Ballywalter, Co. Down
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast
Ewart, Fred. W., m.a., b.l., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., m.a., j.p., d.l.,
Glenmachan House, Belfast
Faren, ^Vm., Mountcharles, do.
*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
Ferguson, Godfrey W., c.e., Dunedin, Antrim Road, Belfast
Finlay, Fred. W., j.p., Wolf hill House, Ligoniel, do.
Finlay, Robert H. F., Cavehill Road, do.
Shareholders. 59
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc, Kelvin House, Botanic Avenue, Belfast
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., k.a., m.i.m.e., Assoc.
M.I.C.E., Eglantine Avenue, do.
Foster, Nevin Harkness, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), Belfast
Gibson, Andrew, f.r.s.a.i., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, H. M., Broughton Flax Mills, Manchester
Gordon, Malcolm, Hilden, Lisburn
Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d., m.r.i.a.
(Representatives of), Broughshane, Co. Antrim
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.i., Glenburn Park,
Cavehill Road, Belfast
Greer, Thomas, j.p., m.r.i.a., Seapark, Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rev. Thomas, d.d., ll.d.. President, Queen's
College, Belfast
*Hamilton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, W. m.a., Eaton Terrace, London, W.
Henderson, Sir James, a.m., j.p., d.l., Oakley, Windsor Park, Belfast
Henderson, Mrs. Charlotte (Representatives of), Clarges
Street, London
Henry, R. M., m.a., Belfast
Herdman, John, j.p., d.l., Carricklee House (Representatives
of), Strabane
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, j.p., Rosavo, Cultra, Co. Down
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House, Belfast
Hind, John, junr., Clifton Park Avenue, do.
Hodges, Miss do.
Hogg, John, x\cademy Street, do.
Horner, John, Chelsea, Antrim Road, do.
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.l., Orangefield, do.
*Hughes, Edwin, j.p., Dalchoolin, Craigavad, Co. Down
Hyndman, Hugh, ll.d., Windsor (Representatives of), Belfast
6o Shareholders.
Inglis, James, j.p., Merrion Square East, Dublin
Jackson, A. T., C.E., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgie Avenue, Belfast
Jaffe, Sir Otto, j.p., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Dalguise, Monkstown, Dublin
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, Belfast
Kidd, George, j.p., Lisnatore, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
*Kinghan, John R., Altoona, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Kinnaird, George Y., Malone Park, do.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, Mrs., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Larmor, Joseph, ini.a., d.sc, ll.d., f.r.a.s., f.r.u.i., sec.r.s.,
St. John's College, Cambridge
Leathem, R. R., m.d., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecumbe, Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down
Letts, Professor E. A., ph.d., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra, do.
Lindsay, Professor James A., m.a., m.d.. College Sqr. East, Belfast
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House (Representatives of), do.
Lytle, Joseph H., j.p., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.l., m.i.c.e., St. Clair, Windsor Av., do.
Mackenzie, John, c.E., 412 Lisburn Road, do.
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), do.
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonville, do.
Malcolm, Bowman, m.i.c.e.. m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim Road, do.
Maxton, James, m.i.n.a., m.i.mar.e., Kirkliston Drive,
Bloomfield, do.
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens, do.
Mayes, William, Drumcairn, Deramore Park, do
Milligan, Alexander H., do.
Shareholders. 6i
Milligan, Seaton Forest, .m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.i., Bangor, Co. Down
Mitchell, Robert A, ll.p,.,t.c.d., Marmont, Strandtown, Belfast
Montgomery, Henry C, Craigavad, Co. Down
Montgomery, H. H., Strandtown, Belfast
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.l., Ballydrain
House, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Moore, James, The Finaghy, Belfast
Morton, Professor W. B., m.a., f.r.u.l, Nottinghill, do.
Muir, A. H., Scottish Provident Buildings, do.
Mullan, William, Lindisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p., Tudor House, Holywood, Co. Down
* Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone, do.
^Musgrave, Henry, Drumglass, Malone, do.
Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., d.l., Drumglass, Malone
(Representatives of), do.
MacAdam, Robert (Representatives of), do.
M'Bride, Henry James, j.p., Hyde Park, Mallusk, do.
M 'Bride, Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
*M'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London
*M'Cammon, Thos. P., Plaisted, Woodville, Holywood, Co. Down
M'Cance, Miss Charlotte Georgianna, Larkfield
(Representatives of), Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
MacColl, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, Belfast
MacCormac, John M., m.d., Victoria Place, do.
M'Cormick, Hugh M'Neile, Cultra House, Holywood, Co. Down
*M'Cracken, Francis (Representatives of).
M'Gee, James, Woodville, Holywood, do.
Macllwaine, John H., Mornington Park, Bangor, do.
M'Kisack, H. L., iM.u., University Square, Belfast
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p., Queen's Elms, do.
M'Neill, George, Beechleigh, Malone Road, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Martello Terrace, Holywood, Co. Down
62 Shareholders.
Nicholson, Henry J., Bedford Street, Belfast
O'Neill, James, m.a.. College Square East (Representatives of), do.
*0'Rorke, Mrs., Dunratho, Craigavad, Co. Down
Orr, Hugh L., Charnwood Avenue, Belfast
Orr, Rev. R. J., Fitzroy Avenue, do.
Park, Rev. Wm., m.a., Garthowen, Sans Souci Park, do.
Patterson, Edward Ferrar, Ballyholme Road, Bangor, Co. Down
Patterson, Mrs. Isabelle, Bonn, Germany
Patterson, John, Dunallan, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Patterson, Richard, j.p., Kilmore, Holy wood, Co. Down
*Patterson, Sir Robert Lloyd, j.p., d.l., f.l.s.,
Croft House, do. do.
Patterson, Robert, m.r.i.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.,
St. Clare, do. do.
Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a., Garranard, Strandtown, Belfast
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Knock, do.
Pim, Edward W., j.p., Elmwood Terrace, do.
Pirn, Joshua, Slieve-na-Failthe, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.e., b.a., m.r.i.a.. National Library, Dublin
Rea, John Henry, m.d., University Street
(Representatives of), Belfast
Rea, William R., Abbeylands, \\'hiteabbey, do.
Reade, Robert H. S., j.p., d.l., Wilmont, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Riddell, Samuel, Beechpark (Representatives of), Belfast
Robertson, William, j.p., (Representatives of), do.
Robinson, John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc. Royal Academical
Institution, do.
ShiUington, Thos. Foulkes, j.p., Dromart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, FeUx Booth, Queen Street, do.
Shareholders. 63
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a., j.p., d.l., Hopefield, Belfast
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, m.d., f.r.c.s.eng., University Square, do.
Smith, John, c.E., Castleton Terrace, do.
Smyth, John, im.a., c.e., Milltown, Banbridge, Co. Down
Spears, Adam, b.sc, Riversdale, Holywood, do.
Steen, William C, m.d., Laleham Corner Lower, North
Down Road, Margate
Steen, William, b.l.. Northern Bank, Victoria Street, Belfast
Stelfox, James, Oakleigh, Ormeau Park, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Symington, Prof. Johnson, m.d., f.r.s., f.r.s.e., Queen's
College, do.
*Tennent, Robert (Representatives of), Rushpark, do.
*Tennent, Robert James (Representatives of), Rushpark, do.
Torrens, T. H., j.p., Wellington Place, do.
*Turnley, John (Representatives of), do.
Walkington, Miss Jane A., Sefton Park, Liverpool
Walkington, Thomas R., Edenvale, Strandtown, Belfast
Wallace, John, Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, j.p., f.s.a., Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard T., Kensington Villa, Knock Avenue Road, do.
Whitla, Prof. Sir William, m.d., j.p.. College Square North, do.
Wilson, Prof. Gregg, m.a., ph.d., d.sc, m.r.i.a.. Queen's
College, do.
Wilson, James, m.f;., Oldforge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Wilson, John K., j.r., Donegall Street, Belfast
*Wilson, Walter H., Belvoir Park (Representatives of), do.
*Wilson, W. Perceval, do,
*Wolff, G. M'., J. p., M.P., The Den, Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, The Moat, Strandtown, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, im.a., Rubane House, Glastry, Co. Down
64 Shareholders.
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., d.d., The Manse,
Newtownbreda, Co. Down
*Workman, Thomas, j.p. (Representatives of),
Craigdarragh, Craigavad, do.
Workman, WilHam, Nottinghill, Belfast
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, C.E., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, b.a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
Annual Subscribers. 65
HONORARY ASSOCIATES.
Gray, William, ri.r.i.a., Glenburn Park, Belfast
Stewart, Samuel Alex., f.b.s.edin., a.l.s., Belfast Museum, do.
Swanston, William, f.o.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
York Street Spinning Company, Ltd., do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.
Allan, C. E., Stormont Castle, Dundonald, Co. Down
Boyd, John, Cyprus Gardens, Bloomfield, Belfast
Brown, G. Herbert, j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay, Co. Down
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Fulton, G. F., Howard Street, do.
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace, do.
Hanna, J. A., j.p.. Marietta, Knock, do.
Hazelton, W. D., Cliftonville, do.
Higginbotham, Granby, Wellington Park, do.
Hutton, A. W., Chichester Street, do.
Lynn, William H., Crumlin Terrace, do.
M'Laughlin, W. H., Macedon, do.
Parr, William, St. Mark's, Ballysillan, do.,
Redfern, Prof. Peter, m.d., f.r.c.s.i.. Lower Crescent, do.
Scott, Conway, C.E., Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
Swiney, J. H. H., b.a., b.e., Bella Vista, Antrim Road, do.
Thompson, John, j.p.. Mount Collyer, do.
eprt and ^ra^cciliujgjj
BE LF.A-ST
Natural Historf and Philosophical Society
SESSionsr isos-isoe.
BELFAST:
PRINTED BY MAYNE & BOYD, 2 CORPORATION STKEET.
(PKINTERS TO QUBEN's CoLLEGK.)
1906.
CONTENTS.
Belfast Civic Undertakings — Arthur H. Muir, C.A.
On Prehistoric Man in Southern France — W. P. De \'ismes Kane
M.A., D.L., M.R.I.A. ...
Ulster Sayings and Folk-lore— Professor Byers, M.A. , M.D.
With the British Association in Africa^John Brown, F.R.S.
Magic in the Greek and Roman World — R. M. Henry, M.A.
Report of the Work of the Marine Laboratory, Larue Harbour — Professor
Gregg Wilson, D.Sc, M.R.LA.
The Teleautograph \ ^ ^ ^^^^^. ^j_j j, ^^ g^ A.M.LE.E
Frahm s Indicator )
Annual Report
Balance Sheet
Donations to Museum ..
Additions to Library
List of Office-Bearers ...
List of Shareholders
PAGE
I
14
17
19
33
36
38
39
46
47
48
57
58
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.
EST-A.BLISHEJID leSl.
CONSTITUTION.
The membership of the Society consists of Shareholders in the Museum,
Annual Subscribers (Associates), Honorary Members and Honorary Associates.
Shares in the Museum cost £"] each. A holder of one Share pays an
annual contribution of ten shillings ; a holder of two Shares (in one certificate)
an annual contribution of five shillings ; while a holder of three or more Shares
(in one certificate) is exempt from annual payments. Shares on which the
annual payment as above are in arrear are liable to forfeiture. The Council
retain the right to decline to consolidate two or more share certificates into one
certificate.
Annual Subscribers (Associates) pay £,\ is (one guinea) due ist November
in each year in advance.
A General Meeting of Shareholders in the Museum is held annually in
May or June, or as soon thereafter as convenient, to receive the Report of the
Council and the Statement of Accounts for the preceding year, to elect
members of Council to replace those retiring by rotation or from other reasons,
and to transact any other business incidental to an annual meeting. Share-
holders only are eligible for election on the Council.
The Council elect, from among their own number, a President and other
officers of the Society.
Each Member has the right of personal attendance at the ordinary lectures
of the Society, and has the privilege of introducing two friends for admission
to such ; and he has also the right of access to the Museum and Library for
himself and family residing under his roof, with the privilege of granting
admission orders for inspecting the collections in the Museum to any person not
residing in Belfast or within five miles thereof. The session for lectures
extends from November till May.
The Museum, College Square North, is open daily for the admission of
visitors, for such hours as the Council may from time to time decide ; the
charge for admission to non-members is sixpence each. The Curator is in
constant attendance, and will take charge of any donation kindly presented to
the Museum or Librrry.
Any further informatiou required may be obtained from the Honorary
Secretary.
B BELFAST
NATURAL HISTORY
AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
SESSION 1905-6.
Jth November, igo^.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
in the chair.
BELFAST CIVIC UNDERTAKINGS.
By Arthur H. Muir, C.A.
{Abstract).
As the population of any town grows, the interdependence of
its inhabitants increases. The mere fact of a large number of
persons living within a comparatively small area necessitates a
great number of activities not previously required, e.g. Scheme
of Drainage and Sewage Disposal, Public Health Precautions,
Street Lighting, Policing, Public Parks, &c., and renders possible
a number of other activities mutually beneficial, but impossible
without a centre of population, e.g. Tramways, Public Baths, Gas
Manufacture, Electric Light and Power Manufacture, Markets,
Free Libraries, and Cheap Concerts for the people.
Under the title of "Belfast Civic Undertakings" are included
all undertakings for the good of the Community which are con-
trolled by Local Authorities. These consist of the undertakings of
1. Belfast City Corporation.
2. Belfast Harbour Commissioners.
3. Belfast City and District Water Commissioners.
4. Belfast Poor Law Guardians.
2 Mr. Arthur H. Muir on
I. Belfast City Corporation. — For the purposes of Muni-
cipal Government the City is divided into fifteen wards, which are
of various sizes, and in which the number of voters ranges from
2,400 in Smithfield Ward to 5,713 in Pottinger Ward. Each
Ward is represented on the City Council by three Councillors and
one Alderman, thus making a Council of sixty.
Most of the great English Cities have an Official so far unknown
in Belfast, viz: an Elective Auditor. It will be said that the Cor-
poration Accounts are audited by the Local Government Board
Auditor, but practically he confines himself to the question as to
whether the payments are properly authorised and are legally made.
The functions of the Elective Auditor are different. He acts for
the ratepayers. He is more particularly concerned with the
question of whether the payments are wisely made, and whether
the various departments are being worked on an economical and
businesslike basis. He reports to the ratepayers on the under-
takings of the Corporation from a business point of view, and
brings the light of his business experience to the gloomy shades of
overstaffed offices, and expensively managed public departments.
He also draws up reports on the financial aspects of the aspirations
of committees anxious to develop fresh schemes at the expense of
the ratepayers, and endeavours to keep the citizens posted up in
the true facts of the various matters in hand. The ofifice should
be created in Belfast.
The Lecturer then gave descriptions of the following Undertak-
ings: -Public Llealth, Upkeep of Monuments, Roads and Bridges,
Maintenance of Order, Public Baths, Lodging House, Public
Parks, Cemeteries, Free Libraries, Municipal Technical Listitute,
Fire Brigade, City Surveyor's Department — -Planning of Streets,
Supervision of Drainage and Sewage Disposal, Passing of Plans
for New Buildings; Ulster Hall, Scavenging, Markets and Abattoir,
Gasworks, Electric Light Station, Tramways.
Referring to the Planning of new streets, the cities of the
United Kingdom lack a power which is very necessary, namely)
the power of planning out the lines on which the City shall develop,
Belfast Civic Undertakings 3
and of compelling all property owners both inside and immediately
outside the city boundary to comply with the plan of development.
Straight wide streets and roads are laid down on the plan where
they do not at present exist. Certain areas are reserved for
dwelling-houses, and certain other areas for factories and work-
shops. The result is a healthy development along the lines of a
scheme laid down by the Municipality, under the advice of the
most skilled advisers. No landowner, in order to make the most
of his little patch, may run awkward streets across his property
contrary to the general scheme, nor may he put up a different class
of property from that laid down. No fabulous sums are required
to be paid for street improvements, or for the pulling down of
buildings put up in awkward places. Sooner or later such powers
must be obtained.
2. Belfast Harbour Commissioners. — In 1785 an Act was
passed appointing a separate Corporation to look after the interests
of the Port of Belfast. For the previous forty years the control
had been exercised by the equivalent of the modern Town
Council. The Commissioners are twenty-one in number, and are
elected for a period of three years.
3. Belfast City and District Waier Commissioners. —
Water is an absolute essential for cities, and for large centres an
abundant supply must be procured if the city is to grow either in
population or commercial importance. The necessity for an
ample water supply has, therefore, caused many cities to spend
enormous sums on colossal schemes. In fact the greater the
city, as a rule, the more costly the water supply.
The Water Commissioners number fifteen, one from each Ward,
and are elected for a period of three years. They were incor
porated in 1840, when they took over the water supply as it then
existed from the Belfast Charitable Society.
The Lecturer referred to the Water Supply in 1840. Woodburn
Reservoirs, seven in number, storing 15 15 miUion gallons, and
capable of giving 8 million gallons per day. Stoneyford Reser-
voirs, two in number, storing 820 million gallons, and capable of
4 Mr. Arthur H. Muir on
giving 4 million gallons per day. Filtration beds, Oldpark and
Antrim Road Works, Pumping Station, Ligoniel Storage Tank.
Mourne Scheme, when completed, consisting of two reservoirs,
capable of storing 3750 million gallons, and of giving 30 million
gallons per day through a conduit 35 miles long.
4. Belfast Poor-Law Guardians. — This Board is one elected
from the fifteen Wards of the City, together with nine other
adjoining districts, making twenty-four divisions in all, each re-
presented by two Guardians. In addition to these forty-eight
Guardians six are co-opted.
A very common impression is that the inhabitants of the Work-
house consist of a large number of men who won't work, and
who are kept in comparative comfort and ease at the expense of
the community. As a matter of fact out of the 3,489 inmates on
the night of 3rd November, 1905, only loi were of this class.
The balance was made up of 1,437 infirm old men and women,
1,544 people sick in the Hospital Wards, 275 children, and 132
mothers. The small percentage of healthy out-of-works, who
find themselves there, do not get an easy time of it, and usually
do far more work inside the ^^'orkhouse for nothing, than they do
outside for pay. There is, unfortunately, a marked and steady
increase in the number of old men, who have been working con-
stantly all their lives until a short time previous to admission. It
is thought that the Workmen's Compensation and Employers'
Liability Acts have been a factor in this.
A marked feature of all cities during the past 25 years has been
the enormous increase in Local Indebtedness. Belfast forms no
exception, and Diagram No. 1 gives some idea of the increase during
the last 15 years. Along the foot of the Diagram is measured a
number of equal spaces, each representing one year, while up the
side each space represents one quarter of a million pounds sterling.
By placing a point in each year opposite the amount of debt in
that year, a series of points result which, when joined by a line,
give the best representation of the increase or decrease of debt
over a series of years. It will be noticed that the debt of the
Belfast Civic Undertakings.
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Belfast Civic Undertakings. 7
Poor- Law Guardians fell considerably between the years 1898 and
1900, owing to the Public Health Department being taken over
by the Corporation, but that it has risen since owing to the
Whiteabbey Sanatorium being acquired.
The Water Debt shows a very rapid rise up to 1901 owing to
the Mourne Scheme, but since then it has not been going up so
much, as that scheme is not going on to completion immediately.
The Harbour Debt has gone up steadily, but not rapidly. The
Debt of the Corporation has gone up both steadily and rapidly on
the whole, and will show a great leap upwards when the Tramway
Debt of ;!^i, 000,000 is included. And as the Corporation takes
over other undertakings that debt will probably go on increasing
as in other cities. With reference to the contention that the
assets of the various bodies are of far greater value than the exist-
ing debts, it should be pointed out that these assets are not liquid,
and that most of the debts have to be repaid in a limited number
of years. In some cases this is provided for out of the revenues
of these assets, but in other cases it must come out of the rates.
Each step in Diagram No. 2 represents _^"i, 000,000, and the line
shows the total of the Debts, which were set out singly on
the first chart. The responsibilities of the community have
therefore increased from ^2,473,114, in 1890, to ;^5, 116,658 in
1904. The lower of the lines shows the increase in valuation of
the city during the same period. The somewhat rapid rise of the
valuation about the year 1898 is explained by the extended area
of the city.
Diagram No. 3 shows the increase in the population of Belfast.
The black columns represent the census years, while the light
columns are interpolated from 1890 onwards to give a complete
series from that year. The sudden rise from 1897 to 1898 is
explained by the extending of the city boundary.
It is not fair to take the figures representing the increasing
debt of a rapidly increasing city, without also taking into account
the increased population. Diagram No. 4 shows the debt per
head of population for the period from 1900, and is obtained
Mr. Arthur H. Muir on
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by dividing the population in each year into the total debt as
given on second diagram. The drop in 1898 is caused by
the debt having been divided by the population for that year,
which was increased by the inhabitants of the added area.
Diagram No. 5 gives a view of the progress of taxation during
the past 15 years.
In any rapidly growing city the number of immigrants coming
to take advantage of the positions offered must fill the municipality
with many who take little or no interest in its public affairs.
They are in it but not of it, and are content to leave all such
matters in other hands. Now the tendency of such apathy is to
permit public bodies to be run by interested cliques for purposes
other than the good of the community. If, under such condi-
tions, the personnel of the governing bodies depreciates, and
administration is not so efficient as it should be, the citizens of
course have themselves to blame.
A difficulty is always present which helps to make many voters
apathetic as regards civic affairs, namely : — that they pay no direct
taxes. It is true of course that in the long run, and on the
average, the taxes levied on the properties in which they live come
out of their pockets, but this is not apparent to many of them-
The result is that frequently they demand expenditure on projects
in the hope of an immediate benefit for which, however, they
themselves have ultimately to pay in increased taxation.
Another instance of this tendency is the cry that because one
Ward has something another Ward must get it also ; because one
Ward has Public Baths another Ward must have it ; because one
Ward has a Branch Library another must be provided in another
Ward. Such a policy would build up a most serious burden on
the ratepayers.
To load up our local authorities with a multiplicity of duties
further increases the time which is required of the city's repre-
sentatives. It makes it more and more of a tax upon those men
who undertake those duties, and it tends to prevent the men who
are most competent for the position from accepting office. The
tendency is towards a decreasing efficiency in the representatives.
Belfast Civic Under taki^igs.
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12 Mr. Arthur H. Mnir on
The development of municipal trading also brings into existence
a number of employees paid directly by the municipalities, with
the temptation to use their vote on personal rather than on public
grounds.
For many years the Belfast Conservative Association has been
the most potent factor in our Municipal affairs, and the citizens
are deeply indebted to this organisation for its efforts in putting
forward good men, and returning so many in the face of the
apathy of the great bulk of the citizens. It suffers, however, from
the drawback common to all associations representing party politics,
namely, that it cannot secure public confidence outside its own
party, and this would be equally true if it were a Liberal
Association.
But after all, political or religious opinions are largely irrelevant
to efficiency in civic matters, and the danger of making party
politics a motive for municipal elections is that every now and
again men are bound to be put forward for the mere purpose of
opposing the opposite party, without reference to their fitness for
civic administration.
It should be the aim of the ratepayers to return the best men,
be they Conservative, Liberal Unionist, or Radical, Protestant or
Catholic.
The rise in the population of Belfast is not now as rapid as it
was, and we have a more settled community. Such a condition is
more conducive to the development of a high ideal of citizenship.
We require to rouse the body of the people from their apathy re-
garding the duties and responsibilities of citizenship. An interest
in civic affairs must be aroused, and a spirit of civic patriotism
created. Our men of means and leisure must recognise that there
is a duty which they owe lo the community, and that they are
called upon to lay their powers on the altar of the common good.
It is no use criticising the City Council and howling anathemas
at the members of our public Boards. It is ourselves as citizens
who are at fault if anything is really wrong. All is in our own
Belfast Civic Undertakings. 13
hands. These beneficent agencies and public services are ours to
make or to mar.
The object which must be set before us is a great one, and
requires the assistance of every citizen. It is to make Belfast an
ideal city. Knowledge of its activities must be disseminated.
Love for its prosperity must be created. A sense of civic patriot-
ism must be brought into being. Our aim should be to raise the
tone of our local bodies to such a level that they shall be models
to the other cities of the Kingdom. Then every citizen will be
able, thinking of his part in the life spreading around the magnifi-
cent pile of his City Hall, to say with pride, and justifiable pride,
" I am a citizen of no mean city."
Alderman King Kerr, in moving a vote of thanks to the
Lecturer, said all present would go away with more information
than they possessed before they entered the room, and also with a
deeper sense of pride in their city. He thought the public, so far
from criticising the corporators and other municipal governors,
ought to criticise themselves. If they were not satisfied with the
government of the city the fault was their own, for the people had
the remedy in their own hands.
Mr. John Finnegan seconded the vote of thanks, which was
passed by acclamation.
The Chairman, in conveying it to Mr. Muir, said Mr. Muir
had treated his subject with great tact, and the Society would like
to have some more papers on the same lines as those taken by
the lecturer.
Mr. Muir suitably replied, and paid a tribute of praise to Mr.
Hogg, who had taken the views which had added so much to the
success of the lecture.
14
^th December IQO^.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.,
President, in the Chair.
ON PREHISTORIC MAN IN SOUTHERN FRANCE
By W. p. De Vismes Kane, M.A., D.L., M.R.I.A
(Abstract. )
The lecturer first described the great Umestone plateaux of
Aquitaine, which are broken up by great canons into separate
units called Les Causses. He then showed a series of lantern
slides representing the wonderful cliff scenery of the canon of the
river Tarn, down which he voyaged for 30 miles. The Causse of
Gramat was then referred to, which is very similar in its appear-
ance to the limestone plains of Galway or Clare, and likewise full
of subterranean rivers and streams, but running at vast depths
below the surface, and excavating caverns of enormous size and
extent, the roofs of which in many cases have fallen in, and so
have opened great chasms and gulfs in the flat levels, many of
which have been explored by Monsr. Martel. Views of several
of these abysses were given, some of them photographed by
magnesium light. The barrenness of the plateaux of the higher
levels abutting on the Cevennes was traced largely to the destitute
condition of the peasantry, in consequence of the equal division
among the children of the property of the father at his death, and
the cutting of all timber to pay the debts, so that the whole country
now lies bare to the sun in summer, and to the rain in winter,
which washes away gradually the fertile soil into the fissures.
The chalk plateaux were then described, which are the lowest in
elevation, and most westerly, and the lecturer proceeded to
Prehistoric Mati in Soutk<rn France. 15
describe the caverns and rock shelters of the Department of
Dordogne, chiefly dealing with those about the village of Les
Eyzies. Here he described the rock shelters of Cro-Magnon, in
which three human skeletons were exhumed from among the
debris of a "kitchen midden," composed of the relics of reindeer,
bison, and mammoth, which had formed the food of the men who
lived at that period. Another human skeleton was also referred
to, which lay in a similar heap of debris, in the position in which
he was killed by the falling down of the cornice of rock overhead.
FHnt weapons and flakes found by the lecturer in the refuse heap
in which his remains were discovered were exhibited, and were
referred to the close of the mid quaternary, or more properly the
beginning of the upper quaternary period. Other skeletons such
as that found in similar conditions at Raymondeu were mentioned
belonging to the same age, namely, the late quaternary. All these
were shown to have in common a very high type of dolicocephalic
cranium, and the method of interment and the personal ornaments
to be similar. The eleven human skeletons found in the Mentone
caves in the extreme south-east France were then alluded to,
where also a red ochreous earth was used to cover the bodies,
while the flint weapons found in their hands and the correspond-
ing style of ornaments proved the age to be late quaternary. The
skulls corresponded in shape with those of Cro-Magnon, and
showed a high index, and the stature of the men of that period
proved to be on an average above 6 feet. This race of men, the
lecturer said, were the earliest racial type which could be certainly
ascertained to belong to any particular prehistoric period ; for the
Engis skull, though found in a layer of debris in which mammoth
remains existed, was also accompanied by a fragment of pottery,
which left the question of age open. Similarly he was unable to
accept the evidence as to age of the Neanderthal skull, which is'
usually referred to the mid quaternary epoch. Illustrations of
the chief types of weapons and implements of flint and bone were
then shown, and various fragments of deer's antlers, with carvings
of extinct animals, were thrown on the screen, among which
1 6 Mr. Kane on Prehistoric Man in Southern France.
cleverly executed outlines of elephants, mammoth, rein- and other
deer, saiga antelope, bison and horses were shown. And lastly a
description was given of cleverly executed outlines incised on the
rough interior walls of caves at Les Eyzies, far away from the
entrance, many of which were crusted over with a film of stalag-
mite, proving that they were not executed in modern times. This
race of men contemporary with the age of the reindeer and
mammoth in southern France were shown to be of a high type
both as regards the capacity and contour of their skulls, intelli-
gence in ornament, and manufacture of implements from flint and
ivory, so that one must look to the Tertiary period, long before
the epochs of Southern European glaciation, for relics of any
ancestors of the human race that approached the Simian type ;
though single specimens of debased shape were found both
anciently as at Neanderthal, and in historical times as in the
Peruvian tombs, and even in quite modern races.
On the motion of Mr. Garrett Naglk, seconded by Mr.
Knabenshue, Mr. Kane was heartly thanked for his interesting
and valuable paper.
It?
4th Jatiuary, igo6.
Sir James Henderson, A.M., D.L., Vice-President, in the chair
ULSTER SAYINGS AND FOLK-LORE.
By Professor Byers, M.A., M.D.
{Abstract).
In this lecture, which was a continuation of a contribution
brought before the Society — "Sayings, Proverbs, and Humour of
Ulster" — on December ist, 1903, and since published, Professor
Byers discussed first various sayings and folk-lore used in reference
to the weather and the seasons. That the Ulsterman can, when
provoked, be severe, ironical, and sarcastic, was fully established
by a variety of expressions; various phrases employed by him in
bargaining were given ; and, finally, examples were brought forward
to show that even in Ulster, where the native Celtic element has
been much displaced by the English and Scotch settlements, that
topsy-turvy method of expression known as a "bull" is just as pre-
valent as in any other part of Ireland, and that, curiously, it is
sometimes met with among those, otherwise learned and cultivated,
as well as amongst the uneducated. The Lecture appeared in a
series of articles in the Northern Whig, and will, with additions,
be published.
Mr. William Crawford, in moving a vote of thanks to Pro-
fessor Byers, said his lecture was as interesting and full of amuse-
ment and charm as the lecture he gave on the same subject on a
previous occasion, and he hoped he would find time to give them
a third edition.
Mr. Adam Speers, in seconding the motion, said the lecture
was by far the best he had ever listened to on that subject
—a subject to which he had himself been giving a good deal of
1 8 Professor Byers on Ulster Sayings and Folk- Lore.
attention for the past thirty or forty years. The lecture Professor
Byers had given that night, added to what he had said before on
that subject, would make a very interesting treatise, and he hoped
such a book would be produced by the lecturer soon. Perhaps
the best work done in the way of collecting a vocabulary of Ulster
words and phrases had been done by a gentleman whom he saw
present that night — he referred to Mr. W. H. Patterson — in the
treatise he had produced for the English Dialect Society.
The resolution was passed by acclamation, and was appropriately
conveyed by the Chairman.
Professor Byers, in responding, said he might perhaps on some
future occasion take up the subject of "The Ulster Child: His
Games and Amusements," which, he thought, would be an in-
teresting topic to the members of the Society.
19
gth Fclnuary, igo6.
Professor SviMington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Prksident,
in the chair.
WITH THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION IN AFRICA,
By John Brown, F.R.S.
(Abstraci).
To attempt to give in one evening anything more than a few salient
impressions of a trip of 20,000 miles over land and sea would be
impracticable. Quite the strongest impression remaining is that
of the extraordinary cordiality and hospitality of our colonial
cousins. Too much cannot be said for the careful forethought and
organising power shown by the local stewards in their arrangements
for entertaining a party of 376.
The members went out chiefly in two ships of the Union-Castle
line, the Saxon and the Durham Castle. After the delightful
voyage with its tropical seas, fishes, and birds, we had to awaken
from the pleasant dreamy days on the ocean to land at Capetown.
The members of the official party were hospitably entertained by
the chief residents ; the Hon. C. Dempers, a member of the Upper
House of the Cape Parliament being "mine host."
Capetown is of course a quite old, settled, and flourishing city,
set in most picturesque surroundings, within easy reach by driving,
walking, or electric trams. The views from the summit of Table
Mountain are very fine. A reception at the Royal Observatory
was also interesting. The place was established by Royal charter
in 1820. The site is not ideal, but it was the only available English
possession at that time in the Southern Hemisphere. The gardens
and botanical museums are most interesting, and the new City
Hall a very fine building ; in fact, all over South Africa one is
struck by the size and excellence of the public halls available.
20 Mr. Johii Brown —
The opening half of the President's address was deHvered here
and sections met for three days.
On Saturday, 19th August, we sailed for Durban, a bright and
busy, well-kept town, with a fine harbour, well filled with shipping.
The streets are good, and there are electric trams, fare 3d. There
are also rickshaws, drawn by natives ; very fine men in fantastic
dresses, very active, graceful, and full of antics. We were told
they did not last long at this arduous work, partly on account of
the damper climate near the sea. There is a sugar industry also a
good locomotive works. Much of the retail trading appeared to
be done by Hindus.
There is a beautiful suburb (the Berea). The vegetation in
Natal is luxuriant, and the soil appears fertile. Tea, tobacco,
sugar and maize are cultivated. Most delicious pine apples are
sold at 2d. and 3d. each; they grow in drills like turnips.
Our next stay was Pietermaritzburg, another bright and pleasant
town, near which, among the hills at Henly, a Kaffir dance was held
in our honour by command of the Governor of the Colony, Sir
H. M'Callum. The natives assembled to the number of i.ooo or
more in war dresses of skins and beads, and with shields and poles,
representing assegais. They saluted the Governor and suite, the
salute being first a general hiss and then a crouching or " hunkering"
down, and then rising to full height with a terrifying yell or howl.
The dance was most strange. It was accompanied by a weird and
monotonous chant, and the prevailing step was a stamping in
unison with earth shaking power. The historians of the tribe
marched back and forth, across the front, reciting the victories
over their enemies. Occasionally a bevy of women would move
across in crouching or fantastic attitudes. Some of them waving
rolls of paper, which we imagined niight be important documents,
but whicli turned out to be bright coloured advertisements of
somebody's patent pills.
After the dance came the marriage of a chief of the Inadi
tribe to a lady who was to be his chief wife and mother of his
principal heir. I'he ceremony began by dances of the bride's father.
JVith tJie British Associatioji iii Africa. 2 1
the bridesmaids, and marriageable girls. The amount of obole or
consideration given for the bride was then arranged. The bride
was asked if she were willing, presents were exchanged, and the
ceremony concluded with a dance, during which the bride had to
run away and be recaptured. After the dancing, etc., a number of
oxen were killed, cut up, roasted, and eaten with great gusto.
At Colenso which is merely a station and a few shops, a hotel
and a Hindu temple, we visited the battlefield, a plain, with low
hills to westward on the banks of the Tugela, on which the Boers
were entrenched or sheltered in schances. There are still shrapnel
bullets and pieces of shell scattered here. The bravery of our
troops and the incompetence of their leader was here fully
recognised. The more we heard of the story of Colenso and
Spion Kop the more miserable and foolish it appeared. There
were monuments commemorating the bravery of officers and men,
notably one where Lieutenant Roberts fell when trying to recover
the guns.
All along the railway to Ladysmith are soldiers' graves,
sometimes two or three, sometimes scores, marked with crosses, and
protected with white palings. Those graves are kept in order by
the Loyal Women's League of South Africa.
Ladysmith is said to be unhealthy since the war, owing to the
germs of enteric fever left in the water, and is chiefly interesting
on account of the mementoes of the siege. The tower of the
Town Hall is preserved as it was left by a shell. The forts on
the river bank still remain.
Speaking of the war leads to questions of policy, and it might be
expected that one should have formed accurate impressions of the
political views of the colonists. South Africa, as you probably
know, has always shared with Ireland the role of scapegoat for
the party Government of England. In South Africa the disastrous
effects of the vacillation caused by this silliest of plans of ruling
an empire became prominent. Distance is said to lend enchant-
ment to the view — not, however, of the view by a colony of party
government at headquarters. Chiefly on account of this uncertainty
2 2 Mr. John Broivn —
bred of party changes of policy the Home Government met with
much condemnation, and the colonists were driven to wish for
self-government, which they hoped could at least make up its
mind to pursue one continuous policy. It was even said that
many who were on the English side in the war would now be on
the other, and it was maintained that the present Government
was more extravagant, costly, and full of red tape than even that
of the Boers was. The farmers and Boers seemed to think a
local Government would give them protective taxes, put heavier
taxes on the diamond mines, and they thought the Katifirs should
be forced to work by some means. Some said by a heavier hut
tax, others by making them wear more clothes, which they would
have to earn money to buy ; others again by more forcible
measures. I gathered from those with whom I happened to speak
that Lord Milner was not approved of, was considered to have
been weak, extravagant in appointments, and inclined to favouritism.
By others some of these faults were attributed to the home
Government. Cecil Rhodes was the one man in the colony of
whom one always heard approval.
Johannesburg is a red city ; the soil is red, the streets, the roofs,
even the trees are red from the red sand carried by the dust-storms,
to which it is subject. It has an unfinished, scattered look, very
poor roads, and an air of hurry and excitement like all mining
places. Ten of us were most hospitably entertained at Hohenheim,
the residence of Sir Percy Fitzpatrick.
In Johannesburg the remainder of the President's address was
delivered, and a very good lecture by Professor Ayrton on electric
transmission of power. Speaking of A^ictoria Falls, he informed
them that in the dry season the amount of horse power available
was only one-tenth of that of Niagara, and he did not seem to
think extremely favourably of the chances of utilising its power at
Johannesburg, some 800 miles distant. He concluded, " Jealously
guard the beauty of your Falls. Niagara was glorious nature,
to-day it is power ; Victoria is poetry." In a paper published
since the meeting, Mr. W. B. Essen disagrees with Professor
IVith the British Association in Africa. 23
Ayrton's view and estimates the cost of transmitting the power as
reasonable.
In the various sections some important papers on vSouth African
subjects were read — one by Mr. G. W. Lamplugh on the Victoria
Falls and others on mining and engineering. These papers
connected with South Africa were to be published in one volume
by subscription in Johannesburg. I made a communication on a
new form of Daniell's battery suitable for laboratory use.
The chief interest in Johannesburg is centred in the gold mines
on the Rand. The gold occurs in the finely-divided metallic form
in widely-extended reefs. What strikes one is the enormous outlay
in plant and machinery, and the extent of the mines. The ore on
being brought to the surface is machine broken, and then crushed
by stamps, worked on the principle of our beetling engines, to fine
powder, from which the gold is extracted first by amalgamation
and then by cyanide of potassium solution, which extracts the
finer particles. The drilling and work in the mines is done by
Kaffirs.
The Kaffirs employed on the mines earn about 50s. per month,
and are fed on mealie (maize) porridge, with occasionally meat,
and they drink Kaffir beer, which is of the colour and consistency
of thin gruel, tasting rather sour. They are well housed, sleeping
side by side on shelves with feet towards a fire in the centre of
the room. The rooms look about 20ft. high, and the boys look
comfortable enough. These sleeping houses surround the yard
of the compound. There is a hospital in the small compound
adjoining, very clean and airy. The Kaffirs are engaged by
recruiting agents sent out to their kraals, aud the chiefs appeared
to have a say in the matter, as I was informed they had on some
occasions objected to send boys to compounds which were not as
sanitary as others.
The general opinion among employers of Kaffirs, both in the
mines and farms, and in domestic service, is that it was best to
engage the raw native fresh from the kraal. He is more to be
trusted than the schooled and christianised native who has lost
24 Mr. John Brotvn —
the sanctions of his old beHefs, and has probably received a surface
smattering of religion and morals which he does not quite
assimilate, and he has learnt other things which he would be as
well without. Rev. Mr. Flint, librarian of the Cape Parliament,
however, was the only person I met holding the opposite view.
He contended that the gaol statistics showed this. But then we
must remember that every crime or misdemeanour, especially
among the servant class, is not brought to justice or to gaol.
Many of the natives, especially the young, are very graceful and
easy in movement and gestures. They are said to be good
orators. There was rumoured talk of a Kaffir rising, but a very
intelligent and sensible owner ot a fruit farm near Stellenbosch
told me he thought it was merely circulated as an excuse for
attacking the natives.
No Chinese are employed at the mines nearest the city, but at
my suggestion an opportunity was arranged for a party of us to
visit a mine employing Chinese. On the general question of
Chinese labour, I gathered it was somewhat disappointing to the
managers. Kaffirs, when obtainable, were preferred. I was
informed the Chinese are hard to control, and very tricky. They
began by carefully cutting half a foot off the end of the measuring
rods for measuring the depths of the holes drilled, and fixing up
the ends again with true Chinese artfulness, so that they were paid
for six inches more ])er hole for some weeks before it was
found out. They could not be induced to take care of their tools,
and were otherwise disorderly at work. On the other hand, they
learned quicker than Kaffirs, and earned rather more — 2S. per day
on a three year's contract. They appoint their own police in the
compound.
Their food is a hotch-potch of meat and vegetables, very
savoury, and cleanly cooked by Chinese cooks. Occasionally they
had rice. The meals are served in a large, airy dining-hall. Their
sleeping-rooms are even larger than the Kaffirs' and of the same
style. They seem to be well cared for, if for no higher reason
than that they cost so much, including their passage over, that it
paid to keep them in good order. There is also a hospital.
Wifh the British Associatioti in Africa. 25
On the whole, I gathered that the mine managers preferred
Kaffirs, but the Chinese importation has brought the Kaffirs to a
more reasonable frame of mind, and they are more easily dealt
with, both by the mine-owners and farmers in the country. If the
Chinese were sent home it is reasonable to suppose the Kaffirs
would hold out again for higher pay from both managers and
farmers. It has been said that if high pay were offered it would
produce a larger supply of Kaffir labour. Probably it would
ultimately do just the reverse. The Kaffirs are naturally easily
contented and disinclined to work, so the Kaffir " boy " merely
works long enough to earn sufficient to pay his hut tax and to
purchase a couple of oxen, which he can exchange for a wife, who,
according to the custom of his country, will do all the hard work
at home. High pay would enable him to cease working sooner,
a result seen after the high wages paid him during the war. Yet
the native Commissioners reported that all over South Africa
270,000 more labourers were still needed.
There is absolutely no question of competition between Kaffirs
or Chinese and white men. Both on account of the comparatively
small wages the mining, farming, and other South African industries
can afford, and the hard work in a hot climate, the white man
prefers to be the overseer, the clerk, the responsible " boss." As
a matter of fact, according to Sir George Farrar, the importation
of Chinese gave employment to 4,000 white men.
As to the cry that the Chinese were in slavery, I must confess
I do not understand it. It is scarcely polite to the Emperor of
China to assume he would permit it. Mr. Douglas Blackburn,
ex-assistant editor of the " Johannesburg Daily Express," writing
to the " Times " recently, stated that, while at first there was
injustice by incompetent compound managers, the Chamber of
Mines took steps to remedy the evil, and now the treatment of
Chinese was luxurious, compared with that meted out to the Kaffirs
under the old regime, but Mr. Blackburn could not induce the
Liberal English papers to ventilate Kaffir grievances. A\'hy this
touching sympathy for the Chinese in their comparative luxury ?
2 6 Mr. John Brown —
Just at the time of our visit a few Chinese had got away from the
compounds, and had committed crimes, even murders, but strong
measures were being taken to round up these miscreants and
prevent further misdeeds. I saw a gang of these being brought
in, and no doubt such things would in future be prevented. A
large party of us visited Pretoria and the Premier Diamond Mines,
and saw Kruger's house and the Government Buildings, which
were very fine.
Bloemfontein has a rural air, and seems a prosperous and
growing town. There was a fair going on, and the Boers bringing
in their produce struck me as rather like our own Northern Irish
farmers. I was hospitably entertained here by Mr. W. S. Johnston,
formerly principal of Larne Grammar School.
From Bloemfontein the line runs through miles and miles of
lonely veldt with here and there a herd of cattle or flock of
ostriches, apparently trying to eat stones and sunburned grass. At
the end of the dry season the country gave an unfairly bad
impression.
At Kimberly I was received by Mr. John Orr and his lady with
true Irish hospitality. The diamond mines here again struck one
as very costly undertakings. The diamonds occur in the famous
" blue ground " contained in the immense " pipe " or outlet of an
extinct volcano. When brought to the surface it is first spread on
the ground to be " weathered," then washed from mud and waste,
concentrated, and finally put through a most ingenious apparatus,
where it is carried by streams of water over plates covered with
grease, to which the diamonds stuck, while the waste was carried
on by the water. Kaffirs were employed in these mines, strictly
guarded, and thoroughly searched on leaving. We were told,
however, that one ingenious person evaded the searchers by
concealing diamonds behind his glass eye. Sir William Crookes
gave a most interesting lecture on diamonds here. Kenilworth,
a kind of garden city arranged by Rhodes for the white employes,
was very interesting, with the adjoining experimental fruit gardens
and zoological park.
With the British Association in Africa. 27
From Kimberly the line runs north through a wilderness of
sparse dried grass, with scattered small trees and occasional
ant hills, some containing 40 to 50 tons of stuff. There seemed to
be no humus or vegetable mould. We assumed that all vegetable
remains were washed away as soon as formed in the wet season.
I venture with much diffidence to express an opinion on the
question of agriculture in South Africa, which is a difficult one.
Most of the country is very dry when it is dry and very wet when
it is wet ; also subject to disastrous hailstorms, and occasionally to
continued droughts, and the locust and other insect plagues are
also to be reckoned with. Animals suffer from various diseases,
but it was said that in mixed farming out of all the various crops
and stock a portion would survive out of which sufficient profit
might be made, especially as the population increased and markets
improved. The soil varies in quality a good deal, and land of
course could be had at a low price, from a free grant upwards.
With their large tracts of ground and native labour, the Boers
made it pay. The dearth of Kaffir labour owing to the high wages
of the war time made it more difficult now, and the Boers, it was
said, complained that their products were cut out by imported
goods and the cold storage companies. Others thought they were
only making a poor mouth in view of getting compensation after
the war. Fruit-farming and vine-growing appeared to succeed in
parts suitable to these. I was advised that no intending settler
should go out without a billet arranged for.
The climate on the high veldt is considered healthy by those
who did not mind heat. All over South Africa dust is a great
enemy. A doctor told me that they had to eat sand and worse
than sand and the alimentary canal suffered. The great agricultural
want is water, and it has been said that only by irrigation could
South Africa ever hope to become a prosperous agricultural,
country. The difficulty is to obtain water. Attempts to obtain
it by artesian boring have not been encouraging, and the rivers have
a comparatively small supply in the dry season, when the water
is most needed. By means of dams the flow of the wet season
28 Mr. John Brown —
might be saved, but the size of such dams necessarily would limit
their application when we consider that besides the water used
a depth of four to seven feet is wasted by evaporation in the hot
season. It is estimated that it takes a square mile of catchment
area to provide water for one acre in the drier districts. A large
dam in Rhodesia, begun by Mr. Rhodes, has been too recently
finished to obtain results as yet. Irrigation works are also being
carried out in Natal. Considering the enormous increase in the
value of land produced by irrigation, it seems likely that when the
country has settled down after the disturbance caused by the war
more works of this kind would be undertaken in suitable districts
either by private enterprise or Government funds.
Buluwayo is a place of magnificent distances — acres of streets,
or where streets might be, with here and there a building, some
pretentious, others mean. Among the finer are the offices of
the mining companies.
I gathered that Rhodesia has not yet been at all thoroughly
prospected. Except the newly-started Banket reef, of which
much was expected, the gold hitherto discovered is not paying
to large mines, but small reefs are found which would pay a
small capital outlay. I gathered also that the former management
of the Chartered Company was much open to criticism.
The Buluwayo Museum was opened by our President. It
already contained many interesting geological, ethnological, and
antiquarian specimens. A lecture was delivered in Buluwayo by
Mr. M'lver on Rhodesian ruins, his view being that they were of
much later date than formerly supposed, a view meantime not
shared by some other antiquarians.
An excursion to the Matopo Mountains, where Cecil Rhodes
is buried, was very enjoyable. The rock is granite, and the
formation said to be due to water denudation. I imagine ice had
something to do with it, but this is a moot point. The view from
Rhodes' grave is charming. I should not go so far as to call it
" the world's view." North of Buluwayo the country is of the
same arid type of wilderness. The line being recently made, big
Wii/i the British Associatioti in Africa. 29
game are still sometimes seen in its neighbourhood. Two
hunters who came after lions were attacked in their sleeping car
standing on a railway siding one night, and only one hunter
remained in the morning. Elephants had been seen by the train
staff. A scarcity of bird life was noticed everywhere on the trip.
The Victoria Falls, on the Zambesia, which is here a mile wide,
fall into the upper end of a zig-zag gorge, which, in the opinion of
geologists, has been gradually formed by the action of the river.
In the way of waterfalls I have not yet seen anything so grand
and yet so delicately beautiful. The quantity of water at Niagara
is more impressive. It is to be remembered our visit was at the
end of the dry season. We arrived before daylight on September
1 2th, and I saw the falls at sunrise. The water falls into the gorge
(380 feet deep and a mile long) in various streams and cataracts,
and when the sun got a little higher a beautiful rainbow appeared
below me in the spray which issued out of the gorge in flying
clouds borne by the wind from the falling water.
A roar of many waters — mist, spray, foam —
A mighty gorge;
Deep in the black abyss a rainbow shone,
Bright steadfast spirit of hope in this chaotic fall.
We saw the falls by moonlight, also very beautiful with mystery.
In the afternoon we were taken in boats manned by natives in
their scant costumes to Livingstone's Island in the middle of the
falls, where the great traveller had made a garden. A tree was
pointed out on Avhich he had carved his name.
Walking on the river bank some distance above the falls, where
the river was studded with islands and shoals I heard a great splash
and saw a large animal (no doubt a hippopotamus) raise its head,
and then disappear. I bathed in the Zambesi twice, and it was
delightful to feel and see water after the dreadfully arid country we
had come through.
The Victoria Bridge, the highest in the world and carrying the
railway towards distant Cairo, was opened by the President. It
was here that occurred perhaps the most glaring instance of
30 Mr. John Brown —
separation of the party into cliques by a most injudicious manage-
ment of the Association authorities, which had been all along a
great blot on the otherwise harmonious character of the trip. Only
a select few were permitted to view the ceremony. The majority
of the members were brought to the bridge and there held back
out of sight by a military cordon. Among many other such
instances might be given the high-handed attempt at Capetown to
evict the less distinguished members from their berths on the
Durham Castle to make room for the so-called official party ; also
the attempt to evade promises of free passes to certain members of
the party. Both of these latter attempts met with an undignified
but well-deserved collapvse. The berths were retained and the
promises kept. This matter is mentioned to show that, while it
is desirable to induce distinguished people to join these far-away
meetings, it is the reverse to emphasise their separation into
cliques. The business capacity and organising power of the B.A.
officials was also sadly lacking, especially when compared with that
of the local officials.
The party now returned to Buluwayo, and divided, some going
home via Capetown and the rest of us via Beira and the East
Coast in the Durham Castle, specially chartered for the trip,
though most of us were greatly afraid of the hot Red sea or red-hot
sea, as it was sometimes called. We called at Salisbury, and
enjoyed a well-arranged luncheon, and we also spent a few hours
at Umtali.
I endeavoured to ascertain from various people in those places
what were the agricultural conditions in Rhodesia, and gathered
that so far there were difficulties in transport and want of markets
and in disease of stock, though one man was hopeful, and said a
settler could recoup his outlay in a year or two. The unhealthiness
of the country, the dust and dryness, and the tendency to a craving
for drink were mentioned.
As we journeyed eastward into Portuguese territory the
vegetation improved till near the coast it became green once more.
At Beira the Portuguese gave us a most hospitable reception, after
Ulfk the British Associatioji iti Africa. 31
which we were glad to embark, and sail northwards the same
afternoon, calling at Mozambique and at Mombasa, a very pictur-
esque island and town among tropical foliage. The old fort had a
varied history and is now a prison. The soil appeared more
fertile on the Uganda Protectorate, at least where they were, near
the coast, as it usually is near the sea.
I have almost finished but as we now leave the more southern
portion of Africa, I may show just one slide illustrating very
generally the physiology of that portion of the Continent. We all
know this familiar and frequent flat topped hill, a common object
in South African landscape. The theory of the geologists is that
the original surface of the Country was formed by a layer of hard
dolerite or igneous rock such as seen on the top of this hill. De-
nudation by torrential rains gradually washed away the softer parts
leaving only more resisting portions forming the table tops of these
kopjes. This denudation reduced the level of the surface of the
land to the present veldt, which although to appearance seems to be
an irregular plain is really made up of a number of very shallow
valleys, making up what the geologists call a peni-plain that is
almost a plain. Each of these valleys drains into a larger valley
and so ultimately into one of the permanent rivers, l^own these
rivers the soil or sand or stuff forming the difference in height from
the original level has been swept during ages into the sea.
It will be clear that such a peni-plain must have originally
terminated on or near the sea level but at present the veldt is
several thousand feet above the sea and it is therefore thought
that after the peni-plain was formed either the whole continent
rose or the sea sank. The former seems to be more probable.
Denudation is now again going on along the coast line and very
beautiful examples of the formation of these branching valleys
with their watercourses on the hill side may be seen from the
railway line running up through Natal.
An unexpected delay gave us leisure to see Cairo and a bit of
Egypt. I seemed to see in these two protectorates how well the
Englishman could organise a country when he was more free from
32 Mr. John Brotvn — With the British Association in Africa.
the interference at every step by the home Government and its
parties and red tape.
We got cool in the Mediterranean, and saw StromboH firing out
his incandescent ashes and lava. We passed Gibraltar after night-
fall, flashing its slow-sweeping searchlights like two eyes of the old
lion guarding the narrow seas, and arrived at Southampton on the
24th October, much pleased with our delightful trip.
Professor Symington expressed thanks to Mr. Brown for his
admirable lecture, and the lecturer appropriately replied.
33
6th March, igoo.
Professor Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
in the chair.
MAGIC IN THE GREEK AND ROMAN WORLD
By R. M. Henry, M.A.
(Abstract. )
The history of primitive Magic has of late years assumed an
increased importance in view of its bearing upon the question of
the origin of religion, many authorities holding that all primitive
religions are based in the last resort upon Magic. By Magic is
understood the savage principle of thought that like produces like
and the practices (such as rain making, healing diseases by
homoeopathic ceremonies and the like) to which it gave rise.
There are many survivals of this primitive stage of thought to be
found in the practices described by such writers as Lucian and the
Elder Pliny. Many of these ceremonies were accompanied by
spells which at a primitive period were merely statements that the
desired effect had been or would be produced. With a growth of
a belief in gods spells tended to become prayers, though the old
form still survived side by side with the later. In the spells of the
Magical Papyri of Paris, Berlin, Leyden, and London several
varieties can be discriminated. The long lines of unintelligible
formulae contain many words of Egyptian, Babylonian, and Hebrew
origin, pointing to borrowing with more or less intelligence from
the magical practices of these nations. The rows of letters of the
alphabet are the relics of a superstitious veneration for alphabetical
signs, which must have arisen with the invention of writing : the
employment of the alphabet as a spell to ward off evil demons is
found alike in the ruins of Pompeii and in the Catacombs. A
third class of spells in the Papyri are prayers to Apollo or Hekate.
34 Mr. R. M. Henry on
Astrological theories and the belief in malignant spirits had
peopled both heaven and earth in the popular estimation with
hostile powers of evil and many magical ceremonies were invented
and propagated to protect mankind from their resentment and
hostility. This was one of the beliefs taken over by the Church
from its heathen neighbou'-s. The possibility of demoniac
possession was universally admitted and it was held to be possible
.for a magician to send a spirit to inhabit the body of one over
whom the magician wished to gain power. The destruction of
one's enemies was a common object of magical procedure. The
leaden defixiones, found in hundreds throughout the countries
comprised in the Roman Empire, which were inscribed with the
name of the person to be cursed and deposited in a grave, are proof
of the universality of such practices. They were used by trades-
men in the hope of injuring their rivals, by litigants against their
opponents, wives against faithless husbands and vice-versa. A large
number were drawn up by charioteers with a view to secure the
victory over their opponents in the races in the great amphitheatres
of Rome and Carthage. The death of an enemy was also supposed
to follow the manufacture of a leaden image representing him which
was, with appropiate ceremonies, hidden in a grave or flung into the
sea. Some of these leaden images are still extant. Similar
ceremonies with waxen images could secure the affection of a
beloved person : such ceremonies are described by Theocritus,
Vergil, and Lucian. To this love magic, in itself harmless, was
added the belief in demons, and the horrible practice arose of
attempting to secure affection by causing the object of one's desires
to be possessed by a demon which brought its victim under
complete control. Many curious stories of such practices are
recorded and not the least curious are those in which monks and
priests undertake to exorcise the demon, never questioning the
reality of his presence in the victim.
Often the arts of the magician were directed towards the
attainment of useful ends, such as the healing of sickness or the
banishing of serpents ; often they were employed for purely
Magic in the Greek a fid Roman Jl'orid. 35
frivolous or spectacular purposes, such as walking on the water or
flying through the air. St. Peter is credited with having on one
occasion banished the demons who were supporting a follower of
Simon Magus in the air, with the result that the unfortunate man
was dashed to pieces. Many modern customs and ceremonies, of
which more edifying explanations are current, are really survivals
of the use of magic and of the belief in demons ; and the study
of such superstitions is not without both an historical and an
ethical value.
At the conclusion of the lecture Professor Lindsay, Mr. J-
Brown, and other members complimented Mr. Henry upon the
excellence of his paper.
36
REPORT ON THE WORK OF THE MARINE
LABORATORY, LARNE HARBOUR.
By. Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc, M.R.I. A.
(Abstract.)
Dr. Gregg Wilson's paper dealt with the work of the Marine
Laboratory, Larne Harbour, and he began by referring to the
equipment of the Association. He stated that the launch was in
better condition for work than ever before owing to the kindness
of Mr. Jack, of Larne Harbour, who had provided a number of
new parts. The laboratory had been maintained in good working
order, and the new naturalist (Mr. WoUaston) had carried on the
routine work of the Association most efificiently. Research work
had been steadily gone on with, old investigations having been
continued, and new started. Work at the herring had been
pursued, and now the observations were specially directed to
determine the distinctions between different varieties and age
distinctions. Drift work had also been continued by Mr. C. M.
Cunningham, with increasingly interesting results. Apparatus for
securing information as to the movements of bottom waters had
been devised, and examination of all the records showed more and
more clearly that there was a definite set of currents in certain
directions. Systematic work at the various groups of organisms
continued, and some of the results were now in print.
Mr. Pearson, the former naturalist of the Association, had had the
first part of his account of the Copepoda of Ireland published,
and the second part was now in the printer's hands. Mr. Adams's
paper on " The Algas of Antrim " had also been completed, and
and was ready for issue to the members. Mr. G. C. Gough had
finished an account of the " Foraminifera of Larne District,"
which was also in the printer's hands, while Mr. Joseph Wright was
engaged on what might well be his tnagnuin opus, an account of
the Foraminifera of Ireland. Mr. WoUaston, the naturalist of the
Report on the Work of the Alarine Laboratory^ Lame LLarbonr. 37
Association, had successfully devoted himself to the Tunicata, a
group greatly neglected, but of much interest. Other members of
the Association had added to their lists of Crustacea, sponges,
Annelida, &c. New work of various kinds was next referred to.
Mussels had been dealt with by Dr. Carnwath, who studied those
found in Belfast Lough, and watched the changes in their bacterial
contents when removed to Larne. He found a rapid decline in
bacteria that indicated sewage contamination. His results had
been embodied in a paper that would soon be published. Dr.
John Milroy had undertaken a laborious investigation of the
glycogen present in oysters of different beds at different times of
the year. The object was to help in determining the time when
Irish oysters were in best condition. The Association had also
decided to make experiments in oyster-fattening on the lines of
work successfully carried out by the fisheries branch of the
Department of Agriculture elsewhere in Ireland. It was proposed
to lay down a number of small oysters in " caisses " to study their
growth, and ascertain if, as is probable, successful rearing could
be carried on in Larne Lough. The oysters experimented with
would be examined periodically by a chemist and a bacteriologist,
so that the fullest information might be available as to their
condition. Mr. W. H. Gallway had undertaken another important
addition to the economic work of the x-lssociation. He would
label a large number of fish and return them to the sea, so that if
they were recaptured something might be known of their migrations.
In Scotland and elsewhere such work had yielded valuable
information as to the definite and periodic movements. Another
new departure has been made by Mr. G. C. Gough, who was
engaged studying the bottom deposits from various parts of the
Irish coast. Samples taken by the dredge were sent by the
Department of Agriculture for examination, and Mr Gough was
thus enabled to engage in work that was alike of value to the
biologist and of interest to the geologist. The Association's
great object of ambition was a good laboratory, with an aquarium
attached. The value of the ac^uarium for educational purposes
38 Report 0)1 the Work of the Marine Laboratory, Lame LLarboiir.
would be very great, and it was thought that it would be taken
advantage of for teachers' classes, and similar purposes, as was the
case with such institutions in England and Scotland.
The lecture was illustrated by lantern illustrations, which added
additional interest to it.
A vote of thanks, moved by Mr. Garrett Nagle, R.M., and
seconded by Mr. John Horner, was passed to Professor Gregg
Wilson.
2'/th April, igoS-
Sir Otto Jaffe. J. P., in the chair.
Two Papers were read by
W. C. Martin, M.I.E. & S., A.M.I.E.E.
THE TELEAUTOGRAPH
For the Electrical transmission of Facsimile Writings and Drawings.
FRAHM'S INDICATOR
For indicating speed of Machinery, or the frequency of alternating
Electric Currents.
ANNUAL Rl'l'URT, 1905-6.
The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on 14th
September, 1906, in the Museum, College Square North.
In the absence of the President (Professor Johnson Symington),
the chair was occupied by the President of the Queen's College
(Rev. Dr. Hamilton), and amongst those present were Rev. J.
Lamont Orr, M.A. ; Professor Morton, M.A. ; Dr. W. Calwell;
Dr. J. M. MacCormac, and Messrs. Robert Young, J.P. ; R. M.
Young, B.A., J.P. (Hon. Secretary); Seaton F. Milligan, J.P. ;
George Kidd, J.P. ; John Brown, F.R.S, ; John Carson; R. A.
Kyle ; Joseph Wright, F.G.S. ; John M. Finnegan, B.Sc, B.A. ;
John Smith, C.E. ; Robert Patterson, M.R LA. ; Nevin H. Foster;
H. C. Montgomery; ^V. Faren ; William Gray, M.R. LA. ; Isaac
W. Ward ; John Horner ; A. H. Muir, C.A. ; and A. H. Milligan.
The notice convening the meeting having been read.
The Hon. Secretary submitted the Annual Report, which was
as follows : —
The Winter Session was opened in the Museum on the 7th
November, 1905, when an illustrated lecture was given by Mr.
Arthur H. Muir, C.A., subject " Belfast Civic Undertakings."
The Second Meeting was held on the 5th December, when an
illustrated lecture was kindly delivered by Mr. W. F. de Vismes
Kane, M.A., D.L., subject '• Prehistoric Man in Southern France."
The Third Meeting was held on the 5th January, 1906, when
Professor J. W. Byers, M.A., M.D., lectured on "Ulster Sayings
and Folk-lore." Sir James Henderson, M.A., D.L (Vice-President),
presided.
The Fourth Meeting was held on the 9th February, in Grosvenor
Hall, when Mr. John Brown, F.R.S. , delivered a popular scientific
lecture, subject " With the British Association in Africa."
40 Annual Meeting.
The Fifth Meeting was held on the 6th March, when the
following papers were read : — (i) " Magic in the Greek and Roman
World," by Mr. R. M. Henry, M.A. ; (2) " Report on the Work
of the Marine Laboratory, Lame Harbour," with lantern illustrations
by Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc, M.R.LA.
The concluding meeting took place on the 27th April, when an
illustrated lecture was kindly delivered by Mr. W. C. Martin,
Electrical Engineer, Glasgow, subject " The Teleautograph, and
Frahm's Indicator."
There was a large attendance of the members and of the general
public at these meetings. The different societies holding their
meetings in the Museum show no diminution. As usual, the
Museum was thrown open to the public on Easter Monday and
Tuesday at a nominal charge, but the attendance was not so large
as usual, mainly owing to weather. No damage was done to any
of the collections.
Some valuable donations have enriched the Museum during the
year. Foremost amongst these is the Battersby Collection of
British Insects, presented by Mrs. Battersby, Cromlyn, Rathowen,
Westmeath. Some are of considerable rarity, and the collection is
enhanced by the fact that many of the specimens were captured in
Ireland. This series of insects is kept as a separate collection and
is well displayed in five small cabinets, with thirty-five drawers, and
is always available for inspection by those interested in entomology.
There has also been received on loan from Mr. Osborne Grimshaw,
Portrush, a most interesting coUecticMi of specimens of Zulu bead-
work, consisting of headdresses, necklaces, beads, etc. It illustrates
one aspect of the habits of this African race in the primitive state
when unaffected by contact with European civilisation.
Since the last annual meeting the Society has to deplore the loss
of two of its oldest and most respected members. Mr. John
Anderson, J. P., was a member of Council and Treasurer for many
years. Sir Robert Lloyd Patterson, D.L., F.L.S., had been
associated closely with the Society for very many years, at first as
Joint-Secretary and twice as President for terms of two years each
Annual Meeting. 41
in 1 88 1 and 1894. He frequently contributed papers on various
subjects of zoology, especially ornithology, and was always ready
to aid the Society by every means in his power. Your Council
have co-opted Sir Otto Jaffe to fill his place on the Council and as
Vice-President. The resignation of Mr. W. H. F. Patterson from
the Council was received with much regret, and Mr. Nevin H.
P'oster was co-opted in his stead. A large number of valuable
publications issued by the various learned societies who exchange
their transactions with ours, have been received and are available
to every member.
In accordance with the constitution of the Society, five members
of Council retire from office, all of whom are eligible for re-election —
Messrs. Nevin H. Foster; Professor Johnson Symington, F.R.S. ;
Robert M. Young, J. P. ; President Hamilton, D.D., LL.D. ; and
Sir Otto Jaffe, J. P.
Mr. John Horner referred to the statement of accounts, which
showed that there was a balance of ^26 8s. 5d. due the Treasurer.
That, he said was to some extent due to the small number of
admissions at Easter and to the falling off in some of their
subscriptions, but he believed that before the present year's
working was completed they would have the debit completely
wiped out and the balance on the right side.
The Chairman, in moving the adoption of the Annual Report
and Statement of Accounts, said it seemed to him of increasing
importance in Belfast that they should have a Society such as that
to form a meeting-place for men and women who are interested in
various branches of science, and to preserve collections illustrative
of those branches. He trusted that no matter what changes may
come, in the direction either of consolidating the museums of
Belfast, or in any other direction, the time would never arrive when
that old Society, which had for so many years occupied such an,
honourable place in the city, and which he took leave to say had
done such admirable work, would cease to exist. None of
them, he was sure, would be averse from seeing the valuable
collections which were housed underneath that roof made more
42 Annual Meeting.
generally available for public use under proper conditions. He
was not certain if their Society had the power to dispose of those
collections. That would be a matter which would have to be
inquired into. The subject did not at present come before them,
but he simply repeated that for his part he would deeply regret the
coming of the time when the Society either ceased to exist or
ceased to perform the various important functions which for so
long a period it had discharged so well. The Rep(jrt showed that
during the past session the work of the Society was carried on with
its usual vigour and he thought he might say its usual success. He
had the pleasure of being present at some of the meetings at which
there were discussed subjects of all kinds in connection with various
branches of science so as to cater for the different aptitudes and
likings of the inhabitants of the city — a very proper and important
arrangement and he knew of the success which attended them. In
his opinion a good deal of the success of last year's working was
due to the labour of their excellent President. Professor Symington
was one of the busiest men in Belfast, but in his case they had an
illustration of the well known fact that if they wanted anything
done they had better go to a busy man to get it accomplished.
He had given himself to the work of that Society with extreme
ardour and much success. An ardent votary of science himself, it
was his pleasure to see not only the particular branch with which
his name was associated, but all branches furthered and advanced in
the city. There was only one feature in the Annual Report which
caused them all the deepest regret. He referred to the announce-
ment of the deaths of two of their oldest members — Mr. John
Anderson and Sir Robert Lloyd Patterson. Both of them had
been long connected with that institution, and both of them took
a deep interest in its affairs. He had not the pleasure of being
intimately acquainted with Mr. Anderson, though he knew well
how greatly indebted various literary and scientific organizations in
Belfast were to him. But it was his privilege for many years to be
on intimate terms of friendship with the late Sir Robert Lloyd
Patterson, and on personal grounds as well as for the sake of the
Annual Meetitii;'. 43
Society, he deeply regretted the fact that they would see his face
no more. Everyone who knew him as a friend not only valued
but loved him, and every Belfastman also knew and rejoiced that
the old and honoured name of Robert Patterson gained increased
honour in his person. It was not necessary for him to tell them
that Sir Robert was one of their foremost ornithologists, or how-
well he carried on the old traditions which were associated so long
with the name of AN'illiam Thompson, and which had shed such
lustre not merely on their Society, but on the whole North of
Ireland. He trusted that the loss of such eminent members might
stir up others to come forward and take their place in maintaining
the interests of a body with which were so intimately bound up the
interests of science in their city.
Mr. John Smith seconded the adoption of the Report, which
was agreed to unanimously.
Mr. William Gray moved the re-election of the retiring members
of Council — President Hamilton, Sir Otto Jaffe, Professor
Symington, Mr. Nevin H. Foster, and Mr. R. M. Young. He
(Mr. Gray) believed that the question of the amalgamation of the
museums must come before the public in a very short time, and
in his opinion the time had arrived when it would be judicious for
the public to take steps in that direction with a view to the Society's
collections becoming part and parcel of the municipal museum.
Overtures, however, in connection with such an arrangement ought
to come from the public, not from the Society.
Mr. A. H. Muir seconded the motion, which was passed.
On the motion of Dr. Calwell, seconded by Mr. H. C.
Montgomery, a cordial vote of thanks was passed to President
Hamilton for presiding.
Mr. George Kidd said he hoped it would not be permitted to
go out from that meeting that the Shareholders would be likely to
adopt a resolution transferring the Society's collection to the
Corporatif)n. He had seen in the " Northern ^^"hig " that morning
a letter from a Shareholder, who put forward as one of the chief
reasons for taking such a step the great price which the Shareholders
44 Annual Meeti7ig.
would obtain for their shares. It would be a poor testimonial to
the Society as it existed at present and a poor tribute to the
memories of the men who had built it up in the past to think for
a moment of scattering their collection for such a reason as this.
How any person could think that the collection of the Society
would be better in the hands of the Corporation was more than he
could understand. From a pretty long recollection of the Cor-
poration he must say he thought the Museum would be better in
its present location. The Corporation ought to establish, and
doubtless would establish, a municipal museum, but he did not
think it at all likely that the contents ot the Society's Museum
would ever be allowed by the Shareholders to be handed over to
it. The Society was well able to keep its collection, and to talk of
maintaining the Society and handing over its collection was a
dangerous suggestion, the carrying out of which would weaken, if
not extinguish altogether the Society. He took the liberty of
suggesting that the Shareholders present should be allowed to give
expression to their views on the subject.
The Chairman said he had not liked to interrupt Mr. Kidd in
his remarks, but the business for which they had been summoned
had been concluded, and it would not be in order now to launch
out into a discussion such as was proposed. The Society might
depend upon it that the Council would take no step in the matter
without calling the members together, and giving them the most
ample opportunity of considering the subject in all its bearings.
Mr. Muir said the letter referred to by Mr. Kidd suggested that
the Shareholders were anxious to make a profit for themselves out
of the collection. He wished to protest against this suggestion.
Nothing was further from their thoughts than to seek their own
personal advantage in this matter.
In reply to Mr. Kyle, Mr. Horner said there were i6o Share-
holders and about 20 Subscribers in the Society.
The matter then dropped, and the Meeting terminated.
The Officers of the Society for the year were elected by the
Council after the Annual Meeting:— President, Sir Otto Jaffe, J.P.;
Annual Meeting. 4^
Vice-Presidents, Sir James Henderson, D.L., Rev. President
Hamilton, Robert Patterson, M.R.I.A., VV. Swanston, F.G.S. ;
Hon. Treasurer, John Horner, J.P. ; Hon. Librarian, John H.
Davies ; Hon. Secretary,^R. M. Young, B.A., J.P.
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47
DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM, ist MAY, 1905, TILL
I St MAY, 1906.
From Mr. AV. Campbell.
Seven old newspapers — The Belfast Neivs-Letter — dates 181 2-
13-14-15-
From Mr. Robert Welch, M.R.I.A.
Five specimens of Trochus zizyphifius, from Portaferry, Strangford
Lough, and three specimens of Achatina ca'cilloides^ from
Co. Kilkenny.
From Mr. Joseph AVright, F.G.S.
Specmien of Primary Limestone, covered with cup-shaped hollows
on the surface, from Sessiagh Lough, North Donegal.
Frotn Mr. Graham Renshaw, Manchester.
Seventeen photo engravings of natural history objects.
Fro7n Mrs. Battersby, Cromlyn, Rathowen, Westmeath.
Five cabinets of British insects.
From Mr. J- P- Barrett, Margate, Kent.
Seventy specimens of Lepidoptera.
From Mr. Seaton F. Milligan, M.R.I.A., J.P.
A specimen of the sea-mouse (Aphrodita aculeata), from Bangor.
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, ist MAY, 1905, till
1ST MAY, 1906.
From
Adelaide. — Memoirs of the Royal Society of South Austrah'a.
Vol. r, part 3, and Transactions. Vol. 29, 1905.
The Society.
Albany. — Fifty sixth Annual Re[)ort of the New York State
Museum. Vols. 2 — 4, 1904.
University of the State of Neiv York.
Ann Arbor. — Fifth Report of the Michigan Academy of Science,
1904, and Seventh Report, 1905.
The Academy.
Basel. — Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Basel. Vol. 18, part i, 1905, and part 2, 1906.
The Society.
Bergen. — Bergens Museums Aarbog, parts i — 3, 1905, and part
2, 1906. The Director.
Bologna. — -Rendiconto della R. Accademia delle Scienze dell'
Istituto di Bologna. Vols. 5 — 8, 1901 — 1904.
21ie Institute.
Boston. — Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History.
Vol. 5, No. 10, 1903, No. II, 1904, and Vol. 6,
No. I, 1906. Proceedings. Vol. 31, Nos. 2 — 5,
1903, Nos. 6 — 10, 1904, aud Vol. 32, Nos. i and
2, 1904 ; also Occasional Pa[)ers, Vol. 7, Nos.
I — 3, 1904. The Society.
Bremen. — Abhandlungen Herausgegeben vom Naturwissen-
schaftlichen Verein Zu Bremen. Vol. 18, part
I, 1905. The Society.
49
Bresi.au. — Zeitschiift fiir Entomologie voni \'erein fur Sclessichc
Tnsektenkunde. New series, part 30, 1905.
The Society.
Brighton. — Abstracts and Annual Report of Brighton and Hove
Natural History and Phllosophieal Society,
1905. The Society.
Brisbane. — Annals of Queensland Museum, No. 6, 1905.
The Director.
Brooklyn. — Science Bulletin of f5rooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences. Vol. i, Nos. 5 — 7, 1905, and Cold
Springs Harbour Monographs, Nos. 3 — 5, 1905.
The Institute.
Brussels. — Bulletin de la Societe Royale de Botanique de
Belgique. Vol. 41, part i, 1905, and vol. 42,
parts I and 2, 1905. The Society.
„ Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgique.
Vol. 49, 1905. The Society.
„ Annales de la Societe Royal Zoologique et Malaco-
logique de Belgique. Vol, 39, 1905,
The Society.
Buenos Ayres. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.
Ser. 3, vol. 3, 1904, and vols. 4 and 5, 1904- — 5.
The Director
Calcutta. — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India
(Palaeontologia Indica). New ser., vol.2, Memoir
2, 1905, and Records, vol. 22, parts 2 — 4, 1905,
and vol. 23, part i, 1906. The Director.
Cambridge. — Proceedings of Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Vol. 13, parts 2 and 3, 1905, and part 4, 1906.
The Society.
Cambridge, Mass. — Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology. Vol. 46, parts 4 — 10, 1905, and parts
II — 13, 1906; vol. 47, 1905; vol. 48, part ;>
1905, and part 2, 1906; vol. 49, parts i — 3'
1906 ; also Report of Curator for 1905.
The Keeper of the Museuf?i.
50
Cardiff. — Transactions of Cardiff Naturalists' Society. Vol, 27,
1904, and vol. 28, 1905. The Society.
Cassel. — Abhandlungen des Vereins fiir Naturkunde zu Cassel,
1905. The Soeiety.
Chicago. — Bulletin of Chicago Academy of Sciences. Nos. 3
and 5, 1902; also Special Publications, No. i,
1902. Tlie Academy.
Christianfa. — Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet iChristiania,
for year 1904.
The Royal Norske Frederiks University.
Cincinnati. — Bulletin of the Lloyd Library, No. 7, 1903, and
8, 1905, and Mycological Notes, 1904.
Colorado Springs. — Colorado College Studies. Six numbers,
1904 — 6. Colorado College Scientific Society.
Costa Rica. — Anales del Institute Fisico-Geographico Nacional
de Costa Rica. Vol 9, 1896.
TJie Institute.
iJANTZic. — Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig
Vol. II, part 3, 1905. The Society.
Davenport, Iowa. — Proceedings of Davenport Academy of
Sciences. Vol. 9, 1 904. The Academy.
Dresden. —Jahresbericht der Gesellschaft fiir Natur und Heil-
kunde in Dresden, 1905. The Society.
Dublin.— Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Societ)'.
Ser. 2, vol. 8, parts 6-12, 1904; parts 13 — 16,
1905 ; and vol. 9, part i, 1905 ; and part 2, 1906.
Scientific Proceedings, New Series, vol. 10, part
2, 1904, and part 3, 1905. Vol. 11, parts i- 5,
1905, and Nos. 6 and 7, 1906. Also Economical
Proceedings. Vol. i, parts 5-7, 1904 — 6.
The Society.
Edinburgh. -Tian.sactions and Proceedings of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 23, part i, 1905.
The Society.
51
Edinburgh — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Vol. 24, 1902-3, and vol. 25, part.s i and 2,
1904-5, The Society.
„ Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society. Vol.
16, No. 3, 1905, and Nos. 4 and 5, 1906.
The Society.
Emi)f:n — Jahresbericht der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Emden, 1905. The Society.
Gkno.'V. — Rivista Liguere di Scienze, Letture, ed Arti Anno 27,
fasc. 2 — 6, 1905, and anno 28, fasc. i, 1906.
Societa Letture e Conversazione Scientifiche .
GiESSEN. — Bericht der Oberhessichen Gesellschaft fiir Natur und
Heilkunde, 1905. 2 he Society.
Glasgow. — Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of
Glasgow. V(;l. 36, 1905. The Society.
Halifax. — Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science. Vol. 11, part i, 1905. ^
The Institute.
Hamburg. — Verhandlungen des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins
in Hamburg, 1905. The Society.
Iglo. — Jahrbuch des Ungarischen Karpathen Vereines, 32nd year,
1905. The Society.
Indl\nopolis. — Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences,
1903 and 1905. 77/1? Academy.
Kharkow. — Transactions of the Society for Physico Chimiques
of Karkow University. Vol. 32, 1904.
The Society.
KiEVV. — Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of Kieff. Vol. 20,
part I, 1905. The Society. ,
La Plata. — Demografia. Ano 1900 — 1902.
The Director General of Statistics.
Lausanne.— Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences
Naturelles. Vol. 41, Nos. 152 — 154, 1905.
The Society.
52
Lawrence. — Science Bulletin of Kansas University. Vol. 2,
Nos.io — 15, 1904. The University.
Leeds. — Eighty-fourth and Eighty-fifth Annual Reports of Leeds
Philosophical and Literary Society, 1904-5.
The Society.
Leipsic. — Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Leipzig,
1904. The Society.
„ Sitzungsberichte der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft
zu Leipzig, 1903-4. 7 he Society.
Lima. — Boletin del Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru.
Nos. 25 — 28, and Maps, 1905. The Director.
London. — British Association, Report of the 74th Meeting -
Cambridge, 1904. The Association.
„ Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol.
57, parts I and 2, 1905, and Appendix to vol. 55,
1904. The Society.
„ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London.
Vol. 61, parts 2 — 4, 1905, and vol. 62, part i,
1906. Also Geological Literature added to the
Library in 1905, and List of Fellows, 1905
The Society,
„ Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, Nos.
166 — 169, 1905, and Nos. 170 and 171, 1906.
The Society.
„ Transactions of the Zoological Society of London.
Vol. 17, parts 4 and 5, 1905, and Proceedings of
1904, vol. 2, part 2. Proceedings of 1905, vol.»
I, parts I and 2, and vol. 2, parts i and 2.
The Society.
Madison. — Transactions of Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts,
and Letters. Vol. 14, part 2, 1904.
The Academy
,, Bullentin of A\'isc()nsin Geological and Natural
History Survey. No. 13, 1904.
The Commissioners.
53
Madras. — Report on the Madras Government Museum and
Library for 1904 — 5. The Siiperititendent
Manchester. — Journal of Manchester Geographical Society.
Vol. 20, Nos. 4 — 12, 1904, and vol. 21, Nos.
I — 6, and 10 — 12, 1905. The Society.
Manila. — Ethnological Survey Publications. Vol. 2, part i, 1904,
and vol. 4, part i, 1905. Also the Philippine
Journal of Science, vol. t, No. i, 1906, and
Hand List of the Birds of the Philippine Islands,
and Birds ot Mindora, 1906.
The Philippine Bureau of Science.
Marseilles. — Annales de la Faculte des Sciences de Marseille.
Vol. 15, fasc, I — 5, 1905. The Librarian.
Melbourne. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
Vol. 18, part I, 1905, and part 2, 1906.
The Society.
Mexico. — Anales de Meteorologia Mexicana, 1905, and Boletin
Mensual, Sept. and Oct., 1902, and May, 1904;
also Anuaria, 1905.
The Director of the Observatory.
,, Boletin del Instituto Geologico de Mexico, No. 20,
1905, and Parergones, vol. i. No. 7, 1904, and
Nos. 8 and 9, 1905. The Institute.
Milwaukee. — Bulletin of Wisconsin Natural History Society.
Vol. 3, No. 4, 1905, and Twenty-third Annual
Report of the Board of Trustees of Milwaukee
Public Museum, 1905. The Society.
Missoula. — University Bulletin, Nos. 23- 29 and 31, 1904-5.
The University.
Montevideo. — Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo.
Vol. 2, parts T and 2, 1905. The Director.
Moscow. — Memoirs of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of
Moscou. New series, vol. 16, part i, 1901, and
part 4, 1905 ; also Bulletin, No. 4, 1904.
2 he Society.
54
Nantes. — Bulletin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de
rOuest de la France Series2, vol. 5, parts i — 3,
1905. The Society.
New York. — Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.
Vol. 37, Nos. 4 — 12, 1905, and vol. 38, Nos.
I — 3, 1906. The Society.
„ Memoirs of New York Academy of Sciences. Vol.
2, part 4, 1905, and Annals. Vol. 16, parts i
and 2, 1905. The Academy.
Nottingham. — Fifty-second and Fifty-third Annual Reports and
Transactions of Nottingham Naturalists Society,
1905-6. The Society.
Oporto. — Annaes Scientificos do Academia Polytechnica do
Porto. Vol. I, No. I, 1905. The Acadeiny.
Padua. — Atti della Accademia Scientifica Veneto-Trentina
Istriana. New series, Anno 2, fasc. i and 2,
1905. The Academy.
Philadelphia. — Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia. Vol. 46, part 2, 1904, and part
3, 1905, and vol. 47, parts i and 2, 1905.
Ihe Academy.,
„ Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society, Nos. 177 and 178, 1904. and Nos. 179
and 180, 1905, and No. 181, 1906.
The Society
Pisa. — Atti della Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Vol. 14,
Nos- 6 — 10, 1905. '1 he Society.
Rochester, N.Y. — Proceedings of Rochester Academy of Science.
Vol 4, four Nos. 1904-5. The Academy.
Rome.— Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Vol. 14, semestre
I, fasc. 8-12, semestre 2, fasc. 1-12, 1905, and
vol. 15, semestre i, fasc. 1 — 4, 1906. Also
Rendiconto, 1905.
Ihe Academy.
55
«
Rome. — Journal of the British and American Archreolog'cal
Society of Rome. Vol. 3, No. 7, 1905.
1 he Society.
,, Bollettino della Societa Zoologica Italiana. Ser. 2., vol.
6, fasc. 4 — 8, 1905, and vol. 7, fasc. i — 3, 1906.
'I he Society.
San Francisco. Proceedings of California Academy of Sciences.
Ser., 3, vol. I, Nos. 7 — 13, 1904.
The Academy
Stavanger. — Aarshefte of Stavanger Museum for the year
1904. TIte Museum Trustees.
Stettin. ~ Bericht uber das Vereinsjahr, 1904 — 5.
The Society.
Stirling. — Transactions of Stirling Natural History and
Archaeological Society for 1905. 7 he Society.
Stockholm — Kungl Svenska Vetenskaps Handlingar. Vol. 39,
Nos. I — 6, 1905. Arkiv for Botanik. Vol. 4.
parts I — 4, '905. Arkiv for Kemi, Mineralogy,
och Geologi. Vol. 2, part r, 1905, and part 2,
1906. Arkiv for Mathematik, Astronomi och
Fysik. Vol. 2, parts r and 2, 1905. Arkiv for
Zoologi. Vol. 2, parts 3 and 4, 1905, and vol.
3, part I, 1906. Arsbok for 1905, and Memoirs
of Artedi ; also Les Prix Nobel en 1902 — 1904-5.
The Academy.
ToPEKA. — Transactions of Kansas Academy of Science. Vol. ig,
1905. The Academy.
Toronto — Transactions of the (Canadian Institute. Vol. 8,
part I, 1905. 'The Tnstitute.
Tokyo. — Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur und
Volkerkunde Ostasiens. Vol. 10, part 2, 1905.
7 he Society.
Upsala. — Bulletin of the Geological Institution of Upsala
University Vol. 6, Nos. 11 and 12, 1905.
The University.
56
Vienna. — VerhandlungenderKaiserlich-KoniglichenGeologischen
Reichsanstatt. Nos. 3 — 18, 1905, and No. i,
1906. The Society.
„ Verhandlungen der K.K. Zoologisch-Botanischen
Gesellschaft in Wien. Vol. 55, 1905.
The Society.
Washington. — Twenty-first Annual Report of the American
Bureau of Ethnology, 1903, and Twenty-second
Report, parts i and 2, 1904.
The Director of the Bureau.
,, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol.
■^T^, 1904, and vol. 34, part i, 1903, and part 2,
1904. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
one part of vol. 44, and 3 parts of vol. 46,
1904 — 5 : also Quarterly Issue, vol. 2, part 2,
1904, parts 3 and 4, 1905, and vol. 3, parts i
and 2, 1905 ; also Smithsonian Exploration in
Alaska, 1905. Proceedings of the United States
National Museum, vol, 28, 1905; Bulletin No.
50, 1904, and Nos, 53 — 55, 1905 ; also Useful
Plants of Guam, 1905. The Institution.
„ Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of
Washington, Nos. 23, 24, and 30, 1905.
The Society.
„ Publications of the Carnegie Institution. Three
parts, 1905. The Institution.
York. — Annual Report for 1904 of Yorkshire Philosophical
Society. The Society.
Zurich.— Vierteljahreschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Zurich, 94th year, parts 3 and 4, and 95th year,
parts 1—3, 1905. 7/^1? Society.
FrojM Robcrt^^'orkman, Esq. The Annual volumes, from 1848
till 1854, and volume for i856,of the Monographs
of the Palseontographical Society,
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Officers and Council of Management for rgod-igoy.
iPresiCieut :
SIR OTTO JAFP^E, j.p.
WiccsiPresiDents
REV. T. HAMILTON, d.d., ll.d. j ROBERT PATTERSON,
SIR JAMES HENDERSON, m.r.i.a., f.z.s., m.h.o.u.
A.M., D.L., J.P. I WILLIAM SWANSTON, f.g.s.
t)on. Q:rea6urer :
JOHN HORNER.
1f3on. Xibrariaii:
JOHN H. DAVIES.
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Council :
JOHN BROWN, F.R.s.
JOHN H. DAVIES.
NEVIN H. FOSTER.
REV. THOMAS HAMILTON, d.d., li.d., president q.c.b.
SIR JAMES HENDERSON, d.i,., j.p., .a.m.
JOHN HORNER.
SIR OTTO JAFFE, j.p.
SEATON F. MILLIGAN, m.r.i.a.
PROFESSOR W. B. MORTON, m.a.
ROBERT PATTERSON, m.r.i.a , f.z.s., m.b.o.u.
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SHAREHOLDERS.
[* Dejiotes holders of three or more Shares?^
* Alexander, Francis, b.e., Belfast
Alhvorthy, S. W., m d., Manor House, Antrim Road, do.
*Anderson, John, j.p., f.g.s., East Hillbrook, Holywood,
(Representatives of), Co. Down
Andrew, John J., l.d.s., R.c.s.Eng., University Square, Belfast
Andrews, Miss Elizabeth, College Gardens, do.
Andrews, George, j.p., Ardoyne, do.
Armstrong. Thomas, jun., Donegall Square West, do.
Armstrong, William, Chichester Gardens, do.
Baird, Wm., Royal Avenue, do.
Barbour, James, J.P., Ardville, Marino, Holywood, Co. Down
Beattie, Rev. A. Hamilon, Portglenone, Co. Antrim
Bigger, Francis J., m.r.i.a., Ardrie, Antrim Road, Belfast
Bowman, Davys, Holyrood, Malone road (Representatives of) do.
Boyd, William, Great Victoria Street, do.
*Boyd, J. St. Clair, m.d., Chatsworth, Malone Road, do.
Biaddell, Edward, Parkfield, Park Road, Ipswich
Brett, Sir Charles H., Gretton Villa South, Malone Road, Belfast
Brett, John H., c.E., Fortwilliam Park, do.
Bristow, James R., Prospect, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Bristow, John, Wellington Place, Belfast
Brown, John, f.r.s., a.m.i.e.e., Longhurst, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Brown, William K. (Representatives of), Belfast
Bulloch, Alexander, Eversleigh, Malone Road, do.
Burrowes, W. B., Ballynafeigh House, do.
Byers, Prof. John W., i\i.A., m.d., Dreenagh House, Lower
Crescent, do.
Calwell, William, m.a., m.d., College Square North, do.
Sha re holders. 5 9
* Campbell, Miss Anna (Representatives of), Belfast
Carr, A. H. R., Waring Street, do.
Carson, John, Walmer Terrace, Holywood
*Charley, Phinea H., Mornington Park, Bangor, Co. Down
*Christen, Mrs. Rodolphe, St. Imicr, Brig o' Gairn, Ballater, N.B.
Clark, George S., Dunlambert, Belfast
Clarke, E. H., Notting Hill, do.
Coates, Victor, j.p,, d.l., Rathmore, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Connor, Charles C, m.a., j.p., Queen's Elms, Belfast
Combe, George, Cranethorpe, Strandtown, do.
Crawford, Sir William, j.p.. Mount Randal do.
Crawford, ^^'illiam, Calendar Street, do.
Craig, Edwin E., Craigavon, Strandtown, do.
Uavies, John H., Lenaderg House, Banbridge, Co. Down
*Deramore, Lord, d.l. (Representatives of),
Dixon, Professor, m.a., sc.d., f.r.s., f.r.u.i., Almora,
iVIyrtlefield Park, Belfast
Dods, Robert, b.a., j.p., St. Leonard's, Newcastle, Co. Down
*l)onegall. Marquis of (Representatives of), Belfast
*Downshire, Marquis of (Representatives of),
The Castle, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Duffin, Adam, ll.d., Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast
Dunleath, Lord, Ballywalter Park
(Representatives of), Ballywalter, Co. Antrim
Ewart, G. Herbert, m.a., Firmount, Antrim Road, Belfast
Ewart, Fred. \V., m.a.., b.l., Derryvolgie, Lisburn
Ewart, Sir Wm. Quartus, Bart., m.a., j.p., d.l., Glen-
machan House, Belfast
Faren, W^m., Mountcharles, do. •
*Fenton, Francis G., Paris
Ferguson, Godfrey W., c.e., Dunedin, Antrim Road, Belfast
Finlay, Fred. W., j.p., Wolfhill House, Ligoniel, do.
Finlay, Robert H. F., CavehiU Road, do
6o Shareholders.
Finnegan, John, b.a., b.sc , Kelvin House, Botanic Avenue, Belfast
Fisher, Joseph R., Alexandra Gardens, do.
FitzGerald, Professor Maurice F., b.a., im.i.m.e., Assoc.
M.I.C.E., Eglantine Avenue, do.
Foster, Nevin Harkness, Hillsborough, Co. Down
Getty, Edmund (Representatives of), do.
Gibson, Andrew, fr.s.a.i., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Girdwood, H. M , Broughton Flax Mills, Manchester
Gordon, Malcolm, Hilden, Lisburn
Grainger, Rev. Canon, d.d., m.r.i.a.
(Representatives of), Broughshane, Co. Antrim
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.i., Glenburn Park, Cave-
hill Road, Belfast
*Hall, Frederick H., Waterford
Hamilton, Rev. Thomas, d.d., ll.d.. President, Queen's
College, Belfast
* Hamilton, Hill, j.p. (Representatives of), do.
Harland, Captain W., m.a., 69 Chester Terrace, London, S.W.
Henderson, Sir James, a.m., j.p., d.l., Oakley, Windsor
Park, Belfast
Henry, R. M., m.a., do.
Herdman, John, j.p., d.l., Carricklee House (Reps, of), Strabane
Herdman, F. S., The Drift, Antrim Road, Belfast
*Herdman, Robert Ernest, j.p., Rosavo, Cultra, Co. Down
Heyn, James A. M., Strandtown House, Belfast
Hind, John, junr., do.
Hodges, Miss do.
Hogg, John, Academy Street, do,
Horner, John, Chelsea, Antrim Road, do.
*Houston, John Blakiston, j.p., v.l., Orangefield, do.
*Hughes, Edwin, j.p., Dalchoolin, Craigavad, Co. Down
Hyndman, Hugh, ll.d. (Representatives of), Windsor, Belfast
Inglis, James, j.p., Merrion Square East, Dublin
Shareholders, 6 1
Jackson, A. T., c.e., Tighnabruaich, Derryvolgic Avenue, Belfast
Jaffe, Sir Otto, j.r., Kin Edar, Strandtown, do.
Johnston, Samuel A., j.p., Dalriada, Whiteabbey, Co Antrim
Kennedy, Mrs. Amelia, Dalguise, Monkstown, Dublin
Kertland, Edwin H., Chlorine Gardens, Belfast
Kidd, George, j.p., Greenhaven, Malone Park, do.
*Kingham, John R., Altoona, Windsor Avenue, do.
Kinnaird, George Y., do.
Kyle, Robert Alexander, Donegall Place, do.
Lanyon, Mrs., Lisbreen, Fortwilliam Park, do.
Larmor, Joseph, m.a., d.sc, ll.d., f.r.a.s., f.r.u.i.,
Sec.R.s., St. John's College, Cambridge
Leathem, R. R., m.d., b.a., Belgravia, Lisburn Road, Belfast
Lemon, Archibald Dunlop, j.p., Edgecombe, Strandtown, do.
Lepper, F. R., j.p., Elsinore, Carnalea, Co. Down
Letts, Professor E. A., ph.d., f.c.s., Shirley Lodge, Cultra, do.
Lindsay, Professor James A., m.a., m.d.. College Sq. East, Belfast
Lytle, David B., j.p., Bloomfield House (Representatives of), do.
Lytic, Joseph H., j.p., Ashleigh, Windsor Avenue, do.
Macassey, L. Livingstone, b.l., m.i.c.e., St. Clair, Windsor Av., do.
Mackenzie, John, c.e.. Lisburn Road, do.
*Macrory, A. J. (Representatives of), do.
Magill, J. E., Easton Terrace, Cliftonville, do.
Malcolm, Bowman, m.i.c.k., m.i.m.e., Ashley Park,
Antrim road, do.
Maxton, James, m.i.n.a., m.i.mar.e., Kirkliston Drive,
Bloomfield, do.
Maxwell, David A., College Gardens, do.
Mayes, William, Drumcairn, Deramore Park, do.
Milligan, A. H., Springfield Road, do.
Milligan, Seaton Forest, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.l, j.p., Bangor, Co. Down
Mitchell, Robert A., ll.b.,t.c.d., Marmont, Strandtown, Belfast
Montgomery, Henry C., Craigavad, Co. Down
62
Shareholders.
INIontgomery, H. H., Strandtown, Belfast
Montgomery, Thomas, j.p., d.l., Ballydrain
House, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Moore, James, The Finaghy, Belfast
Morton, Professor \V. B., m.a., f.r.u.i., Nottinghill, do.
Muir, A. H., c.a., Scottish Provident Buildings, do.
Mullen, William, Undisfarne, Marlborough Park, do.
Murney, Henry, m.d., j.p., Tudor House, Holywood, Co. Down
* Murphy, Isaac James (Representatives of), Armagh
*Murphy, Joseph John (Representatives of), Belfast
Musgrave, Edgar, Drumglass, Malone, do.
*Musgrave, Henry, Drumglass, Malone, do.
M'Bride, Henry James, j.p., Hyde Park, Mallusk, do.
M 'Bride, Samuel, Edgehill, Lennoxvale, do.
M'Calmont, Robert (Representatives of), London
M'Cammon, Thos. P., Plaisted, Woodville, Holywood, Co. Down
M'Cance, Miss Charlotte Georgianna, Larkfield
(Representatives of), Dunmurry, Co. Down
MacColl, Hector, Kirkliston Drive, Bloomfield, Belfast
MacCormac, John M., m.d., Victoria Place, do.
M'Cormick, Hugh M'Neile, Cultra House, Holywood, Co. Down
*M'Cracken, Francis (Representatives of),
M'Gee, James (Representatives of), Holywood, do.
MTlwaine, John H., Mornington Park, Bangor, do.
M'Kisack, H. L., m.d.. University Square, Belfast
*MacLaine, Alexander, j.p., (Queen's Elms, do.
M'Neill, George, Beech leigh, Malone road, do.
Neill, Sharman D., Martello Terrace,
Nicholson, Henry J., Bedford vSireet,
Holywood, Co. Down
Belfast
O'Rorke, Mrs., Dunratho, Craigavad, Co. Down
Orr, Hugh L., Charnwood Avenue, Belfast
Orr, Rev. R. J., Ireton Street, do.
O'Neill, Henry, m.d., j.p., r.l.. College Sc|uare East, do.
Shareholders. 63
Park, Rev. Wm., m.a., Guithowen, Sans Souci Park, Pielfast
Patterson, Edward Ferrar, Ballyholme Road, Bangor, Co. Down
Patterson, Mrs. Isabelle, Bonn, Germany
Patterson, John, Dunallan, Windsor Avenue, Belfast
Patterson, Richard, j.p., Kihnore, Holywood, Co. Down
*Patterson, Sir Robert Lloyd, j.p., d.l., f.l.s..
Croft House (Executors of), do. do.
Patterson, Robert, m.r.i.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.,
Glenbank, do. do.
Patterson, William H., m.r.i.a., Garranard, Strandtown, Belfast
Patterson, William H. F., Stalheim, Knock, do.
Pirn, Edward W., j.p., Elmwood Terrace, do.
Pim, Joshua, Slieve na-Failthe, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Praeger, R. Lloyd, b.a., b.e., m.r.i.a.. National Library, Dublin
Rea, John Henry, m.d., LTniversity Street,
(Representatives of), Belfast
Rea, William R., Abbeylands, Whiteabbey, Co. Antrim
Reade, Robert H. S., j.p., d.l., Wilmont, Dunmurry, do.
Riddell, Henry, Great Victoria Street, do.
Robertson, William, j.p., (Representatives of), Nether-
leigh, Strandtown, do.
Robinson, John, Sydenham Road, do.
Scott, R. Taylor, Richmond Villa, Derryvolgie Avenue, do.
Sheldon, Charles, m.a., d.lit., b.sc, Wellington Crescent,
Ravenhill Road, do
Shillington, Thomas Foulkes, j.p., Dromart, Antrim Road, do.
Simms, Felix Booth, Queen Street, do.
Sinclair, Right Hon. Thomas, m.a., j.p., d.l., Hopefield, do.
Sinclair, Prof. Thomas, m.d., F.R.c.s.Eng., University
Square, do. '
Smith, John, c.E , Castleton Terrace, do.
Smyth, John, m.a., c.e., Milltown, Banbridge, Co. Down
Speers, Adam, b.sc, Riverside, Holywood, do.
Steen, William C, ?vr.D., Laleham Corner, Lower North-
down Road, Margate
64 Shareholders.
Steen, William, b.l., Northern Bank, Victoria Street, Belfast
Stelfox, James, Oakleigh, Ormeau Road, do.
Swanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Symington, Prof. Johnson, m.d., f.r.s., f.r.s.e., Queen's
College, do.
*Tennent, Robert (Representatives of), Rushpark, do.
*Tennent, Robert James (Representatives of), Rushpark, do.
Torrens, T. H., j.p., Wellington Place, do.
*'rurnley, John (Representatives of), do.
Walkington, Miss Jane A. Sefton Park, Liverpool
Walkington, Thomas R. Edenvale, Strandtown, Belfast
Wallace, John, (Chlorine Gardens, Malone Road, do.
Ward, Isaac W., Camden Street, do.
Ward, John, j.p., f.s.a., Lennoxvale, Malone Road, do.
*Webb, Richard T., Kensington Villa, Knock Avenue Road, do.
Whitla, Prof. Sir William, m.d., j.p.. College Square North, do.
Wilson, Prof. Gregg, m.a., ph.d., d.sc, m.r.i.a., Queen's
College, do.
Wilson, James, m.e., Oldforge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim
Wilson, John K., j.p., Donegall Street, Belfast
*Wilson, Walter H., Belvoir Park (Representatives of), do.
*Wilson, W. Percival, do.
*Wolff, G. W., J.P., M.P., The Den, Strandtown, do.
Workman, Francis, The Moat, Strandtown, do.
Workman, John, j.p., Lismore, Windsor, do.
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., Rubane House, Glastry, Co. Down
Workman, Rev. Robert, m.a., d.d.. The Manse,
Newtownbreda, do.
*\Vorkman, Thomas, j.p. (Representatives of), Craig-
darragh, Craigavad, do.
Workman, William, Nottinghill, Belfast
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
Young, Robert, C.E., j.p., Rathvarna, do.
*Young, Robert Magill, e.a., j.p., m.r.i.a., Rathvarna, do.
Annual Subscribers.
HONORARY ASSOCIATES.
65
Gray, William, m.r.i.a., f.r.s.a.i., Glenburn Park, Belfast
Stewart, Samuel Alex., f.b.s. Edin., a.l.s., Belfast Museum, do.
Svvanston, William, f.g.s., Cliftonville Avenue, do.
Wright, Joseph, f.g.s., Alfred Street, do.
ANNUAL SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Belfast Banking Company, Ltd., Belfast
Northern Banking Company, Ltd., do.
Ulster Bank, Ltd., do.
York Street Flax Spinning Company, Ltd., do.
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Brown, G. Herbert, j.p., Tordeevra, Helen's Bay, Co. Down
Bruce, James, d.l., j.p., Thorndale House, Belfast
Carr, James, Rathowen, Windsor, do.
Fulton, G. H., Howard Street, do.
Gamble, James, Royal Terrace, do.
Hanna, J. A., j.p.. Marietta, Knock, do.
Hazelton, W. D., Cliftonville, do.
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Hutton, A. W., Chichester Street, do.
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Scott, Conway, c.e. Annaville, Windsor Avenue, do.
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