GRUNDRISS DER INDO-ARISCHEN PHILOLOGIE UNO ALTERTUMSKUNDE
(ENCYCLOPEDIA OF IN DO-ARYAN RESEARCH)
BEGRUNDET VON G. BUHLER, FORTGESETZT VON F. KIELHORN,
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON H. LUDERS UND J. WACKERNAGEL.
m. BAND, I. HEFT B.
EPIC MYTHOLOGY
BY
E. WASHBURN HOPKINS
STRASSBURG
VERLAG VON KARL J. TROBNER
1915
All rights reserved.
T3L
SLO.OZ
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDO-ARYAN RESEARCH
FOUNDED BY G. BUHLER, CONTINUED BY F. KIELHORN,
EDITED BY H. LUDERS AND J. WACKERNAGEL.
VOL. Ill, PART IB.
EPIC MYTHOLOGY
BY
E. WASHBURN HOPKINS.
I. INTRODUCTION.
§ i. Date of Epic Poetry. - - The mythology of the two epics of
India represents in general the belief of the people of Northern India
along the lower Ganges within a few centuries of the Christian era. For
the Mahabharata the time from 300 B. C. to 100 B. C. appears now to be
the most probable date, though excellent authorities extend the limits from
400 B. C. to 400 A. D. The Mahabharata as a whole is later than the
Ramayana; but R is metrically more advanced, the work of one author,
a skilled metrician, who has improved the rougher epic form of the
Mahabharata, as his work represents a life less rude than that depicted in
the great popular epic, this being the work of many hands and of different
times. Both epics have received long additions. The germ of the Maha
bharata has been referred to the Vedic period and the Ramayana has been
assigned to pre-Buddhistic times (its germ also recognised as Vedic), but
the data, in part negative, oppose the assumption that either epic poem
existed before the fourth century B. C. Discussion is futile without a careful
definition of the word "germ". That the Ramayana was the norm, according
to which the Mahabharata was built, or that the Ramayana was completed
as it is to-day (barring the first and last books) before the Mahabharata was
begun, are theses impossible to establish. The Ramayana has two flagrant
additions, books one and seven. The Mahabharata has been increased by
the late addition of the Harivams"a (perhaps 200 A. D.), and much of the
first book is late. By the fourth century this epic was recognised as a
poem of one hundred thousand verses, and it has been argued *) that this
implies the existence of the Harivams'a at that time. Such may be the case,
J) For example, by Professor Macdonell, Sanskrit Literature, p. 267. The reasons
for assuming an earlier date for both epics than that accepted above are set forth in this
chapter of Macdonell's work. In regard to the kernel of the great epic, referred to about
1000 B. C., it may be questioned whether the war between Kurus and Paficalas is the
historical germ of the epic at all. Professor Winternitz, Geschichte der Indischen
Literatur, p. 396, arguing from the fact that the Tipitaka does not know either epic,
though it shows acquaintance with the story of Rama, assumes the termini 400 B. C. to
400 A. D. for the present Mahabharata. The Ramayana, he thinks, was "made by Valmiki
probably in the fourth or third century B. C." (p. 439), before the Mahabharata had its
present form. Professor Jacobi in his excellent work, Das Ramayana, regarding the
Mbh. as due to the influence of Valmiki (p. 78), is inclined to assign a much greater age
to the Ramayana. The germ of the Mbh. appears, however, to be older than the Ram.; it
represents a ruder age as well as a ruder art.
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 1
2 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
since the (corrected) Northern version contains 84,126 verses, which, with
the 16,375(526) verses of the Harivams~a, make 100,501(651) verses. But,
on the other hand, it might be said, from the off-hand way the Hindus
have of assigning a round number of verses to a poem, that they would
be quite likely to refer to an epic even approximating one hundred thousand
verses as a poem of a lakh of verses. Now the Southern recension, in so
far as the recently published text represents it, has twelve thousand more
verses than the Northern recension and, without the Harivamsa, contains
96,578 verses (or prose equivalents)1), not including the circa two hundred
extra verses of single manuscripts. It is therefore doubtful whether the
attribution of a lakh of verses necessarily implies the existence, as part
of the lakh, of the Harivams'a. Yet on the whole this is probable, owing
to the fact that the expansion in S appears for the most part to be due
rather to the inclusion of new material than to the retention of old pas
sages. Important is the fact for the mythologist that the Harivams'a is more
closely in touch with Puranic than with epic mythology. It is in fact a
Purana, and "epic mythology" may properly exclude it, as it may exclude
the Uttara in the Ramayana, though both are valuable here and there to
complement epic material. In no case, however, may passages from either
of these additions be assumed to represent epic ideas, although of course
epic ideas may be contained in them. It is most probable that Santi and
AnuSasana were books (XII and XIII) added to the original epic, but
equally clear that they were included in the Mahabharata containing a
lakh of verses. They may be looked upon in general as later though not
modern additions2), yet as we know that one portion of Santi has been
enlarged in quite modern times 3), there should be no hesitation in granting
that passages may have been added at any time within the last few cen
turies. The palpable additions made in the interest of sectarian belief in
the Southern recension are merely an indication of what has probably
happened in both epics. — Geographically, the Mahabharata represents the
western and the Ramayana the eastern districts of Northern India, but
only in a limited sense (circa Delhi to Benares). In general it may be
said that middle India between the Ganges and Nerbudda was the country
most familiar to the poets of both epics. North and South are fabulous but
travelled lands. The Punjab is better known but lies remote.
§ 2. The Concept Deva. — Epic mythology, however, is fairly consis
tent. There is no great discrepancy between the character of any one god
in Mbh. and that of the same god in R. Nor is the character of gods very
different in different parts of Mbh., save for the sectarian tendency to
invert the positions of the three highest gods in favor of the sect. There
are of course differences, but not such as to imply that we are dealing
with totally diverse conceptions or traditions. In both epics the older gods
a) In reckoning the verses of the Northern recension, account must be token of the
egregious typographical errors in the Calcutta edition, which in Vana make eleven thousand
odd into seventeen thousand odd verses, in Udyoga convert six thousand one hundred into
seven thousand, etc. The Bombay Vana has 11,712 verses as contrasted with 12,082 in the
Southern (S) recension. The total sum 84,126 is the number for C as corrected by B. As
an indication of the difference between S and B-C, Adi has 11,080 verses in S, 8479 in C.
2) £anti in S has 15,050 and Anusasana 11,184 verses, as contrasted with 13,943 and
7,796 in the Northern recension. Holtzmann, Das Mahabharata, I, 194, argued for a
modern epic throughout, but this view has not been substantiated.
3) In Santi, Parv. 342 to 353, S has many more sectarian additions in honor of the
Narayana lauded in these interpolated chapters.
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY.
are reduced in estate, in so far as they represent personifications of nature ;
iri botn, new gods are throned above the old. The conception Deva, god,
embraces all spiritual characters, as it is said, "the gods beginning with
Brahman and ending with PiSacas" (Brahmadayah Pis"acanta 'yam hi
deva upasate)1), but loosely, so that in the very clause thus specifying
the host of gods, &va, as the greatest god, is set in antithesis to them
all as the one being through devotion to whom even Krsna-Visnu per
vades the universe. Nor is the world of men without close kinship with
the gods, who descend to earth and are reborn as mortals. Not Visnu
alone but those who worship him become earthly Avatars. Ku£ika is per
meated with Indra, and Gadhi, son of KuSika, is in reality son of Indra;
in other words, for the purpose of having a son Gadhi, Indra becomes
incorporate; Gadhi is Indra on earth (putratvam agamad rajamstasya
lokes"vares"varah, Gadhir nama 'bhavat putrah Kaus"ikah Polka
s' as an ah, 12,49,6).
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY.
§ 3. Definition. — It is obvious that a mythology which on the one hand
touches upon that of the Puranas and on the other reaches back to the
Vedic age may best be presented chronologically, and this would be the
case were it not that there is an aspect of mythology which does not fit
into this scheme. This will be referred to again under the head of General
Characteristics. At present it will suffice to say that at all times in India
there has been under the higher mythology of gods and great demons a
lower mythology of spiritualised matter less remote than the gods of sun,
storm, etc., and less remote even than the recognised spirits inhabiting
yet not confined to such matter, spirits that receive their proper recognition
in the pantheon. Though this lower mythology has various aspects which
blend it with the higher, as in the case of the Corn-mother already absorbed
into a title of a high goddess, yet in part it stands aloof and may be
treated separately, at least in its broad divisions of river- and mountain-
mythology, the lesser traits of divine trees and pools being more con
veniently discussed under the head of the divinities into whose province
the lower spirits have been drawn.
§ 4. Divine Rivers. - Water has always had a healing (hence
supernatural or divine) power. The epic recognises this, but in conjunction
with the act of a god. Thus a god revives the dead with a handful of
water, though a divine fiat is sufficient for this purpose, or the use of a
magical plant2). But as a self-conscious power, aiding the right, water also
dries up before a sinful priest, who tries to escape by way of water (as
a guard against evil influence ; compare the popular notion that evil spirits
cannot pass running water). Water is also a divine witness against wrong,
for which reason one who curses or takes any oath touches water, as
one does in accepting a gift. In fact in any solemn event a sort of bap-
*) This inclusion of Pisacas under Devas occurs in the exaltation of Siva in 13, 14, 4
and verses added in S to 13,45. Ordinarily the Devas exclude the demons; they are as
light to darkness, but (as shown below) all spiritual beings are sons of the Father-god and
so all are divine. It is rather the nature of the individual which determines whether he is
"god" or "demon", than the class to which he is assigned.
2) See the writer's paper on Magic Observances in the Hindu Epic (Am.
Philosophical Society, vol. XLIX). In 12, 153, 113, S has panina for caksusa. For
the other examples, see 3, 136, gf.; i, 74,30; 3, no, 32; and the cases cited, loc. cit.
1*
4 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
tism of water takes place, for water is one of the "three purities". As
truth is another "purity", a speaker of the truth can walk over water
without sinking1). The priestly influence predominant in the epics pro
claims (3, 193, 36) the sin-expelling quality of water sprinkled by the hand
of a priest, and this is the idea of the Tirtha, that it has been made
effective through an outer influence, priestly or divine, which imparts
power to wash away ill-luck and sin or to bestow upon the bather "beauty
and fortune" (3, 47, 29:82, 43 f.). But the cult of such powers, though
constantly recommended by the less orthodox writers of the epic, is not
in conformity with the sacred writings and is not infrequently depreciated,
as a des"atithi or "cultivator of places" stands opposed to the view that
"all rivers are Sarasvatls" (12, 264, 40), that is, all rivers are holy in them
selves; though certainly the modified view, for example that "rivers are
hallowed if Rama bathes in them" (R 2, 48, 9), is normal. This example
also shows that rivers and ponds are regarded as living persons, to whom
the predicate krtapunyah (blessed or hallowed) can properly apply. Es
pecially holiness attaches to the PayosnT, because of its relics; to the
Cauvery, because of its nymphs ; to the GodavarT, because of its saints and
contact with Rama; to the Ganges, because of Rama's passage over it;
and to any union of river with river or with ocean, because the sacred
nature of each is doubled by contact with the other (3, 85, 22 f. and
R 4, 41, 15). The Cauvery is "half the Ganges" but at the same time is
wife of Jahnu and daughter of YuvanaSva (Hi42if.), as all rivers are
wives of ocean, though not always so completely anthropomorphised2).
Offerings are made to rivers and they are invoked for aid as divine beings
(R 2, 55, 4f.; ibid. 4, 40, 9), the offerings when made by Sita being a
thousand cows and a hundred jars of brandy, perhaps intended eventually
for the priests. Although over a hundred and sixty divine rivers are
mentioned by name (6, 9, I4f.; ibid, n, 3if.; 3, 188, 102 f.; ibid. 222, 22f.;
13, 1 66, 19 f.) and the Ramayana says that five hundred rivers furnished
water for Rama's consecration (R 6, 131, 53), yet the time-honored designa
tion Five Rivers is still used (Indus being the sixth) to designate a group
sometimes also vaguely called the Seven Rivers, this latter group including
the Ganges (see below). The Five are named as the (modern) Sutlej, Beas,
Ravi, Chinab, and Jhelum (8, 44, 3 if.). As the rivers are recipients of
offerings, so in turn they make to Indra an offering of praise but are
overawed by the presence of &va and, like the birds, when he appears,
cease to make a sound (3, 96, 6; 5, 17, 22). Their bestowal of purification
may be unconscious, owing to their divine purity, but they consciously
save as well. Thus the Beas and Samanga (3, 139, 9f. ; 13, 3, 13) act
consciously in saving a man from drowning. All these rivers used to
bear gold, but now only Ganges has that bye-product of Siva's seed (7,
56, 6, etc.). The mental state of rivers is often alluded to as a matter
of course. They are troubled in mind, run backward in fear, or cease to
flow in mental distress (8, 94, 49; R 5, 16, 4, etc.). Ganges converses
with Ocean and explains why huge trees but not slender reeds are carried
on her waves (the trees resisting are overwhelmed, the reeds by bending
*) Both Prthu Vainya and DilTpa, as "speakers of truth" pass over water without
sinking, even in a battle-car (7, 6l, Qf. ; 69, 9).
2) For further references, see The Sacred Rivers of India in (the Toy volume)
Studies in the History of Religions, p. 215. Few rivers are masculine, though male
rivers, Indus, Oxus, Lohita, £ona, etc., are representatives of the masculine form (but also
Sonl, fem.) and Ocean is "lord of rivers male and rivers female" (R 3, 35, 7, etc.).
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY.
escape destruction, 12, 113, 2f.); she also explains to Uma the habits of
good women (13, 146, 17 f.). The river is sometimes a reborn saint, as the
Cosy (Kausikf) is an Avatar of Satyavati, wife of Vis"vamitra (R I, 34, 8),
as in the Puranas Gaurf, wife of Prasenajit, became the river Bahuda. On
the other hand, the Nerbudda (Narmada) became the wife of the king
Purukutsa (15, 20, 13). This river fell in love with a Duryodhana, by
whom she had a fair daughter, SudarSana, whose son in turn married
Oghavati and "half of her became a river" (13, 2, i8f.). A crooked river,
hence evil, may be in effect an evil woman reborn. Thus Amba remained
in life half as a human being and half as a crooked river (5, 186, 41).
Sons of rivers are human heroes. Bhlsma is son of Ganges; Srutayudha
is son of the river Parnas"a, by Varuna (cf. §63; 7, 92, 44 f.); Dusyanta
is great-great-grandson of the Sarasvatf, whose son was Sarasvata. £ukti-
mati was a river who became the mother of a son by a mountain (i, 63,
35 f.; ibid. 95, 27; 9, 51, i/f.). As intimated apropos of Amba, a river
may represent sinful power, but the Vaitaram is the only river leading
to hell, under the name Puspodaka (Vaitaram being a sacred stream of
Kalinga as well as the river of hell, 3, 200, 58; 8, 77, 44). The Yamuna
(Jumna) is called Kalindl from the mountain Kalinda, and its place of union
with the Ganges is celebrated as holy (Bharadvaja's hermitage is there); but it
is often omitted from lists where it might be expected to appear, as in 13, 146,
i8f., where Ganges is the glorious last of a list of sacred rivers: Vipas"a
ca Vitasta ca Candrabhaga Iravati, ^atadrur Devika Sindhuh
Kaus"iki Gautami tatha, tatha devanadf ce 'yam sarvatirtha-
bhisambhrta, gaganad gam gata devT Ganga sarvasaridvara.
Ganges is here apparently derived from her "going" (cf. Sarasvatf and
European parallels from roots meaning go or run). She is the most com
pletely personified of all the holy rivers, not only as mother of Bhlsma,
Gangeya, apagasuta, apageya, nadija, and of Kumara (Kumarasu,
H 1081) but as co-wife with Uma of &va, and as assuming human form,
to become wife of Santanu (i, 98, 5). She is called "daughter of Jahnu"
(ibid. 1 8), Jahnusuta and Jahnavi, and "daughter of Bhagfratha", by adoption,
though her true patronymic it not Bhagirathi but Haimavati (6, 119,97),
as she is the daughter of the Himalaya mountain. Her title among the
gods is Alakananda, and as she is regarded as identified with other streams
so she is identified with Puspodaka Vaitaram (i, 170, 22). Usually she is
spoken of as threefold, three-pathed, as in 6, 6, 28 f., where Sarasvatf,
Ganges, is said to issue from the world of Brahman and to fall like milk
from Mount Meru into the lake of the moon, which her own fall has created,
after being upheld for one hundred thousand years on Siva's head. She
is said to be both visible and invisible and is represented as divided into
seven streams, the names of which vary but appear in the Mahabharata
as (6, 6, 50) Vasvaukasara, Nalinf, Pavanf, Jambunadf, Sfta, Ganga, and
Sindhu. In the Ramayana (i, 43, 12) the Hladinf and Sucaksu take the
place of the first and fourth. She appeared first at Bindusaras (6, 6, 44 f.;
R i, 43, 10), when Bhagiratha induced her to come to earth to baptise the
bones of Sagara's sons, since till that was done these sons could not attain
to heaven (3, 108, 18). The famous story of her descent is told in R i, 43.
As she sank when weary upon the lap of Bhagiratha, she is said to have
chosen him for her father (cf. 3, 109, i8f.; and 7, 60, 6f.). The Southern
recension says that she was angry at being forced to go to hell and got
caught in Diva's hair (cf. R i, 43, 5). She is three-fold as the river of
6 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
sky, earth, and the lower regions, tripathaga, trilokaga, etc., and her
titles incorporated into Tirthas called Tri-Gaiiga and Sapta-Ganga, Sapta-
Sarasvata-Tirtha (3, 84, 29; 13, 25, 6f.) preserve the double account. As
the three-pathed Ganges she is called venikrtajala (R 2, 50, 16, here
"wife of Ocean"), but the post-epical Triveni refers to the mystic union
of "three-stranded" Ganges with the Yamuna and (lesser) SarasvatI at
Prayaga (Allahabad). At this place the holiness of the river exceeds all
bounds. A bath at Prayaga, "the lap of earth", imparts more virtue than
do all the Vedas, and Ganges is here "the one Tirtha of the (Kali) age"
(3, 85, 75 and 90). Ganges and Yamuna are invoked together by Sita
(R 2, 52, 82 f.). At the entrance to the ocean (it is said, I, 170, I9f.), Ganges
divides into seven streams (cf. 6, 119, 76 and 7, 36, 13) and "one is purified
from sin who drinks the waters of Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati (Plaksajata),
Rathastha, Sarayu, Gomati, or Gandaki." According to R 1,43, 12 f., there
is a (later) division into the three Ganges of the East, namely the Hladini,
PavanI, and Nalinf; those of the West, Sucaksu (Oxus?), Sita, and Sindhu;
and, seventh, "she who became Bhagiratha's daughter". In this epic too
the origin of Ganges's title Jahnavi is explained. Jahnu swallows Ganges
because he is disturbed by her flood but lets her out through his ears on
condition that she be known as his issue. The same late book of R makes
Manorama (or Mena) the mother of Ganges (R I, 35, 16). This nymph was
daughter of Mount Meru, and wife of Himavat, and bore him two daughters,
Ganga and Uma (a Puranic legend). Ganges's place of origin (Gangotri), the
so-called Gate, Gangadvara (Hardwar), the place of her union with Yamuna,
and, fourth, the place where she "unites with Ocean" (debouches into
the gulf of Bengal), have always been the most sacred spots in her course.
Gangadvara (13, 166, 26) and Prayaga are the most famous in the epic.
The river has stairs (ghats), gold in her bosom, etc. As a divine being
she is "destroyer of sin", identical with PrSni ("mother of Visnu") and
with Vac, and renowned as "daughter of Himavat, wife of &va, and mother
of Skanda". She is also called Visnupadi (coming from Visnu's toe? See
13, 26, a chapter devoted to her, and R 2, 50, 26; VP. 4, 4, 15.) As above,
she is also "wife of Ocean" as well as wife of Siva (3, 99, 32; 187, 19;
R 2, 50, 25). Mandakinf is a name she shares with earthly rivers (5, in,
12, etc.). Akas"aganga ("of the air") is her heavenly name (3, 142, n). On
the special adoration paid by Skanda's form to Ganges, see Skanda (§ 161).
Devanadi and Suranadl, "river of the gods", are common titles in both
epics; Lokanadi, river of the world, is found S i, 186, 2. She is so anthro-
pomorphised that when her son is fighting she appears on his chariot,
holding the reins for him and guarding his life, as she previously gives
him advice (5, 178, 68; 182, 12 f.). There is no epic authority for the belief
that children were flung into the Ganges as sacrifices, though j has as
abound there (i, 228, 32).
§ 5. Divine Trees and Groves. — Many trees are holy from association
with the gods. Thus the Sami is the birth-place of Agni (13,85,44) and
the As"vattha, representing the male element in the production of fire, is
also tabu (only ascetics live on its fruit), while all the samidhas, wood
for sacrificial fires, are sacrosanct, Palas"a as well as Pippala (ASvattha),
and Sami, and perhaps the tabu-trees, pratisiddhanna, the "fruit of
which is forbidden", have a previous religious use as the reason for the
tabu. These include besides those just mentioned the Vata (ficus indica),
Sana (cannabis sativa), Saka (tectona grandis) and the Udumbara (ficus
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY.
glomerata) 1). The As"vattha is the chief of trees (it represents the life-tree)
and typifies that tree of life which is rooted in God above (6, 34, 26;
39, I f.). To revere this tree is to worship God. Visnu is identified with
the Nyagrodha and Udumbara and Asvattha (13, 126, 5 and 149, 101). The
famous Nyagrodha ofVrndavana (mentioned only in S 2, 53,8 f.) is called
Bhandira. Otherwise no local tree except the Aksaya-Vata of Gaya is
noticed in the texts. It is so called because it immortalises the offerings
given there to the Manes, marking the spot where the Asura Gaya fell
or made sacrifice. It is not interpreted to mean an undying tree2). A mound
or sacred edifice makes holy the tree upon it and in a village the "one
tree" which is conspicuous is said to be caitya arcaniyah supujitafr,
that is, revered like a divinity (1,151,33, grama-druma). An unholy tree
is the Vibhitaka (entered by Kali; see 3,66,41). Trees are sentient beings,
able to hear, move, see, feel, as philosophically proved in 12, 184, lof.
The trees themselves wish to do this or that (S 7, 16, 14), as distinct from
the dryads or spirits in the tree, "goddesses born in trees, to be wor
shipped by those desiring children" (83,231,16, has Vrksika as dryad;
B Vrddhika). The ten Pracetas married a "tree-girl", Varksi (1,196,15).
Such spirits of trees are revered especially in the Karafija tree (3, 230, 55),
where dwells the tree-mother. The "daughter of the Red Sea", Lohitayani,
the nurse of Skanda, is worshipped under a Kadamba tree (3, 230, 41).
Siva himself is not only the "tree" par excellence (S 7, 203, 32); he is
formally identified with the Bakula, sandal-wood, and Chada trees (13,
17,110). Gods, saints, and demi-gods live in and resort to trees (1,30,2;
T3, 58,29). It is, however, not the spirits in trees but the trees themselves
that beg boons, enjoy marriage (with human beings), talk (§ 12 c), grant
wishes, and, in some favored localities, go about at will. 3) A lamp is offered
to the Karanjaka tree itself, and to cut down trees on the day of the new
moon is a sin equal to that of murdering a priest (13, 123, 8 and 127, 3).
The moon is here the source of vegetal energy. The five trees of Paradise
can be transplanted to earth, and Krsna thus robs Indra of the Parijata
tree (5, 130,49). The Samtanaka tree is found also in the world of cows
(13, 81, 23) and in the heavenly hills of the North (5, in, 13); it is mentioned
with the Parijata (3,231,23). The Parijata in H7i68f., is identified with
the Mandara tree, another heavenly, divya, tree, the flowers of which are
offered by the Vidyadharas to the sun (3, 3,42; all the allusions are late).
The trees that grant wishes, Kalpavrksas (i, 219, 3), are either magical or
heavenly, but on occasion are to be found on earth (i, 29, 40; cf. kappa-
*) See the account in 13, 104,92, and cf. 12,40, n; 13, 14, 58; the Palasa is butea
frondosa and the Pippala is the ficus religiosa. One may not use Palasa wood to make a
seat nor Tindukawood for toothpicks, though sinners do so (7, 73, 38; omitted in C but
found in B and S).
2) See the writer's Great Epic of India, p. 83, note 2, and the references 3,84,
83; 87, ii ; 95, 14; 7, 66, 20; 13, 88, 14; R 2, 107, 13. In general, all Caitya trees are homes
of spirits (12, 69, 41 f.).
3) Compare 7, 69, 5f.; 3, 115, 35 f. Tree-marriages are still practiced (JAOS. 22,
pp. 228 and 328) to avoid the evil effect of a marriage with a third human bride (the tree
is made to receive the threatened disaster). Trees going about at will (5, 100, 15, etc.)
generally produce any kind of fruit or flower, i. e. they are magical trees belonging to
some superior region. They are called kamacarin and kamapuspaphala in Hiranyapur
(loc. cit.). The dryads are vegetal divinities that eat human flesh and have to be appeased
with offerings, though the tree-mother is kind (3, 230, 35 f.), but the sentient trees are
usually kindly, as all of them used to be (7, 69, 5 f.). On seeing golden trees, as a sign
of death, cf. JAOS. 30, p. 351.
8 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
rukkho). The Kalamra tree is a mango a league high east of Meru (6,
7, 14 f.). Its juice gives immortal youth. Sudars"ana is the name of the
Jambuvrksa, which grants all desires. It is one thousand and one hundred
leagues high, touching the sky, and like the preceding tree (of Bhadras"va
Dvipa) is frequented by saints and heavenly beings. It bears red gold in
its juice which makes a river flowing around Meru to the Uttara (Northern)
Kurus (6,7, 20 f.). The Ganges rises from the root of the great jujube tree
on Kailasa (3, 142,4^; 145,51).
These individual heavenly trees grow between earth and heaven and
it is on the mountains that the divine groves are found. The grove of
Deodars (13,25,27), the grove of Kadalls on Mt. Gandhamadana (3,146,
51 f.) are typical of the vanam divyam or devaranyani (5, 14,6; 186,
27), which are sacred to the gods and in which the gods perform religious
rites. Such a sacred grove is found by Yudhisthira on his journey (3, n8,9f.),
where there are_ altars (shrines) of saints and gods, Vasus, Maruts, (Ganas),
Asvins, Yama, Aditya, Kubera, Indra, Visnu, Savitr, Bhava, Candra, the
maker of day (Surya), the lord of waters (Varuna), the troops of Sadhyas,
Dhatr, the Pitrs, Rudra with his troop, Sarasvati, the troop of Siddhas,
"and whatever immortals there be". These groves are the parallel to the
nemus and lucus of the Roman, Teuton, etc.
§ 6. Divine Mountains. - - Every mountain is a potential divinity,
as well as a resort of the gods, Gandharvas, etc. The mountains north of
India lend themselves especially well to the notion that snow-clad hills
pierce heaven, but as these mountains are invisible from the lower habitat
of the epic poets, most of the particular descriptions must have been
generalised from hearsay. The range south of the Ganges is treated more
familiarly. Here lies, for example, the mountain referred to above, who
begot a son on a river (1,63, 35 f.) and a daughter who became wife of
Vasu, Girika. This mountain, Kolahala, is expressly "intelligent". Mountains
speak (R 5, I, in, Mainaka in human form; cf. 12, 333, 30 as echo, 334, 25);
they revere Siva and Indra (13, 14, 399; 5, 17, 22); and they are themselves
revered (i, 220, 6; 13, 166, 31 f.; 14, 59, 4f.), as is one in a mahas tasya
mahagireh or "feast in honor of the mountain", by the offerings of fruits,
flowers, etc. In 2, 21, 20, a hill called Caityaka is revered as the place
where a mams a da r sab ha (minotaur) was slain, the help of the mountain
being perhaps implied. Hills bewail Sita (R 3, 52, 39). The mountain Arista
wakes at dawn, opens his eyes of metal, stretches his arms of Deodars;
yawns with peaks; speaks in waters (R 5, 56, iof.). The high place espe
cially favored by the gods as their meeting-ground as well as dwelling-
place, is always a hill, the higher the better; hence a preference for the
northern mountains as tridas"anam samagamah, "assembly of gods"
(3> 39> 4°)j where, on the top of Himavat, they sacrificed of old (7, 54, 25),
for this is the locality "beloved of gods" (3, 37, 39). "Seven Mountains"
(like other sevens) designates the several ancient "doors of heaven",
renowned as Kulaparvatas in 6, 9, n. The Seven are the Orissa chain,
the southern part of the Western Ghats, and the northern part (these three
beeing called Mahendra, Malaya, and Sahya), the range called Suktimat
(in the east), the Gondwana range called Rksavat, the (Eastern) Vindhya,
and the Northern and Western Vindhya called Pariyatra; among which
Mahendra (from which Hanumat leaps, R 4, 67, 43) is best known to the
epic poets as a sacred place (R 5, 43, 5; Mbh. I, 215, 13; 3, 85, 16, etc.;
R 4, 42, i8f., Pariyatra as Western). In 14, 43, 3 f., seven trees and twelve
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY.
mountains are called "kings", but in calling Arjuna the "eighth mountain"
(S 4, 3, 36) the epic reverts to the old phraseology1). Legends abound in
regard to the mountains as holy beings as well as holy places. Like saints
and gods they perform sacrifice (12, 321, 182). "Wingless" (and winged)
mountains refers to the legend (R 5, I, 125) of Indra cutting off the wings
(clouds) of mountains and making earth firm (RV. 2, 12, 2; MS. I, 10, 13),
as this expression is used e. g. in 7, 26, 65 and ib. 37; also 7, 103, 6 (at
the present day mountains do not move as of old); R 3, 51, 4, etc. Himavat
is Sailaguru (9, 51, 34) and his son is Mainaka, whose son in turn is
Kraufica, who, however, is also called son of Himavat. Mainaka alone
escaped when Indra cut off the wings of other mountains, and this mountain
appears as type of stability (7, 3, 4f. ; 9, I2f.), as it stood firm against
Nagari (Indra). It lies north of Kailasa, beyond Kraufica (R 4, 43, 31); a
barrier against Asuras (R 5, I, 93) and in it Maya deposited, near Bindu-
saras, a mass of gems. It has a vinasana (cleft), where Aditi cooked
food for the sake of her son of old (3, 135, 3). It escaped Indra's design
and Ocean gave it refuge (i, 21, 15). Mainaka's son, Kraufica (R 6, 67, 19),
is the White Mountain of silver as contrasted with "golden Himavat" (3,
188, 112; 13, 166, 30 f.), but also "golden" (R 6, 126, 14). Seven-headed
dragons guard it and in it is a golden lake, where the mothers of (Skanda)
Kumara nursed him. Shot at by Skanda, Kraunca fled but returned and
was pierced and "fell shrieking" and then again fled (3, 225, lof. ; 9, 46,
84). Though son of Himavat and Menaka it is called "Rudra's seed" (3,
229, 28), that is, it consists in the seed of the god, elsewhere described
as the seed of Agni-Rudra cast into Ganges (8,90,68; 9, 17, 51; 44,9;
13, 85, 68). R 7, 104, 6, however, makes all mountains from the bones of
Madhu and Kaitabha (creation of Rama-Visnu). Mainaka leaps out of ocean
to hinder Hanumat (R 5, I, 92 f.; "mountains under the sea", ib. 3, 33, 6).
It lies "in the West" according to 3, 89, n.
The Vindhya legend represents that home of plants and metals (13,
166, 31) as angry with the sun for refusing to walk the deasil around it
(as men and gods should "walk the deasil" around a divine mountain,
I, 220, 6) and hence as growing to obstruct the sunlight despite the request
of the gods to stop. Agastya persuaded it to let him pass over and not
grow till he returned and the Vindhya still awaits the saint's return (3,
103, 16 and 104, 12 f.). The belief in a totem -mountain obtains. Baladhi,
the saint, desired an immortal son; the gods granted a son whose life
should not end till the object in which his life was bound up should perish.
The life of the son Medhavin was therefore bound up in an "indestructible"
mountain, but being sinful he provoked Dhanusaksa, a saint who took the
form of a buffalo and destroyed the mountain, and therewith Medhavin
also. Dhanusaksa in S transforms himself into the buffalo; other versions
make the animals the means used by the saint (S 3, 135, 52 f.). Other
mountains sacred if not so personally conceived as is the case with Mandara,
Kraufica, Mainaka, and Himavat, are the mount where the ark landed
(3, 187, 50, Naubandhana); the hill Govardhana, upheld by Krsna (5, 130,
l) The Seven Mountains, known as doors of heaven, appear in Vedic literature (TS. 3,
12, 2, 9; 6, 2, 4, 3). Visnu is here the lord of hills, not £iva (3, 4, 5, i). In Sakadvlpa the
seven remain in epic descriptions (6, II, 13). Bhrgutunga, Agastyavata and Mt. Kufijara,
"Vasistha's mountain", and other peaks show that saints as well as gods live on the hills,
the sanctity of which destroys sin, as in the case of Hemakuta (Rsabhakuta), the "divine
grove of Brahman", where silence must be observed, tusnlm assva (3, 114, 16). Hariv. has
Puranic additions (Meghagiri, 12846, etc.).
io III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
46, etc.); Mahendra, where Rama lived after extirpating the warriors (7,
70, 2 if.); the beryl-mountain on the Narmada where Kausika drank Soma
with the A£vins and Cyavana paralysed Indra (3, 89, 13 and 121, 19); Man-
dara (R 3, 47, 39), used by the gods to churn the ocean (i, 18, 13; R i,
45=46, i8f.); Gandhamadana, home of medicinal plants and groves leading
to heaven (7, 139, 86, etc.). Mandara lies east of Meru and Gandhamadana
and is the home of Kubera and his Yaksas, hurled to its place in the
east by the hand of Visnu (3, 139, 5; 163, 4; 101, 15). Although placed in
the north and south as well as the east (5, ill, 12 and 109, 9) and even in
the west (ib 110,9), it is more regularly an eastern hill and is probably
the modern Mandaragiri near Bhagalpur. Its "western" location implies
that its roots extend to the western ocean, as Himavat does also. Gan
dhamadana is especially the abode of Kubera, though also of Indra; Kailasa
of Siva; Meru of Brahman; but all the gods live on occasion on any of
these. The gods seeking Siva find him on Mandara (7, 94, 57), and Brahman
receives audience on Gandhamadana (6,65,42). Certain mountains, however,
are formally assigned to certain gods. The demons also live where gods
live. Raksasas live on Himavat; Guhyakas on Kailasa; serpents and Nagas
on Nisadha; all the gods and Asuras on the White Mountain (£veta);
Gandharvas on Nisadha; and Brahmarsis on Nila, "but the resort of gods
is the peaked hill" (6,6, 5 if.). As the hills are all peaked with three or
a hundred peaks assigned to different hills, and only devi Sandili,
Agni's mother, is ascribed to Mt. Srngavat (like Meru it has three peaks),
a special or general range of peaked hills may be meant.1) Mandara has
two peaks, is shaped like a bow (R 4, 31, n; R 5, 22, 27). Himavat is
described as "a mine of gems of all sorts, cultivated by saints and singers,
called the holy father-in-law of Saiikara" (Siva, R 4, u, 12 f.; 13, 25, 62). He
is father of Ganges and Uma (above) and father of Mt. Abu (3, 82, 55).
Kailasa is the most famous range in Himavat and lies beside the upper
Ganges near Mt. Mainaka beyond the Northern Kurus (3, 145, 17 f.; Si,
243, 31). Both Kailasa and Gandhamadana have the monster jujube; Krsna
once lived on Kailasa (3, 12, 43, not S). Later the two are different hills.
In 6,6, if., Gandhamadana lies north of Malyavat (the "flame- encircled"
home of saints who precede Aruna, 6, 7, 28), which is north of Nisadha,
which in turn lies west of Kailasa. Mt. Meru has three peaks, reaches
higher than the sun, has rocks and red sides like other mountains (e. g.
Citrakuta, R 2, 94, 4f.), is self-luminous, the abode of gods, etc., and is
thirty-three thousand leagues in extent and eighty-four thousand high. On
its slopes and top sit saints and gods. It lies north of Gandhamadana and
is especially the home of Prajapati and the spiritual sons of Brahman, and
there rise and set the seven divine seers. But above its peak is the home
of Visnu. The sun and stars revolve around it. Yet it is like other hills,
"beaten by rain", and appears to be thought of as one among many northern
hills, having a vinas"ana like Mainaka's (above). Sumeru in Mbh. is not an
antithetic mountain but an epithet of Meru itself. Meru forms one of seven
ranges running across Jambudvipa and is represented by the flag-staff in
the gods's allegorical car. Only R Uttara knows Sumeru as the name of
an independent mountain (R 7, 35, 19), the home of Kesarin. South and
*) Cf. 6, 8, 9 and 13, 123, 2 f. Siva and Uma live by predilection in the Karnikara
grove on Meru; Garuda lives on Hiranmaya; the Gandharvas on Mandara, Meru, etc.
Harigiri is in Kusadvlpa (6, 6, 24 f. to 12, n).
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. n
east of Meru lie the ranges Nisadha, Hemakiita (Kailasa), and Himavat,
the thousand leagues between each making a valley, varsa; and north
and west of it lie Nfla, Sveta, and Srngavat (on the sea). Kasyapa (Cas
pian?) lies farther west and Nagadvipa (S, Saka-) lies south of the whole
group (6, 6, 56). The oceans are four or seven (several). The original
conception is that of four seas around earth, into which run four rivers
from the middle mountain, and round the flanks of Meru lie the four lands
Bhadras"va, Ketumala, Jambudvipa, and the Northern Kurus (Hyperboreans),
ib. 12. But the peak of Himavat joins that of Meru (they clash together
like Symplegades, 12, 334, Qf.). The epic knows nothing of the seven plane
tary spheres as such (even 13, 16, 34 and 52 do not imply them), and
nothing of Meru as axis of the world. 4) The addition of Maharloka, Jana-
loka, Tapoloka, and Satyaloka to the epic three, Bhurloka, Svarloka, and
Bhuvarloka, is Puranic ; it names the previously (Vedic-Epic) seven bhu-
vanas or worlds hitherto sufficiently understood as a group. Ram. treats
Meru as if one of the mountains of earth (one flying looks down upon
Himavat, Vindhya, and Meru from above, R 4, 61, 9), it is "a very big
hill", a range "like a snake lying in water" (ib.). Its "three peaks" may
be conventional (cf. R 6, 91, 34). Later epic poets (RG 4, 44, 46; H 12853)
know a hill Tris'rnga (perhaps Himavat, cf. R 6, 69, 24). Mainaka has a
hundred golden peaks (R 5, I, 105). The Sunrise and Sunset Mountains
appear to be unmythological; they are merely where the sun may set and
rise (udyadgiri is unique, R 7, 36, 44), unless Parvata Udyanta = Udaya
(3> 84, 93) whereon the "track of Savitri" is found. Himavat's "three
daughters" are known only in H 940 f. Their mother was Mena, spiritual
daughter, of the Rsis. One, Aparna-Uma, married Siva (q. v.), one, Ekaparna,
married Asita Devala, and the last, Ekapatala, married Jaiglsavya.
§ ?• Vegetal Divinities. - - The epic poets naturally ignore as sepa
rate divinities those of whom they disapprove and those whom they do
not understand. Such divinities are sometimes found hidden away in the
sacred watering-places and sometimes they remain as titles of gods who
have absorbed them ; for the process of absorbing divinities into the name
and glory of greater divinities began before history and continues to this
day. In this manner are concealed both vegetal and animal gods. Of the
magic of the Tirtha tales this is not the place to speak. a) They contain,
however, traces of many deities lost or ignored. Thus with the Buddhist
goddess Sankhini is to be compared the passage in 3, 83, 51, where a
Tirtha pilgrim is strongly advised to "go to the Sankhini Tirtha and bathe
in the Tirtha of the goddess", in order to acquire a beautiful form. Although
it is not expressly said that the Devi is Sankhini, yet the implication is
that such is the case, not that Devi is one of the higher goddesses (in
masculine form the epithet saiikhin is a title ofVisnu). Then there is the
Tirtha of the goddess Sakambhari (3, 84, 13), which must be the holy place
of the local Corn-mother, utilised or adopted as a title of Durga (6, 23, 9),
*) See for the details the references in JAOS. 30, 366 f. Only S adds to 6,6, 10 the
words of VP. 2, 2, 8, to the effect than the apex of Meru is twice the size of its base. On
plants and mountains as the fat and bones of ancient giant demons, see Raksasas, § 17.
On gold and trees made by Agni, see § 49 f. In R 6, 67, 67, Lankamalaya is apparently the
trikuta (a peak is broken off); ib. 3, 73, 32, Rsyamuka is a mountain in the South where
the dreams of the good come true; ib. 4, 37, 2f. has a list of southern hills.
2) Compare a paper on this subject in the Proc. Amer. Philosophical Society,
vol. XLIX, 1910, p. 24 f.
1 2 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
for Devf Sakambhari stands by herself as an independent1) goddess, though
the narrator knows her only as a form of the great goddess into whom
she was absorbed, and tells that the Tlrtha was so named because Durga
lived there on saka or vegetable produce aud entertained her guests with
vegetarian fare (3, 84, 16.) Sita herself is a Corn-mother. She "rose in
the field where the ploughshare brake it, rending the earth" (R 5, 16, 16
and ib. 2, 118, 28). She is represented by the ploughshare, which serves
as Salya's battle-sign and is likened to Sita for its golden beauty sarvabija-
virudhe 'va yatha Sita sriya 'vrta (7, 105, 20). 2) To this category belongs
also the youngest wife of the great fiend, whose son is Atikaya, the "giant"
(R 6, 71, 30). She herself is called DhanyamalinT, "corn-crowned", and
appears in R 5, 22, 39 f., as endeavoring to divert her lord from his attention
to the Furrow (Sita). These are but faint traces of a cult of vegetal deities
who may be added to the divine trees and tree-spirits already discussed.
No one of them qua goddess is of epical importance, but that is not to
be expected in a poem of warring men and higher gods. They are to
be considered somewhat in the light of those animal gods who remain in
the shadow of the great divinities. But there are no vegetal deities so
important as are several independent animal gods. Compare also the
bucolic god enshrined in Balarama (q. v.). Perhaps the use of the tilaka
sign may revert to the til a as holy (sesamum-oil is used for embalming
the dead, R 2, 66, 14).
§ 8. Animal Divinities. — Animals are divinities partly by birth,
partly because they are forms of demoniac or divine powers, and partly
because they are the life-givers of any community. Human beings, especially
saints or others potentially fearful, may also become incorporate as animals
and thus make them divinely terrible. Even when no divinity is ascribed
to an animal it is often looked upon as a supernatural being and as any
man may be cursed to become an animal, thi^animaljmanj^Jopked upon
with the reverence which is paid to a'ny superhuman creature. Certain
anTmals^ also have a qualsi divinity or devilry in being potent to bring
bad luck. As all animals talk, the gods appear as talking animals in many
fables, but this is only one side of the belief that an animal anyway may
incorporate a higher power. At the very beginning of the great epic two
seers curse each other to become an elephant and a tortoise, respectively
(i, 29, I5f.). The later Ramayana relates that Saudasa shot a tiger not
knowing that it was a man-tiger, purusavyaghra, as Raksasa, and that
its mate assumed in turn a human form to avenge it (R 7, 65, iof., a later
form of the legend; see Rsis). This man-tiger is a spirit recognised in
Vedic literature (a madman is offered to it, VS. 30, 8). All animals have
divine creative powers assigned to them as their particular ancestors, but
these are for the most part abstract creative energies regarded as daughters
*) Sakambhari is from saka and bhar, "bearer of herbs" (vegetables), as the native
commentators admit. There seems to be no reason for confounding this saka with saka
in sakambhara (an epithet meaning "dung-bearer" obscurely applied to a people or clan
in AV. 5, 22, 4), as is done in PW.
*) Sita occasionally is recognised in her human role in Mbh. apart from the formal
Ramakatha. In 83, 114, 24, an added verse cites her as an example of the faithful wife.
In Vedic theology she was wife of Savitr or of Indra, TB. 2, 3, 10, I, Savitri; and Par.
G. 2, 17, 13 (or 9), IndrapatnT. The orthodox SItayajfia, "sacrifice in honor of Sita" is
recognised in the Harivamsa as especially offered by ploughmen (H 3816) in contrast to
the "sacrifice in honor of the hill" offerred by cowherds (though, characteristically, Krsna
became the hill, so that the sacrifice as described was made to him, ib. 3876).
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. 13
or grand-daughters of Daksa and wives of Kasyapa (see § 139, Creation).
Some animals are sons of higher divinities (see Garuda) or forms of Visnu
(§ 143). Of the abstract generators only Surabhi, "mother of cows", has
reality, evinced by dramatic scenes and dialogues in which she appears
(see Indra). IpdeEendent_actow_jn_the epics are the semi-dhqne
bears, of whom only the chief in each class is of mythological importance,
the others acting like ordinary demi-god heroes and being content with
divine origin. As the bear was created before the ape, he may take
precedence here. Jambavat or Jambava (R) is "king of bears", rks a raj a, the
son of Prajapati Brahman, in appearance like a dark cloud (R 4, 39, 27,
etc.). He was born of the yawn of Brahman and hence is called son of
gadgada, "stammer" (R I, 17, 6 and 6, 30, 21). On account of his wisdom
he is chief of Vidyadharas (q. v.) and at the bidding of the gods he coursed
over earth twenty-one times, collecting herbs from which ambrosia was
made (R 4, 66, 31). He once helped Indra, and revered Visnu (q. v.) by
walking the deasil around him. His brother is Parjanya-like (R 6, 27, 9)
and is called Dhumra, "smoke-colored", which, however, is a common
epithet of bears. Jambavat is not prominent as sage or warrior in the
great epic, though he leads millions of black bears with white faces into
battle (3, 280, 23; ib. 283, 8; ib. 284, 26), to help Rama. He was brought
up beside the Narmada in the Rksavat (bear) mountain and is stronger
than his brother, but by Rama's time had become so feeble that he could
jump only ninety leagues (R 4, 65, 13 f.). Dazed by Indrajit's blow he sends
Hanumat for magic healing herbs (R 6, 74, 2 if.) as soon as he revives.
He is the father of Jambavati in Mbh., who was wife of Krsna and mother
of Samba (3, 16, 12; see Visnu). It is curious that he appears as an ape
as well as a bear (R 5, 60, 6, harisattama, etc.). Jambavati is called
Kapmdraputrf, yet with v. 1. Narendraputri (13, 629 in C = B 14, 41 and
845, 25); but Kapmdra is also Visnu in 13, 149,66(6). The Hariv. tells
how Krsna overcame Jambavat, king of bears, and took away his daughter
and the syamantaka jewel (H 2073). In H 6701, Jambavati may be called
Rohinf, "taking any form" (doubtful). With Jambavat's origin from Brahman's
yawn may be compared Ksupa's origin from the same god's sneeze (12,
122, i6f.), and that of Prajapati Kardama, born of his shadow (Bh. P. 3,12,27;
Kardama also as Naga, I, 35, 16).
§ 8 b. Hanumat and the Divine Apes. — The great epic recognises
Hanumat as the ape perched on Arjuna's staff, who fights on the side of
Krsna-Visnu. The Ram. in both versions makes him one of the efficient
aiders of Rama-Krsna. Apart from the Ramakatha, the Mbh. knows him
as "foe of the groves of the lord of Lanka" (4, 39, 10, Lankesavana-
riketu = Arjuna). Slta calls him her "son", but this is (conventional) only
in showing her grace: "O my son, thy life shall be commensurate with
Rama's glory, and through my grace heavenly enjoyments shall be at thy
command" (3, 148, 18 and ib. 291, 45). On Arjuna's standard the ape is
no mere figure; it opens its mouth and roars (7, 88, 26). "As Hanumat
lifted Gandhamadana", so Bhfma lifted an elephant (7, 129, 139, 86), though
the brotherhood of the pair is not here suggested ; but it is explained in
3, 146, 65 f., where the Rama-story is known. He is described here as having
a tail like Indra's banner and as making a noise like the bolt of Indra,
^akradhvaja, Indras~ani, with a short thick neck, small lips, red face and
ears, sharp white fangs, a moon-like face, and a mane like as oka-flowers.
He is son of Vayu, the "life of the world" (wind as breath), by the wife
14 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
of Kesarin, his strength being so great that Bhlma cannot even move
his tail (ib. 147, 24 f.). Subsequently he expands his size till he is larger
y/than a mountain. His nature here is not that of a god but of a pious
monster, "glorious as the sun" who worships Visnu (as Rama, 3, 151, 7).
»/He is, however, also a philosopher, lecturing his brother on the character
of the four ages, and present-day customs and duties. He says he is to
live as long as the story of Rama will endure (ib. 148, 17), and will roar
on the Pandu's standard (ib. 151,17). In the later Mbh. Rama-story, Hanumat
crosses the ocean by his father's aid and so burns Lanka (3, 282, 59 f.). His
V^iame appears as Hanumat when metrically convenient. His mother in R
is Anjana (Punjikasthala, q. v.), unknown in Mbh. When new-born he sprang
up to eat the rising sun supposing it to be edible. With one jump he
can go a thousand times around Mt. Meru, etc. These and other extra-
/Jvagances of R 4, 66 and 67 seem to belong to the Narayana period when
Visnu was All-god (ib. 67, 3). They EireJateii^^tsJ|^n_^ose_jj£Jtfi.Mbh.,
as_are the statements that his death depends on his own wish (ib. 66, 28);
that his left jaw was broken on a mountain-peak after he had leaped up
three hundred leagues and then been prevented by Indra from seizing
the sun (ib. 66, 2 if.); and that in leaping to Lanka he followed the "path
of Svati" (ib. 67, 29). The legend here is that Hanumat was_begotten by
^V^yu (Maruta) on the Apsaras who had been cursed to become the wife
of the ape Kesarin after she was born on earth as daughter of the king-
ape Kunjara; while in R i, 17, 15 Hanumat is simply one of a lot of
monkeys begotten by various gods at Brahman's exhortation. The former
account agrees with R 7, 35, which also makes his mother Anjana wife
of Kesarin who lived on Sumeru. As Rahu alone is entitled to devour
the sun, Vayu here chases Hanumat and it is Rahu who induces Indra
to smite Hanumat (thus injuring his jaw). This latest account describes
,,/^him as a sort of evil being, who having received a boon of safety acts
like any Raksasa in like circumstances, till the seers curse him to lose
the knowledge of his own power. He is called indifferently Vayusuta,
Maruti, Anjanasuta, and, as a child touched by Brahman's healing hand,
s"isjika, and SiSu, having in fact a resemblance to Sis"u in his leaping
and roaring, and being formally likened to him, "roaring like Sis"u on his
bed of reeds" (ib. 7, 35, 22; 36, 3 and 33). Owing to his ignorance, he
failed to aid Sugriva against Valin, but when released from his curse he
became a distinguished scholar, astrologer, and grammarian. In leaping
from Lanka he' dashes down Mt. Arista on his way back, as Mainaka
rising from the ocean to give him place to rest was also crushed by him.
He takes a human form, as do the other apes, on reaching Ayodhya (R6,
128, 19 f. ; ib. 130, 42). In RG 6, 160, where Hanumat goes to Gandhamadana
to collect herbs he releases Gandhakali, after killing Talajangha. She had
been cursed to be a grahi till Hanumat's arrival, a new phase, shared
with Rama etc., showing a growing cult. He is here called Gandhavahat-
maja, Vasavadutasunu (son of the messenger-god, R 6, 74, 62 and 77).
The other texts have merely the account of the collecting of four healing
herbs at Jambavat's instance ; but all accounts agree in saying that being
unable to find the hidden plants he breaks off the hill-top and brings it
with him. lie is no god hejre, only^ a giant_ape, under bond of friendship
//to execute his master's commands; and so in R 4, 41, 2 Sugriva sends
Nila, Jambavat, and Hanumat together to search for Sita under the command
of Angada, though he has particular faith in Anilatmaja, Pavanasuta
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY.
(Hanumat), so that Rama entrusts to him the "recognition-ring"; but ari /
a_pe he does not cease_.tQ_be (hari_pung_ava, mahakapj) and at most]
is equal to his father in gait and energy (ib. 44, 3 f.). His incidental exploits
are to find the cave of Maya fib. 51); to evade the mother of serpents
by slipping into her mouth, after becoming the size of a thumb; to evade
Simhika's attempt to arrest his soul-shadow; and to set fire to Lanka (ib. 5,
I to 57), after getting caught, by magic and having had blazing wool fas
tened to his tail. In his fighting he resembles Bhima or Ghatotkaca who
also smite legions with a club and also expand and reduce their forms.
Hanumat thus slays 80^000 fiends at one stroke; kills Aksa (Ravana's son),
Dhumraksa, Akampana, Nikumbha (R 4, 42 and 47; ib. 6, 52 and 57 and 77),
and goes under any form, as he will (R 4, 3, 24) when appearing as an
ambassador "learned in grammar". The recognition-ring "marked with
name of Rama" is another late touch not found in the Mbh. version but
found in R 4, 42, 12 and 5, 32, 44 (= C 44, 12 and 36, 2). Hanumat disap
pears from the scene in Uttara with a necklace given him by Rama (R 7,
40, 24), as at the end of the real epic Sita gave him a necklace from her
own neck (R 6, 131, 76). Hanumat is likened .tp.Garuola (R 4, 66, 4), but
is not distinguished for divinjty. He is inviolable because he has received
a boon of the gods. He is exhorted to leap as "hero-son of Kesarin
Vayu, by grace of the seers and Gurus and consent of the elder apes"
(R 4, 67, 34). He is like Garuda in swiftness, like wind in strength, like a
bull, a Naga, an elephant, the moon (R 4, 67, 28 and ib. 5, I, 2f.). He is
huge as a mountain or small as a cat or as four fingers (ib. 196 and 2, 49).
His father killed Samba, a demon appearing as an elephant (hereditary
antagonism, R 5, 35, Si; ib. 6, 27, 25). All the great apes boast a divineivx
paternity. Susena was son of Dharma; Sugrfva's uncle, Dadhimukha, of
the Moon; Valin and Sugriva, of Rksarajas (son of Visnu), or they were
respectively sons of Indra and Surya; Nila was son of Agni; Dvivida and
Mainda, of the Asvins, etc., though different writers give different fathers
(Dharma or Varuna as father of Susena). In all this there does not seem
to be sufficient ground for the ingenious suggestion put forward by Pro
fessor Jacobi (Ramayana, p. 132) that Hanumat was a village reduction
of Indra sipravat. Hanumat has no peculiar Indra-traits, for such as he
has "he shares with other apes, giants, and fiends. No one knows certainly
what Sipravat means, but if hanumat means "big-jaw-beat" it is appro
priate enough to the ape. Hanumat appears to be merely the typical strong
and clever beast in demi-apotheosis standing in this regard with Jambavat,
Sampati, Sesa, etc. He is not descending but ascending the scale of epicl
religious beings and appears to have lost nothing. He is not particularly
drunken, does not use a bolt, does not reflect Indra in any striking way.
He simply skips and throttles (Aksa) and throws things, and gradually
becoming cleverer ends as a priestly grammarian (RS 7, 36, 46 adds: so
'yam navavyakaranarthavetta brahma bhavisyaty api). His intelli-X
gence is primarily craftiness and cunning, as belongs to an ape, and his
village-popularity seems to point to his original habitat as bordering on
the forest where apes live. The Mbh. recognises as the great ape (Kapi)
Surya (q. v. and other sun-gods), which probably reverts to the Vedic
Vrsakapi. *)
') In JRAS. April, 1913, p. 398, Mr. F. E. Pargiter proposes to derive Hanumat from
an-mandi (Dravidian) = Vrsakapi.
1 6 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
§ 9. The Cow. — The divinity of the cow rests on the element in
totemism which consists in the deification of that class of animals which
provides a livelihood. A pastoral people naturally recognises its herds as
its means of life and hence as in the case of the classic troglodytes regards
them as its "sacred parents", or, as in the case of the Todas, as its divi
nity. This is brought out very clearly in the speech of the herder who
says (H 38o8f.): "We are herdsmen, living in the wood and living on
wealth got from cows, we recognise as our divinity cows and hills and
woods. The object of one's closest knowledge (with whatever knowledge
one is united) that becomes his divinity, supreme, to be revered and wor
shipped, for that (skill) alone assists him. We herdsmen make sacrifice
to the mountain, for it is worthy of sacrifice. We will sacrifice sanctified
cattle at a tree or a hill on a holy altar . . the cows shall walk the deasil
around this best of hills". Here the hill is an object of worship because
the herdsmen live upon it, and the cows themselves are their divinity
because the cow-herders life on the wealth which comes from their cattle
(vayam godhanajivinali, gavo 'smaddaivatam viddhi). Thus as
early as the Rgveda the cow (less often the bull) is aghnya, "not to
be killed". By the time of the epics to kill a cow was worse than murder,
excusable only when to do so was to obey a higher law. Such a higher law,
says Rama, is filial obedience, and for this reason, because Kandu obeyed
his father in killing a cow he did not sin (R 2, 21, 30). Doubtless the sage
objected to killing a cow even for sacrificial purposes, as the vegetarian
substitutes for animal sacrifice were already part of the Visnu cult; for
the universal orthodox rule is that cows may be slain only for sacrifice
and the epic doubts even this (pas"utvad vinirmukta gavah, 13,66,43).
No Brahman may eat beef, cow-flesh being usually implied, though a formal
tabu specifies as forbidden food fish, swans, frogs, etc., and anadvan
(mrttika cai 'va, 12, 36, 21 f.; S, anusna), or bull's flesh. Especially
sanctity attaches to a "blue bull", nllasanda, which is sacred to the
Manes (13, 125, 73 f.), though also sacred to Siva (9. v.). To set loose a
nlla vrsabha and to sacrifice a horse are equally meritorious (3,84,97).
Despite the compassion for the suffering of the mother of cows, Surabhi,
no blame or remorse is expressed for killing thousands of cows in sacri
fice, whose flesh presumably is eaten (only S speaks of the cow as "mother
of the world", 3, 131, 6); but the offer of the arghya cow is purely con
ventional hospitality (3, 295, 6, etc.), and cows are said now to be only for
giving (13,66,43) to priests. Surabhi lives under earth (earth as cow is a
common synonym), but the goloka or world of cows is Visnu's heaven
above the three worlds (5, 102, I f.; 13,83, 37). To slay a priest or a cow
is equally sinful (12,145,9); they are avadhyah, "not to be slain" (5,
36,66). The later epic has a gomati vidya, inculcating the doctrine of
giving cows to priests for the sake of certain worlds (see § 23) to be
gained by the giver hereafter. Cows had at first no horns but got them
from Brahman; Siva clove the hoofs of the bull; the river Carmanvatf is
made of the blood of sacrificed cows (8, 34, 104 f.; 13,66, 38 f.; ib. 78, 22
and 80, if.; ib. 81,13 and 44)- As goddesses, cows are a source of good
luck and are not to be struck or kicked; but bullocks may be goaded,
for gods use a goad. A sonless man is rescued from his evil state by the
gift of three cows (13, 22, 30 f.; ib. 67, 7f.). Such gifts are to be made
especially on the holy eighth day of the moon, when wish-getting cere
monies are performed (Kamyastami, 13, 71, 49). In lieu of the real thing,
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. 17
one may give cow-cakes made of sesamum or even a water-cow (jala-
dhenu, 13, 71, 41). Cow-dung is used to smear the house, but it is also
to be worshipped as an emblem of the discus of Visnu, as is the yellow
pigment from the cow (ib. 146, 48 and ib. 126, 3 f.). Siva has the bull-
standard because he approves of cows, which are the root of prosperity,
the food of gods, the support of sacrifice, revered in heaven (13, 51, 27 f.;
ib. 126, 38 f.; cf. 3, 133,6 and ib. 130, 31, on the gift of a kapila cow).
Though severity is permitted in handling bulls (5,4,5), they are not
to be castrated nor to have their nostrils pierced (12,263,37 and 45 f.)-
It is not regarded as cruel to kill animals for sacrifice, since it ensures
their going to heaven (12, 34, 28). Even a worm is induced by Krsna
Dvaipayana to die for the attainment of bliss (13, 117, /f.). Besides the
mythical mother-cow, the kamadhug dhenu Nandini is extolled as the
wonder-cow whose possession by Vasistha (§ 124) caused a war of caste
resulting in Visvamitra becoming a priest. Anything desirable, from milk
to militia, can be milked out of her. She has all the female beauties and
"the six flavors of ambrosia"; her milk rejuvenates for ten thousand years
(i, 99, 2of.). On the magical effect of bull's urine, see Magic Obser
vances in the Hindu epic (op. cit.). On Surabhi and the cow-guardians
of space, see § 92, § 139. On cows as born of the Sun, see § 36.
§ 10. The Elephant. — There is no myth of a world-upholding elephant.
Divine elephants are mythological guardians of the quarters. They were
originally four, afterwards, when the quarters became subdivided, they too
appear as eight, to embrace the districts between East and South, etc.
They are called diggajas, dis~agajas (R 5, 37, 65), dinnagas, digva-
ranas; the word naga, meaning also the serpent, causes confusion be
tween the two sets of beings. The chief elephant is Airavata, belonging
to Indra (§ 66). The four chiefs are called (6,64, 57 f.) Airavata (Airavana),
Vamana, Afijana (cf. R 4, 37, 5 and 20), and Supratika (also the name of
Bhagadatta's elephant), or Sarvabhauma (R 4, 43, 36, etc., ridden by Kubera).
But Mahapadma is also named among these magical "three-fold rutting",
four-tusked steeds, which are ridden by demons (6, 64, 57). Supratika is
mentioned in 6, 12, 34; he is especially known as the ancestor of "king
Airavana and of Vamana, Kumuda, and Afijana" (5,99, 15). 84, 3, 26 calls
him best of gajendras or chief elephants (as elephant of the North, see
Indra). In 7, 121, 25, Afijana, Vamana, Supratika, Mahapadma, and Airavata
appear as progenitors of earthly elephants, though the theory of creation
(1,66, 6of.) assigns them to Matangi, Sveta, and similar powers, £veta as
son of Sveta being particularly mentioned as guardian of the quarters.
Elsewhere Sveta is a name of a Naga, a demon, etc., but as appellative
it describes the white elephant of Indra. Kumuda is known to the epic
only as mentioned above; Afijana and his (western) progeny are praised
in 7, 112, 23. The name of the elephant later kown as guardian of the
North -West, namely Puspadanta, appears only as a title of Siva (R 7, 23,
pr. 4, 49) and as the name of one of that god's followers (Mbh. 7, 202, 73).
3iva is "elephant-eared" (12, 285, 77). Both this and Pundarika are Naga
names (5, 36, 29; cf. Airavata). R recognises the usual four and Sarva
bhauma; but also gives a later technical list (R 1,6,25, bhadrair mandrair
mrgais cai 'va), and another list, viz. Virupaksa in the East, Mahapadma
in the South, Saumanasa in the West, and Bhadra in the North (ib. 24 and
40, i2f.). The late grouping of the eight is not recognised in either epic,
but for convenience may be given here: East, Airavata; SE., Pundarika;
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 2
1 8 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
South, Vamana; SW., Kumuda; West, Anjana; NW., Puspadanta; North,
Sarvabhauma. The space-elephants carry the (§ 91) Lokapalas and are
divine; they blow the winds out of their trunks- (7,94, 47; 6", 12, 36); they
are described as living in Sama(-land, Sumeria? 6, 12, 32), in Himavat (3,
108, 10), where they have rubbed the mountains bare with their tusks
(ib.); and elsewhere on occasion. Morally the protective elephants are
always_gpod, fighting against evil demons. Th 8, 82, 25, a battle is likened
to one between the lord of Daityas and the lords of directions, Digisvaras
(may be gods). Demons take the form of elephants, such as the one whom
Indra killed at Benares (3, 173, 50), and there are Danavanagas, "demoniac
elephants" (8, 18, 6). Elephants weep in battle and show three temporal
streams, but Airavata and Bhagadatta's Supratlka show seven (6, 95, 24
and 33). Other than the divine elephants have four tusks, but they live in
Lanka (R 5,9/5) or in the mythological North (37158,90). Ordinary elephants
spurt water in war, throw weapons with the hand (7, 26, 50; I, 81, 13, but
for dvipahastaih S has dvipastaih), and even sing verses (R 6, 16, 6).
See also § 51, §93-
§ u. Demoniac Animals. — Animals "possessed" by demons are com
mon and are to be distinguished from animals which are merely temporary
forms of demons, though to make the distinction is not always possible.
In 12, 114, 17, manusyasalavrka is a human jackal but apparently only
in a metaphorical sense, a mean man. In 3, 269, 7 f., salavrka = gomayu,
announcing disaster because appearing on the left; ib. 173,48, salavrkas
are demoniac forms in battle, but as these include apes, elephants, and
bears, as well as Sarabhas, Bhurundas, and ghosts, they may be animals.
Only in 12, 33, 29 they appear as forms of Brahmanas called Salavrkas
because they fought, eighty-eight thousand in number, against the gods.
The demons killing Kaca in I, 76, 29 "gave him to the salavrkas", but
here, as in the earlier tale of Indra giving the ascetics to the same beasts,
there is no reason to suppose that the animals were other than those in
6, 59, 127; 7, 30, 19 (etc., etc.) or in 10,9, 5, i. e. real jackals or jackal-
forms of demons1).
The Sarabha: This animal is represented as one whose roar, garjita,
frightens other animals in the forest. In similes, it appears as a fighter
and combatants "fight like tigers, hawks, and sarabhas" (7, 127, 41 and
132, n). The Ram. knows a monkey-chief of that name, easily overthrown
by Kumbhakarna (R 6, 67). Sarabha is a proper name but also a monster
in Mbh., with eight feet, and slays lions (astapadah sarabhah simha-
ghati, 3, 134, 15; 7, i, 28, etc.). Yet it is found on Mt. Kraufica (9, 46,
87), but not as a monster; and on Gandhamadana, with lions, tigers, etc.
(5, 158, 40), as if one of the ordinary animals of the wood and mountain.
The later epic increases its monstrosity; it has both eight legs and one
eye above, urdhvanayanah, and eats raw flesh (12, 117, 13 f.), where
it has part in the fable of the dog turned into a sarabha. It is, however,
listed among edible animals as belonging to mrgajatis which a gentleman
offers his guest for dinner (antelope, sarabha, hare, bear, ruru-deer,
J) On the conception of the salavrka as wehrwolf, cf. RV. 10,95, 1S', Brunnhofer,
Arische Urzeit, 284*". (Hyrcanians) ; and Oertel, JAOS. 19, I23f., on the Vedic legend
concerning Indra and the ascetics. S ed. has s, the Bombay ed. s. Demons may be born
beasts as well as assume temporarily beast-forms. So Bali is reborn as the son of an ass
(12, 224, 6). Conversely, horses and cows become gods (3, 181, 13). For the divine horse,
see sub Indra (§ 68).
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. 19
eni, prsata, nyanku, sambara, gayal, boar, and buffalo meat, 3, 267, 13).
Besides being a personal name of heroes (not uncommon), it is one of
the names of Visnu (§ 143 f.), as of honored apes, demons, and Nagas
(cf. s'arabha as title of Buddha). As an Asura the name said to be equi
valent to ustra, also an Asura, may be dialectic for karabha, camel
(which suggests Zarathustra). A camel's roar would frighten any beast and
on first appearance so queer an animal would be apt to breed queer
stories. H 2651 has Ustra as Asura; Sarabha is a Danava 1,65,26, and
a Daiteya, reborn as Paurava, in I, 67, 27. The intimate relation between
man, beast, and gods, may be illustrated by the story of Sarameya, son
of Sarama, the devasunl, who herself has a place in Brahman's heaven
(2, 11,40). When the sons of Janamejaya beat Sarameya, he induces his
mother to curse the seer and the latter chooses as priest to allay the
papakrtya a young sage whose mother was a snake (sarpi = NagI? I,
3, i f.). The mythology of other real animals, except as regards their
creation (§ i3Qf.) through mediate powers, has to do with them as omens
and cause of good luck. To touch a bull brings good fortune. The skin
and teeth of others avert demons, Pramathas, etc. The tortoise, cat, and
goat, and the skin and teeth of a hyena guard from such evil ("smiting")
influence. The color is of importance : "He (say the evil Pramathas) is
free from our influence who harbors in his house as raksoghnani a cat
or goat, black or brown-yellow" (13, 131, iof.). The destruction of the
crab by its young, the destruction of the silkworm by its own coils, the
rising of the spider from its destroyed web to a new home (life), and
the fresh growth of horns in deer and skin in snake, are all genuine or
erroneous epic (and pre-epic) observations of natural history utilised for
philosophical reflection rather than mythological data, and need not be
illustrated here.
§ 12. Divine and Demoniac Birds, --a) Many birds can talk, but
the effect on the parrot of the curse of Agni (§ 49 f.) introduces myth.
Religiously and mythologically the goose, hamsa, is the most exalted bird,
its high flight, loneliness (above other birds), and white color making it
an emblem of the pure soul and of God, the supreme bird of a thousand
wings (5, 46, I4f.); yet because of RV. 10, 123, 6 the soul-bird is golden-
winged (12, 47, 17 and 45), so geese that talk, qua spiritual beings, are
golden (3, 53, 19), but usually the hamsa is white (3, 304, 17; 7, 132, 29f.).
The goose goes to Meru, lives at lake Manasa; its form is assumed by
Varuna (§ 59f.), etc. It flies high (R 2, 9, 44) and represents the sun (hence
golden). The hamsa separates milk from water (i, 74, 91 and passim), but
so do other birds (VS. 19, 73). Not every goose is godly; the kalahamsa
lacks this distinction (it is grey not white). The hamsa is the vehicle of
Visnu, but also of Kubera (§ 22); its flight is exceeded only by Garuda
(R 4, 58, 28). Luck in omens is indicated by position and sex of the
observer (right side lucky for men), yet in a house, turtle-doves, parrots,
sarikas, and cockroaches bring luck; but vultures, pigeons, fire-flies,
and bees are unlucky (13, 104, H4f.). A red-brown owl with green eyes
attacking crows (cf. R 6, 17, 26) portends misfortune (10, I, 37). Yet unlucky
birds are used as standard-figures, apparently without thought of danger.
Some of Garuda's sons are birds (byname), Sarasa, Kapota (5, 101, nf.).
The first is auspicious, the second inauspicious, for vultures, crows
(v. 1. cranes), hawks (and especially pigeons) are unlucky, while peacocks,
geese, sarasas, catakas, and jivamjivakas are very auspicious
2O III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(5, 143, i8f.); as are casas, Satapatras, and krauncas. Herons, hawks,
vultures, cranes, crows, though inauspicious, are auspicious (nimittani
dhanyani) if they precede a warrior into battle (8,72, nf.), as these
affect not the warrior behind, but the enemy who are advancing against
him from the opposite direction. When one starts into battle, the rear
is the auspicious position as is the left side. Before starting, the right
is the auspicious side ; omens which in general are favorable (good birds
and agreeable sounds) are better in the rear, because from there they
urge the troops on to victory, while in front they obstruct success (12,
102, iof.). Red-footed birds and pigeons are particularly inauspicious
(5, 143, i8f. and R 7, 6, 56). In R 6, 108, 21, a grdhracakram circles
over the doomed man and follows wherever he goes (also grdhrakulam,
"flock of vultures"). The pigeon is most feared, which made Sibi espe
cially courageous in harboring this (Vedic) death-messenger, for it is a
"horrible portent" if a pigeon alights on one (ghoram kapotasya
nipatam ahuh, 3, 197, 5; cf. R 2, 12, 43; ib. 14, 4, etc.; the tale is told
in four different forms in the epic). Other birds are typical rather than
ominous, catakas typifying thirst; cakravakas the longing of love; the
peacock, shameless, dances in joy of rain, etc. There is a tabu against
eating the flesh of goats, parrots, and peacocks (13, 104, 93 ; on the
indecency of the peacock, see 5, 73, 10 and 12, 114, 10), but peacocks,
deer, goats, and boars are provided as a feast for Rama (which shocks
the scholiast, R 2, 91, 69, who says that they were not for Rama to eat
personally, but for the low-caste men, Nisadas). The later interpretation
of the cakora as a betrayer of blood is not mentioned by epic writers,
who regard it as a red-eyed but pleasant singing bird (7, 126,40; cf. 3,
158, 86 and 13, 54, n). The curlew inspires Valmlki (R I, 2, 29 f.). See
also bird-forms assumed by the gods (Indra, etc.), and on Visnu as sun-
bird see § 143.
b) Of quite different character is the Bharunda bird. It is the function
of this bird to bury the Hyperboreans, when these near-immortals die
(like Rama they live ten thousand and ten hundred years, 6, J, 12).
Bharundas have strong beaks and bodies and take up the corpses of
the Northern Kurus and "bury them in caves". But along with the
salavrkas, etc., which appear with ghosts and demons in the tumult of
battle, are certain Bhurundas (3, 173, 48) and probably these are the
same as the Bharundas, as soul-seizers, sirens or harpies (cf. 3, 207, 36,
bherunda). The runda is a mangled headless corpse, a late equi
valent of the epic kabandha, a torso which dances on the battle-field.
Like sirens, the Bharundas sing (in the western and northern wilds) and
have human faces, their songs being described as "exceedingly pleasant".
They are here associated with the Bhulinga-bird, which cries "beware"
while picking the lion's teeth (2, 41, 18; ib. 44, 28; 12, 169, 10). S omits
Bhulingas (in Santi), thus ascribing human traits and sweet song only to
the Bharundas. Birds that talk are not mythological, as parrots, crows,
sarikas, jivajivakas, etc. are kept in cages and mimic all sounds and
talk. Compare in Mbh. the story of PujanI (12, 139, 4f.), and in R the
tale of the talking crow (R 2, 95, pra. 13), for late exaggerations of the
theme (R 2, 35, 18). Demons take bird-forms (Suka, etc.), to act as spies
(R 6, 20, 35, etc.). The birds tell a saint all that is going on (vayasT
vidya, 12, 92, 7f.). The talkative vulture who lived a thousand years
belongs to fable rather than to myth (12, 153, 54).
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. 21
c) The lord of the feathered race is the mythological "fair bird",
called Garutmat Suparna, the form Garuda being, however, the common
one in the epics. "Garutmat carries off the ambrosia" (R 3, 30, 5) and,
at the conclusion of the same rape of ambrosia in Mbh. I, 33, 16, tarn
vavre vahanam Visnur Garutmantam mahabalam. Compare 3, 12,
90, Vainateyo yatha paksi Garutman patatam varah (also 5, 105, 19).
In such passages Garuda is formally identified with the (Vedic) Garutmat.
He is brother of Aruna, the foregoer of the Sun-god (§ 38), and may have
been originally a form of the sun (as bird), but the epic shows no other
distinguishing solar traits in the character of Garuda. He is the egg-born
son of Vinata, hatched after a thousand years, the younger brother of
Aruna, created, according to a late tradition, because the Valakhilya
saints, angry with Indra for insulting them, wished a rival "king of birds"
to humiliate the god. Garuda is always son of KaSyapa, and an Aditya,
though called Vainateya from his mother (i, 16, 24; R 3, 14, 31), swift as
wind or thought (i, 31, I3f.; 3, 155, 19; R 6, 34, 4, etc.), and especially
distinguished as a rending, tearing, snake -devouring monster (i, 102,
46, etc.). The fulsome hymn in Adi, in which he is called the sun,
tapanah suryah (i, 23, 9f. and 16), calls him also creator, destroyer,
fire, Daksa, Brahman, Visnu, etc, and is no index of the usual epic con
ception, which it marvellously exaggerates. This conception is that of a
giant bird, whose most persistent traits are those expressed by the epithets
bhujagari, pannagasana, etc., and suparna, that is, "a bird of
beautiful feathers that eats snakes" (2, 24, 24, Garutman pannaga-
sanah; i, 16, 24, pannagabhojanah). The peacock is the only bird
recognised by the epic as bhujagasana (12, 120, 4, yatha barhani
citrani bibharti bhujagasanali; N. mayurah), and sarpasana
(sarpabhuj) is a later name for peacock1). The peacock is Garuda's
gift to Skanda, "his dear son, the fair-feathered peacock" (the fighting
cock being Aruna's gift, 9, 46, 51). Garuda may mean "devourer". But
the epic makes a typical roc out of him. He frightens all, as he falls
out of the sky, with claws extended, and the rush of his "double wings",
which are like double gates of a city (i, 207, 32; 22, 227, 21), beats down
forests (8, 76, 37; R 3, 25, 28), and even the sea is stirred by him (Tarksya,
7, 14, 60). His shape gives a name to a weapon, an army-formation,
a fire-altar, etc. (R 6, 193, 21; ib. i, 14, 27; Mbh. 6, 25, 2f.). He is best
of birds or "the bird" (2,19,8; 5,113,2; vihangama, pataga, also the
sun, i, 173, 23; 6, 12, 45). The eyes of the race of Vinata are remarked
upon by Sampati, who says he can see a hundred leagues because he
comes from that stock (R 4, 58, 29). Epic etymology connects his name
with guru, "load", because (i, 30, 7) he carries a branch of the talking
tree, heavy as earth, and an elephant and tortoise as big as mountains.
In H jo 77 5 f., he fights with Mayura diptatejas. His great feat was to
carry off ambrosia, of which however he did not eat, so that he remains
mortal, but he won Visnu's favor, who made him his vehicle (i, 23, 5f. ;
^ 3> 35> 27 f.). He is here called Tarksya as well as Vainateya (Aruna
also has the last title, R 4, 58, 28). The epic formally distinguishes as
*) On Garuda and Visiju, see § 143. The peacock as sun-bird (cf. Johansson, Sol-
fageln i Indien, p. 771"., referring to Jat. 2, 33 and 4, 332f.) is the connecting link
between the sun-bird, reflected in Garutmat-Garuda, and the epic roc that devours (Nagas
and other) snakes. The theft of Soma by Garuda is thus the oldest epic trait, parallel to
that of the eagle (sun) Visnu (Johansson).
22 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Vainateyas, "Tarksya, Aristanemi, Garuda, Aruna, Aruni, and Varuni"
(1,65,40; cf. 5, 71, 5; H 12468), yet distinction is lost when Garuda-
dhvaja = Tarksya-ketana (2,45,61), and "Tarksya" is the vehicle of
Visnu-Krsna (13, 14, 43), as is Garuda (2, 24, 23). "As the ass cannot
equal the speed of the horse, so no bird can equal the speed of Tarksya"
(R 2, 105,6; S 12, 117, 24 says that garudam balam may be given to
other birds by divine power). Also in 5, 105, i8f. Garutmat = Tarksya,
and so generally. The tarksyas are birds (as a race "Tarksyas" in 2,
52, 15, with Persians, may be Turks; it is a late insertion, not in S).
Only S has the proverb preserved in Pane. I, 474: "Men honor not Tarksya,
who kills snakes, but the snakes" (S 3, 28, 16; see Ind. Spr. 39), that is,
they honor those they fear; but it brings out the chief function of Garuda
(Tarksya). Tarksya as "antidote to poison" (in later use) suggests garuda as
for garada = visad. The emerald is elsewhere a "foe of poison" and "stone
of Garuda" (garalari, garudasman), the first reminding one of bhu-
jagari as Vainateya (S 5, 94, 16). Garuda becomes the vehicle of Visnu
only after a struggle, in which the greater god showed that the great
bird could not even move his arm (5, 105, iof.), though in Adi this
happens as the result of Canada's complaisance (i, 33). Garuda helps
Visnu by carrying him and even by fighting for him (R 7, 8, I9f.). Garuda
makes friends with Indra by respecting the bones of his bolt (i, 33, I7f.).
He shares with Hanumat the glory of sitting on a flag -staff of Krsna
(2, 24, 23). In Ram. he is not active except as the "vehicle of Visnu" and
type of speed and robber of ambrosia, save that he frightens away the
snake-arrows of Indrajit and cures Rama and his brother (R 6, 50, 33 f.).
Brahman's shaft is feathered with his lovely feathers (R 6, in, 12). The
blessing at Mbh. I, 28, 14 is referred to in R 2, 25, 33, and Vainateya is
said to have told Sagara how his sons might be revived, as he was the
brother of Sagara's second wife Sumati (R i, 38, 14). The Mbh. gives
a series of his adventures, on the journey with Galava (5, 107, i6f.), in
which Garuda loses his wings, owing to his evil designs on £andili
(ib. 113, if.). In the later epic he brings Uparicara to heaven at Visnu's
command (12, 333, 32f.). Already in 7, 143, 48, Krsna bids Bhurisravas go
to heaven on the back of Garuda, but the warrior does not seem to have
availed himself of the bird as psychopomp. Visnu having kicked on to
Garuda's breast the Naga Sumukha, whom Garuda was going to eat,
"since then Garuda lives at peace with Sumukha" (5, 104 — 5). In 6, 6,
14, Sumukha is a son of Garuda, the eldest of six (5, 101, 2), sires of all
snake-eating birds : Sumukha, Sunaman, Sunetra, Suvarcas, Suruc, and
Subala; though in the line, vamsa, of Kapila, and family, kula, of Vinata
there are thousands, all with the srivatsa sign, and all worshippers of
Visnu; all are Ksatriyas also, but, because they destroy their "kindred"
(by eating snakes), they cannot become Brahmans. The names are partly
sun-, fire-, and Visnu-names with many others, Valmfki, Nisakara, Diva-
kara, etc. The plural Garudas and Garutmats are demoniac forms of
battle (3, 173, 48), or birds of prey (R 6, 131, 51; ib. 105, 22). Garudf =
Suparni = Svaha (3, 225, Qf.; see § 161 f.). The Vainateyas live either in
the sixth (upper) world (R 4, 58, 28) or, usually, in Patala (5, 101, 6f.) or
south of the Nisadhas in the Golden Valley (varsa, 6, 8, 6), or on Himavat
(12, 328, 7, "which Garuda regularly occupies"). In R 4, 40, 38, however,
Visvakarman builds "the house of Vainateya" beside the Red Sea. Both
Mbh. i, 66, 69; 3, 279, i, and R 3, 14, 31 derive Jatayus and Sampati from
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. 23
Aruna and SyenI, which makes the two brothers solar birds, nephews of
Garuda. Sampati, the elder, protects the younger when flying to the sun,
but the sun burns him and he falls wingless upon Malaya (3, 282, 47 f.)
or Vindhya (R 4, 58, if.). This happened "after Vrtra's death". The two
are "vultures" (R 4, 60, 19), but monstrous, changing shape at will. In
R 7, 5, 44, Sampati is a demon. Those fleeing with Vibhlsana include
Sampati, seven in all, appearing as men or birds in battle (R 3, 37, 7Q-
Sampati's son, who brought him food, is Suparsva (R 4, 59, 8f.). The
wings of these monster birds, who are all like rocs, are red, and two or
more in number (ib. 63, Sf.). Jatayus, who helps Sita, converses learnedly
on genealogy (R 3, 14), contends with Ravana (ib. 51), tells his own story
and then dies (ib. 67 f.). The brothers, Sampati and Jatayus, seem like
under-studies of Garuda and Aruna (next generation, sons of Aruna), but
the generalised birds called "warriors", Garudas and Tarksyas may con
ceivably have been human chieftains of the western coast, though mytho-
logically they are all atmajas of Garuda and scarcely present as strong
a claim to euhemeristic interpretation as do their natural foes the Nagas.
The remaining members of the direct family of Vinata, Aristanemi, Varuni,
and Aruni, are reckoned conventionally as belonging to the same bird-
race, but each of them is a_well-known seer of the epic, or rather,
a well-known seer is called Aruni, etc. Aristanemi alone, however, is
(Vedic) Tarksya (3, 184, 3f.; ib. 186, if.; 12, 289, 2f.) and may be equi
valent to Garuda in RG 5, 2, 10; but the v. 1. putro for bhrata (R 4, 66,
4, and B) makes the exact bearing of this passage uncertain. In R I,
38, 4 and 14, he is father of Sumati, "sister of Suparna", and appears
also in Jatayus' genealogy (R 3, 14) as a Prajapati. He is the brother
of Prthu in Hariv. 1921. Garuda is also name of a son of Krsna by the
same late authority (H 9196).
§ 13. Serpents. — All serpents are of divine extraction, since one
of Kasyapa's eight wives was Tamra, whose daughter Suki was mother
of Nata and thus grandmother of Vinata, and Vinata was mother of Surasa,
who bore the Nagas, and of Kadru, who bore serpents (pannagas; R 3,
14, 28 f., Mbh. 1,66, 70). The distinction between Nagas and serpents here
indicated is lost, however, when Kadru herself, as sister of Vinata, is called
the mother of the Naga or Nagas and Vinata is mother of Garuda and
Aruna (§ 12). The general abode of these divine serpents is below -earth;
and here is usually to be found Sesa, the Naga of a thousand mouths,
who "supports earth from beneath" (5, 103, 2f. ; 7, 94, 48, ad has tad
dharanlm . . sada dharayate). He is here conceived as an inhabitant of
Bhogavati, where he is "best of serpents", pannagas, rather than as
upholding or entwining Visnu. It is the "endless serpent lying upon the
waters" that gets the name Ananta (bhogavat) and is regarded by later
writers (R 7, 104, 5) as a creation ofVisnu's illusion, udakes'aya, "lying
on the water", like Visnu himself as Narayana. In R 3, 14, 7, he is said
to be one of the Prajapatis. But this Naga Sesa is called also an inferior
Deva, moon-faced, of a thousand heads, who encircles the world and
eventually curls himself over Visnu ; one of his titles being dharanidhara
(R 4, 40, 49; H 3027). He is described also as lying in the eastern district
of the northern world on the top of Mt. Jatarupa (thirteen leagues from
Jaloda, where the Vadavamukha is found), beneath a three-headed golden
palm-tree; he has eyes as large as a lotus-leaf and is worshipped by all
beings. The name Ananta (endless) is explained in particular as an an-
24 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
tabhoga (R 6, 14, 18, anantabhogena sahasramurdhna nagena as
Rama-Visnu). Nil. interprets anantabhogo bhujagah kridann iva
maharnave, in 4, 55, 22, as an allusion to Sesa. In Bhogavati, Sesa appears
like the White Mountain adorned with gems, having a thousand heads
and fiery tongues (5, 103, 3). The later epic identifies Sesa with Krsna
and Visnu and (Hariv.) even says that he was born of Siva (H 7595); it
also represents him as hanging from a tree in ascetic fervor for a thou
sand years, distilling kalakuta poison from his mouth and thus "burning
the world" (H 12076). He is usually represented as associated with Visnu
rather than with Siva. He comes from Balarama's mouth (snake as in
corporating a soul) and enters earth, being welcomed home by the other
serpents after his Avatar in Baladeva (i, 67, 152 ; 16, 4, 13 ; list of serpents,
ib. 15 ; cf. 1 8, 5, 23). Visnu is Sesatman, but Sesa appears as an independent
cobra coiled over the god (12, 47, 48, phanasahasra), though still up
holding the world (ib. 75). In the laud of Siva, the "chief Naga called
Sesa" serves as the axis of his divine car (Nagendra, 7, 202, 72). According
to i, 65, 41, Sesa, Ananta, Vasuki, and Taksaka are separate sons of
Kadru, but this distinction is ignored and vasuki = pannaga (R 6, 51, 17).
Ananta is £esa, as Ananta dwells under earth, ad ho bhumau, alone
supporting earth, at the order of Brahman and he is "Sesa by name"
(i, 36, 24 and ib. 21 f.). He is bhujamgamottama, best of snakes, and,
as sustainer, Dharma (dharayate), and appears to have got his position
and influence through ascetic practices as a travelling Muni (ib. 7), thus
winning the favor of Brahman who appoints him to his office; after which
Sesa crawls under the earth through a hole and from below upholds it.
The chief serpents (given in the preceding section) are Sesa, oldest and
best, then Vasuki, Airavata, Taksaka, Karkotaka, Dhanamjaya (also Vamana,
Aryaka), etc. some of the names being those of elephants, some referring to
color, some to their sustenance, but others being clan-names, names of
Kurus, Kauravya, Padma, Dhrtarastra; while still other names are those
of saints or heroes, DilTpa, Nahusa, Asvatara, Kapila (3, 84, 32; 5, 103, 15,
etc.). Sesa seems to be the saved remnant, as there was only one good
serpent, a parallel to Vibhisana among the Raksasas (§ 17), as if the god
said jivatu sesah when the others were to perish, "let the remaining
one live" (cf. 6, 121, 52). The name nowhere in the epic (as later) appears
as that of the world-elephant, which would be analogous to the case of
Airavata and Vamana. The Naga-clans embrace human relations, but the
epic indicates rather a belief in divine marriage-relations and introduces,
e. g., as a prospective son-in-law of Matali (§ 68), Sumukha, the son of
Aryaka's son Cikura, who was of the family of Airavata and daughter's
son of Vamana (5, 103, 23 f.). The names indicate, however, that the Kurus
were regarded as a Naga-clan, which raises the question whether their
enemies' name Krivi, Kraivya (connected with *kipi, kipya, worm?) is not
kri-vi — krimi, a worm and a Nagaraja-name. Perhaps the Pane alas
are five snake-clans (ala "poisoner" = Eng. eel). Dhrtarastra, Airavata,
and Dhanamjaya are Vedic Nagas. Cikura may contain the same root
(kri, kir, kur) as cikkira, etc., for it means hair as well as snake, from
the twisting curling form or movement (cf. Grk. KipKO£ and Lat. cirrus)..
But the account of the snake-sacrifice1) in I, 37, nf., shows that any
l) Professor Winternitz, Das Schlangenopfer des Mahabharata, connects the
account of this sacrifice with that of other popular legends, describing the destruction of
serpents by magic formulas compelling them to cast themselves into the fire. Otherwise
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. 25
distinction between snakes and Naga-clans was lost. The snakes are
here called indifferently Nagas, bhujamgamas, sarpas, and pannagas.
They talk and debate (Vasuki addresses them and others reply, Nag ah
panditamaninah, and Elapatra), and they are slain "white, black, and
blue, a kos long or a league long". Some have three heads, some seven,
some ten. Taksaka bites the king and Vasuki intrigues by giving his sister
Jaratkaru to bear Astika (a confused account, 1,38, if; ib, 57, 4 f.). In
I, 123, 70, the chief Nagas are named in a list of divine beings as Kar
kotaka (sarpa), Vasuki (bhujamgama), Kacchapa, Kunda, Taksaka
(mahoragas). In I, 171, 38, a bhogavatl = sarpi is linked with devi,
asurl, etc., as a type of female beauty (Bhogavat! is also the name of a
female devil in Skanda's train, 9,46,8); cf. nagakanyopama subha,
6, 104, 30 etc. Any name implies any snake (gandharvoragaraksasam,
I, 67, 146, etc., cf. Nala, i, 29), except for certain special amphisbaena,
scorpions, etc., whose nature is doubtful. Thus the dundubha and eni-
pada are mentioned in omens as different from sarpas ("the king will
perish if a frog swallows enipadas, or sarpas, or dundubhas", S 2,
69, 35). In 1,9, 21 f., the dundubha is a metamorphosed seer who had
been cursed to become a bhujaga, but (he says), "Bhujagas that bite
men are of other sort; do not hurt the dundubhas, they only smack of
snakes" (ahigandhena, ib. 10, 2f.). Kalasarpa is especially the cobra
(S 3, 158, 48), a rare epic word, usually krsnasarpa or krsnoraga,
whose breathing, panting, is often referred to, as well as its double tongue
(3, 268, 8). The double tongue in I, 34, 23, comes from tasting ambrosia.
Rama's kingdom was free of all pests, including snakes and all creeping
things, adamsamasaka desa nastavyalasarisrpah (7, 59, 16). Mantras
can control snakes and make them harmless (vyaladini, 5,61, 16). Snakes
"controlled in a circle", or overcome, "by Mantras and drugs" are referred
to in R 2, 12, 4 and ib. 3, 29, 28. In 8, 40, 33, hatam vrs~cika te visam
is a reference to AV. 10, 4, 9 and 5, 13, 4. The evil in the eye of (man
or) a snake is called the poison, netravisa, drstivisa (2,64,20; R 6,
101, 54); and in regard to this poison there is, as was to be expected,
a mixture of fact and myth. Narada curses Karkotaka to be immobile till
raised by Nala, and the Naga bites him for the hero's own good (3, 66,
44 f.); the poison here changes his form. The fact that Aryaka was the
grandfather of Kunti's father, dauhitradauhitra, made this Naga give
Bhima, when the hero fell into the river, some of his own power by
letting him drink "snake essence" (1,128, 60 f.; the Pandu as Kuru is thus
of Naga stock). An offering eaten at Maninaga Tlrtha is an antidote for
snake-poison (3, 84, 107; cf. Maninaga in Magadha, 2, 21, 9; Sarpadevi in
3, 83, 14 is another Naga Tlrtha). The mani called samjivana cures
snake-bite and even revitalises dead snakes (14, 80, 42). The distinction
between the poison-snake, asivisa, as "best of sarpas" and Dhrtarastra
as "best of Nagas" (4, 2, I5f.) does not imply that the Naga is of human
clan, as might be thought (S here has drstivisa iva 'hinam). The priest,
Professor Jacobi, who regards the story as the historical reflex of change of habitat, as
a result of which serpents were slain by the monsoon (IS. 14, 149). On Kadru and Vinata
(SuparnT), see the Suparriadhyaya (Hertel, WZKM, 23, 273 and 32of.). The epic SuparnI
is Garudi (3, 225, 10) as a general name for bird, not as mother of Garuda. In JRAS. 1898,
p. 147, Professor Winternitz gives an account of the Grantha version of the sacrifice,
according to which "Brahman gave the power of destroying snake poison to Kasyapa (sic),
and Karkotaka, troubled about Kadru's curse, promises to do his mother's bidding and
turn himself into black hair."
26 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
it is said in 13, 104, 78 f., is superior to the poison-snake inasmuch as the
snake destroys only as far as it can see, while the priest destroys as far
as he can think, as well as destroys as far as he can see (cf. also Magic
Observances, p. 35). The seer Nahusa always has the poison-look (5,
16, 26 and 32), and it is he who, as the ajagara or boa in the tale of
3, 180, 4f., seizes the Pandus and will not let them go till his conundrums
are answered (cf. drstivisa, ghoradrsti, and ghorarupa of Nahusa in
5, 16, 30 and 17, 17). His ascendency and exaltation as the king who lowered
Indra and the gods may reflect Naga power along the Ganges. Serpents
with seven heads and poison-looks guard the White Mountain (3,225, nj,
and the same mountain is noted as containing gudhapadas, which are
visolbana, "strongly poisonous" (as in I, 52, 10). But gudhapada is a
late snake-word, and the scene is late. Incidentally, pitha-sarpa in 3,
35,22 is another late word, applied to the immovable boa (cf. the aja-
gara-vrata of the immovable Muni, 12, 179, 2 f., and 25), not to a "crip
pled" snake (as in PW.; in R 6, 31, 29, panasa, serpent, as in Susruta,
is used with punning reference to Panasa). Poison of the snakes neutra
lising vegetable(?) poison (kalakuta) is referred to in 1,128,57. Other
references to the snake's poison are chiefly proverbial: the serpent unno
ticed in one's clothing; the folly of removing the fang of a poisonous snake;
of kicking a cobra; of playing with snakes; of feeding or waking a
snake, etc. Myth appears when it is said that snakes lose their poison
when Garuda appears (R 3, 56, 6); that they live on air (12, 299, 29); and
in the implication that snakes have invisible legs ("only a snake can see
a snake's legs", 12, 203, 13 = R 5, 42, 9). They are hard to track (12, 132,20)
and they steal jewels left upon the ground (but Yaksas steal them from
the impure and gods from sleepers, 14, 57, 23; cf. i, 3, 128 f.). An Airavata
Naga stole the famous ear-rings (14, 58, 25 f.), when Indra clove a way
underground to recover them with Agni's help as a steed. The casting of
a snake's skin is often used in epic as, less freely, in Vedic literature, to
illustrate how one may free himself from sin, from grief, or even from a
girl (cf. 5, 40, 2 and ib. 175, 19). That "everybody kills snakes" shows no
great dread of their divinity (5, 73, 27) or strained ahimsa feeling.
The Nagas live underground where Sunda goes to slay them (i, 210, 8)
and the Nagaloka described when Matali seeks a son-in-law is entered
by "descending into earth", avagahya bhumim (5,98,6; cf. pravivesa
mahltalam, ib. 97, 21). But it must be remembered that "under earth"
is water, a part of Varuna's domain. "The navel of the Nagaloka is called
Patala because water falls there sufficiently" (patala from patanti alam),
and water-creatures called timis live there on the light of the moon in
the water; also the Mare's Head and creatures slain by sunlight and demons
of darkness (ib. 99, i f.). This city must not be confounded with the Naga-
hvayam puram (S Nagahrado mahan) in the Naimisa forest, where a
Naga is good enough to drag the sun's car for a month (12, 356, 2 and
358, 8); it is said here that Nagas are to be revered as givers of boons,
vandanfya varadah (ib. 361, 4). The water-habitat of the Nagas is indi
rectly indicated in many passages. Kardama is father of Varuna (§ 59).
Ulupi, the daughter-in-law of Airavata, who subsequently gave her (as
widow) to Arjuna, lives in the water, and, when all is over for her, enters
the Ganges again. She is addressed as devi, but this is conventional. She
is Nagarajasnusa and daughter of Kauravya, also sister of Vasuki and
mother of the human hero Iravat, who is tardily but fully explained and
II. THE LOWER MYTHOLOGY. 27
extolled in 6, 90, /f. (cf. I, 214, 18 and 14, 91, 22; it is she who fetches
the reviving jewel). Nagaraja is a common epithet and is used of Kar-
kotaka, Vasuki, Dhrtarastra, etc., as well as of Airavata. According to
4, 2, 14, Arjima carried Ulupi off, hrtavan, but the scholiast, who remem
bers the tale of i, 214, says that this means captivated, not captured.
Ulupi is evidently connected with u lupin = dolphin. She is called also
the "mother" of Babhruvahana, the son of Citrangada, and creeps out of
the earth in 14, 79, 8f., as "offspring of the snake", pannagatmaja,
uragatmaja, Citrangada being also Kauravyaduhitr, as Ulupi is Kau-
ravyakulanandini, that is, daughter of Kauravya (14,81, I and 23;
cf. ib. 5, tarn uvaco 'ragapater duhita prahasann iva, i.e. Ulupi;
S prahasanty atha). The food of the Nagas is sudharasa, as am
brosia is only for the gods (svadha for the seers), and this may be milk
rather than nectar, as the passages where the statement occurs are late
(R 7 > 7> 35 and I3, 26, 49), when the word had this meaning, and milk,
as is well known, is a favorite food of the cobra. The Nagas, cursed by
their mother, go to dwell samudrakuksau (i, 20, 7 and 25, 4), that is,
in the swampy lands at the mouth of the Ganges, though they are repre
sented as carried to the island called Ramanryaka (i, 26, 8). If Citrangada
is of Kauravya descent, Manipur must have been one of the strongholds
of the Naga clan or race. As mythological beings or as historical factors
they are represented, however, as living not only along the Ganges (and
in it) but as inhabitants of the Punjab and the northern mountains, while
as purely mythological they appear on occasion in heaven and the sky.
The "great serpents" are usually Nagas and they live on Gandhamadana
and other hills of the North along with other snakes (3, 159, 19; 6,92,4);
but they are especially associated with a lake in the mountains, and yield
themselves up there, when the Satarudriya is recited (7, 81, I4f.), to form
Siva's pasupatyam divyam, snake-weapon, namely the bow and arrows
of Siva. The fact that arrows are likened to flying snakes leads to the
conversion of serpents into arrows. So in R 6, 103, 18, when Rama's
arrows become birds, Ravana's become real snakes. The Naga As"vasena,
son of Taksaka, had a quarrel with Arjuna dating from Khandava and
went underground, but when that hero fought with Karna, the Naga
"became an arrow" in Kama's quiver and swept off Arjuna's diadem
(given him by Indra), yet, being cursed to be "without base", that is of
no account (i, 227, 5), he did not succeed in killing the hero, who slew
him (8,90, I2f., and ib. 54). In 8,89,89^, serpents as arrows enter earth
and then, having taken a bath, return to fight (needing contact with their
native environment to strengthen themselves, like Antaeus). For gold-
guarding serpents in the mountains (7, 93, 34, etc.), see Kubera (§ 83 — 90).
The king of "lovely Bhogavati" (i, 207, 31; ib. 51; 3, 57, 5, etc.) is
Vasuki (5, 186, 27), who has a Tfrtha at Prayaga (3, 85,86), called Bhoga
vati, and, if the text is right, those who visit the Godavarf obtain his
world (ib. 34, Vasuker lokam, v. 1. Vayulokam ca). His abode in 9,
37, 30 is Nagadhanvan on the Bhogavati or the SarasvatI (cf. 3, 24, 20),
where Vasuki appears as king of pannagas and "there is no fear of
snakes there" (ib. 33). It was here he was consecrated king and at the
Tirtha there live 14,000 seers. Nagadvipa (6, 6, 55) is one "ear of the
hare", whose other ear is Kasyapa-land (see § 6). Like Dhanamjaya
and Kumari live Vasuki and his wife Sataslrsa, ruling over Bhogavati in
the South, which he guards (5, 117, I7f.; ib. 103, 9; ib. 109, 19), and with
28 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
him live Taksaka, Airavata, and other "sons of Surasa", Nagas marked
with gems, gourds, discus, and svastika (cf. H 3934), having three, seven,
ten, one hundred, five hundred, or even a thousand heads (3esa himself
lives there), great bhogas, coils, and great bodies, and they are called
in general "sons of Kasyapa" (5, 103, 5f.). Surasa is called Nagamatr
and lives in the ocean, whence she rose in demoniac shape (persuaded
by the gods to interfere with Hanumat!); she is called Daksayani (R 5, I,
145 f. and ib. 58, 21). Like Citrangada she has the name of an Apsaras.
Vasuki is especially associated with Sesa in the churning of the ocean,
where he acts as cord of the churn, his mouth being held by the Asuras
and his tail by the gods (i, 18, /f.; cf. R 1,45, 18). He is himself revered
like a god and has a shrine in the asylum of Agastya (§ 20).
Valmiki speaks of "serpents having the form of gods", devakalpah
pannagah (R 5, 1,6), as associates of Yaksas, etc., on Mt. Mahendra ; and
in Mbh. hero-praising hosts and rows, nagavithi, of serpents fill the cars
of saints in heaven (13, 107, 57; cf. 7, 145, 78).
R recognises the same leading Nagas as does Mbh. Vasuki, Taksaka,
(R3, 32, 13), Sankha, and Jatin (new) are conquered by Ravana (R 6, 7,9).
Their power is admitted (R 3, 38, i) and the beauty of their females (R 5,
12,21, captured; R 7,88,14, na devlsu na nagisu . . drstapurva).
Valmiki (R 4, 41, 37) also places Bhogavatf far to the south (near Agastya's
hermitage!) and calls Vasuki its sarparaja. Historically important is
Nagahvaya city (above) as the place where the Dharmacakra started, on
the banks of the GomatI, and the same as a title of Buddha on the one
hand and of the Kuru or Pandu city (Nagahva = Hastinapura) on the other.
Also the appearance in the great war of serpents, uragas as Nagas,
acting as chariot-warriors, just like human heroes, is remarkable. The
form and ornaments of Nagas are those of heroes idealised (5, 169, 17 and
2,9, ii). The "many-headed" Nagas start with the comparison of a snake
with an arm. The arm ends in five fingers, and is first said to be like
a fat, smooth snake, then like a five-headed (the fingers) snake. It is
for this reason that the five heads (mouths) are commoner than three or
any other number (cf. 3, 157,67, samhrtya mustim pancasirsam ivo
'ragam,where the fist is the five-headed snake). Apart from this notion,
the Nagas carry banners, etc. in battle and wear svastikas, particularly
the Magadha Nagas; a Naga called Svastika lives in that district. In the
domain of mythology, the great snake of the deep of an older period
appears to have become an idle name, Ahi Budhnya, except for his con
nection with the finding of treasure, where he appears as the archetype
of "treasure keeping" serpents (§ 83), and his reappearance as a Rudra
(§ 113) or name of Siva, the god wreathed in serpents. The Nagas are
anyway bhumisaya (7,201,24) and living underground have naturally
charge of its metallic wealth.
The superstition of snake-birth may also be mentioned as of mytho
logical value. The seizer, grahf, Kadru, takes a subtile form and enters
a pregnant woman, who then gives birth to a snake (3, 230, 37). There
seems to be no reason to separate this fiend from the daughter of Pra-
japati and Vinata (i, 16 and 21 f.). Historically the most important Naga
is undoubtedly Taksaka. He takes the side of Arjuna in battle, as do
Vasuki, Citrasena, Manika, and all the Kadraveya serpents, as well as the
Airavatas, Saurabheyas, and Vaisaleyas (bhoginah, 8, 87, 43f.)- Here S
has Taksaka and Upataksaka. Vaisaleya (AV. 8, 10, 29; Sankh. GS. 4, 18, i)
III. SPIRITS. 29
is an old patronymic of Taksaka and probably is to be taken so here.
Taksaka is still the venomous, visolbana, Naga (6, 107, 15), according
to S 4, 3, 28, the foremost of serpents, but his name, the "builder",
and his especial glory (8,79,94, "glorious as Taksakabhoja") show or
indicate an historical character. He does not live in Magadha, as do
Arbuda and Svastika, but in the West, as Khandava is represented to be
the alayah pannagendrasya Taksakasya mahatmanah (S I, 248, 23),
or, "he used to live in Khandava and Kuruksetra" (i, 3, 139; 223, 7), where
he was the especial friend _of Indra, to whose heaven he went, though
suspended in air through Astlka's crying to him (i, 53, 18; 58,2). By
slaying Janamejaya's father he caused the eventual overthrow of the
Nagas (i, 3,141 f.), an act committed ostensibly because of the king's
despite of Brahmanic priests (i, 41), but really in revenge. He is Nagaraja
as well as bhujagottama (1,227,4; 228,16). When it is said that he
lives in Kashmir, it must be remembered that the Kasmlramandala extends
to Kuruksetra (3,82,90). Upataksaka is mentioned only above (v. 1. S 8,
91,45) and R 7, 23, pra. 5,23 (with Karkotaka, Kambala, Advatara, Dha-
namjaya, Airavata, Sesa, and Vasuki). It was Janamejaya who conquered
Taksasila (i, 3, 2O). R distinguishes between Taksaka, whose wife was
carried off by Ravana (R 3,32, 14; ib. 6, 7,9) and Taksa (R 7, 101, n) as
"son of Bharata" and founder of Taksasila in Gandharva-land as opposed
to Gandhara-land, the other side of the Indus. The fate of all lower
animals is supposed to be like that of men. Even fishes go to heaven
(13, 51, 39 f-, "go to heaven with your fishes . . on this the Nisadas went
to heaven with the fishes", saha matsyair divam yayuh); cf. also under
horses, elephants, etc. The change of a nymph into a fish is not extra
ordinary (see Apsarasas, § 87). The Fish-Avatar is discussed in § 142. For
other animal Avatars, see § 148. The Tortoise is not an Avatar in I, 18,
where it upholds the mountain Mandara at the churning of ocean, but it
becomes an Avatar of Hari in R pra. I, 45 (VP. 1,9), originally of (Brahman)
Prajapati (SB. 7, 4, 3, 5), perhaps still earlier a totem of the Bharatas.
III. SPIRITS.
§ 14. Pretas. — Through all periods from the Vedic age onward spirits
known as ghosts, beings, and Fathers have been the object of a pious
regard, expressed by both fear and devotion. They may be said to be
spirits indifferently good or bad. The Pretas are embryonic Pitrs (Fathers).
The newly dead is a Preta or Pareta ("departed''^ ghost; the one long
dead is a Pitr (Father divinity). The Pitrs are the divinities even of gods.
Only Pitrs are divided into formal classes. The Pretas, as they are simpler
and logically precede, may be discussed first. In both epics Preta is the
usual form, but R uses also Pareta (2,63, 15; cf. paretakale, "at the
time of dying", R 3, 51, 31), and Paretaraj is later use for Pretaraj (Pre-
takalpa is like gatayus, used of men almost dead, R 3, 41, 20; pret-
yabhava is death, R 4, 22, 18, etc.). Yama is lord not only of the Pitrs but
of the Pretas; Pretaradvisayam gata = Yamalokagata (R 6, 79, 14).
Pretaloka is the antithesis of jivaloka (7, 39, 24, etc.), the world of dead
and that of the living. But the Preta though not alive is lively enough,
and even the long dead Pitr is an active element in the living world.
After Dasaratha has been dead for years, he appears in the sight of man,
raised by Mahesvara, and stands dressed in bright garments, devoid of
3O III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
dust, and says he will never forgive Kaikeyl. Then be changes his mind,
forgives her, and blesses Rama, whom he embraces, and finally goes back
to Indra's heaven (R 6, 122, iof.). To return really from death to life is
possible if a god permits, or one can give a part of one's life to another
who is dead and so revive the dead. Indra gives back to life even the
monkeys slain for Rama (ib. 123, iof.) and all the Pretas rise not only in
vision but in reality when divine power exerts itself (^15, 33, if.; see also
§ 4 on the samjivana). But usually the Pretas appear in ghastly battle-
scenes (3, 173, 48, etc.) as demoniac forms dancing with Pisacas and Bhuts
(§ 16 — 17) amid carnage (7, 146, 36); nor are they silent. The noise of
a tumult is "like that of shrieking ghosts", pretanam krandatam iva
(7, 171,9). They are, however, described as senseless, though perhaps
stupid is the real meaning: those suffering in battle cry to the heroes,
"as the witless dead shriek to their king", Arjunam krosanti pretara-
japure yadvat pretarajam vicetasah (8,64, 59; cf. 10, 5, 13, preta
iva vicetasah, sc. svapanti, sleep "like the senseless dead"). The
voices of the wounded are like those of the dead (Pretas): "dreadful
voices of those who shriek in battle like those who are dead" (in hell?
6, 46, 19). Those who are killed are said to be "gone (led) into the power
of the Pretas", gata (nita) pretavasam (3, 313, 29; S I, 171, 64), but
probably the apparent implication of power in the ghosts is due to this
being a shortened form of expression for the usual phrase, pretaraja-
vasam ("dead" is pretlbhuta, pretaga, °gata, 7, 19, 37; 5, 40, 16; R 4,
30,22, pretagatam Yamaksaye; sampretya in 13, 1980 is not in B,
58, n, nor S 93, n, but param gatim asampretya, 5, 65, 3, is "while
still alive"). The Pretas are, in a word, not honored by the poets. In the
course of time, if honored by their relations with burial of the corpse
and offerings to the ghost, they become honored by all as divine Fathers,
but till then they belong neither to gods nor men, and so are like out
casts, cyuta devamanusyebhyo yatha pretas tathai 'va te (sinners
and outcasts are "cast out from gods and men like Pretas", 12, 109, 25).
Hence they must be offered food, pretabhavanugam vasu (S pretya-
bhava); food "reaching the dead" is given by a man for his sons (15,
8, 9). Compare pretyabhavikam Ihante aihalaukikam eva ca (14, 37,
17) as "after death and here", and in S 12, 32, 36, raksa svadharmam,
Kaunteya, sreyan yah pretyabhavikah (B 33, 48, has pretya, Bha-
rata). The Pretas do not appear as individuals so much as hosts or troops.
The identity of Pretas and Pitrs (in the end) may be shown by such a
remark as that of Bhima (4, 22, 4), when he says that he will kill the
Kicaka and expresses himself thus: "I will cause him to see his grand-
sires dead of old" (purvapretan pitamahan). Pretarajapuram as the
city of Yama is a commonplace, as the bourne from which there is no
return (7,93, 19; durdarsam, ib. 132, 33; but ib. 135, 14, "one might
return from that city but not from this antagonist", in extravagant laud).
Yama's city is "full of ghosts" (i, 173, 43, abhavat Pretarajasya puram
pretair iva 'vrtam). To perform the Pretakrtyani (°karya, °karman)
or ceremonies for the dead, renders one impure (tabu). After the funeral
one becomes pure again (7, 52, 30). As objects of worship the Pretas are
low down in the religious scale, being classed with the Bhuts. The men
of purest soul worship gods; those of middle sort (passionate) worship
Yaksas and Raksasas; those of the lowest sort, whose souls are in dark
ness, worship Pretas and bands of Bhuts (6, 41, 4). Together with Bhuts,
III. SPIRITS. 31
Pretas are often associated with Pisacas and other "wanderers by night".
They are conjoined with the Pitrs in the phrase pitrrajanicarah (7,73,
48), where the group is opposed to gods and Asuras, etc.; but when the
saint says that he sees in Visnu's stomach "Guhyakas and Pitrs", pasyami
Guhyakan pitaras tatha (3, 188, 119), he makes a similar connection
as loose as his grammar, for in fact the Pitrs have about as little to do
with the one as with the other. The Pretas dance with Bhiits and PiSacas
not only on battle-fields but in burial-grounds; yet the burial-ground is
not called theirs but the "grove of the Pitrs". As the gods have their
Devavana, so the Fathers have their Pitrvana (pretavana is a later word),
and it is said, sarve pitrvanam praptah svapanti vigatajvarah,
"after life's (fitful) fever they sleep well, who reach the Fathers' grove"
(n, 3, 5; and C 119 = 4,16; B and S have °tvacah), to render it almost
literally in Shakespeare's words. Certain inconsistencies in belief are to
be found, as with all people who believe in both ghost and soul. Thus
it is absurd to suppose that the Preta within a few days of death and
before the funeral has already "gone to the third heaven", as is asserted
in n, 9, 17. Compare ib. 17, 32: "This hero has already gained the worlds
won by prowess, if tradition and revelation are true" (agamah and
srutayah). The supposition that a hero is instantly carried up to heaven
is, however, if not orthodox, at least a common idea. So the wife, already
jealous of her dead husband who still lies unburied, cries (n, 20, 25 f.):
"Whom dost thou now speak to, as if to me, after going to the Pitr-world?
Wilt thou now in heaven disturb the hearts of the nymphs (Apsarasas)
with thy beauty, gaining the world of the nymphs and righteous and asso
ciating with nymphs?" (idanlm and nunam). It is after this that the
"priests with matted locks pile the mound and light the fires and sing
the three Samans while they lament" (at the funeral, II, 23, 38 f.). Yudhi-
sthira says (ib. 26, 12): "Those who have sacrificed their bodies (in battle)
have obtained worlds like those of Devaraj . . or have gone to the Gan-
dharvas . . or, even if cowardly, have gone to the Guhyakas, or have gone
to the Uttara Kurus" (Hyperboreans), that is, before the Pitrmedhas (of
26, 39) were performed, when "the noise of Samans and Fleas and of
women weeping caused consternation in all beings" (sarvabhutanam,
ib. 40), after which the kriyas were performed, that is, the water- cere
monies, which are called particularly the salilakriyah (27,4) or udaka-
karman (ib. 27), this last immediately preceding the Pretakrtya (ib. 28)
or Sraddha (see below).
§ 15. The Pitrs. -- The Fathers are divided into separate classes,
but the classes are not fixed. By analogy with other hebdomads there
are seven Pitrvamsas (13,91, 28), described as associating with the All-gods
(who in Vedic literature include them; visve devas ca ye nityam
Pitrbhih saha gocarah, ib. 24). They are also regarded as Pitamahas,
the seven beginning with Brahman (in connection with the Sraddha, 13,
92, 22; pitamaha for pitr also I, 214, 12, etc.). By means of the Sraddha
feast "the Pretas are released", that is the ghosts become raised to the
rank of Pitrs. The feast begins with an offering to Fire (Agni), who saves
the Fathers from indigestion (13,92,11). When water is brought, one
offering is made to the water-god Varuna, and at the same time one to
Soma, as the god of the Fathers. This differs slightly from Manu, 3, 211,
where the offerings are to Agni, Soma, and Yama (food-details as in the
law-books). The Fathers are worshipped not only by men but even by
32 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
gods, demons, serpents, Pisacas, Kimnaras, etc. (ib. 87, 5), not after but
before the gods (monthly, before the new moon becomes visible, the gods
after it becomes visible), the afternoon being the right time, to agree with
the after-half of the month (dark half). But every day is appropriate in
the light half of the month except the deadly fourteenth day (13,87,6,
and i8f. and Manu 3, 123). Demons (Asuras) and the Asurendra get all
the worshipper eats when facing south; Yatudhanas and Pisacas get the
feast if no sesame is given, or if it is performed by a Krodhavasa (ib. 90,
igf.; this is "Yama's rule"). Atri first taught Nimi to give a feast to the
Fathers instead of offering it "to the soul of his son" (ib. 91, 20). The
cakes are offered first to one's father, then to one's grandfather, then to
one's great-grandfather, and the Savitrl verse should be recited over each
cake. A verse is said also to Soma as to the Pitrmat god (ib. 92, 15, Soma-
ye 'ti ca vaktavyam tatha pitrmate 'ti ca). Monthly Sraddhas and
daily offerings are made to the Fathers, and whenever one is in danger,
as when one crosses water in an ox-cart (13, 92, i6f.). In this case the
offering may be a handful of water, presented first to one's ancestors and
then to those of friends and relations (the aupaharikam offering is that
of Manu 3,273^, in 13, 126,35). These offerings are known as Sraddha,
Pitryajria, Pitrmedha, and Aupaharika. The special god of the Fathers is
Yama Pitrpati and Pitrraja or Soma Pitrmat. Only an atheist would dis
regard the Fathers. Compare R 2, 108, I4f. Jabali, in regard to the astaka-
(Manu 4, 150) pitrdaivatyam, says that the dead cannot eat, yet he is
an unbeliever. But the Moksa doctrine also ignores the cult of the Fathers
(12, 289, 22f.). Elsewhere the Fathers are regarded as objects of reverence
and proper recipients of prayers and sacrifice. Their wish is law, even
in details. One must not chew a tooth-pick on the new moon's day
because the Fathers do not like one to do so, since it hurts the new
moon (13, 127, 4f.). Most of the Sraddha rules concern themselves,
however, with the persons who may take part in the feast, not with the
Fathers' wishes. These persons include the proper relations and proper
people; excluded are diseased persons, "women with their ears cut
off", etc., the rules being referred to the Fathers as authority (sermon
by the Pitrs, 13, 125, i8f.). Much is old legal material but no one need
fear to admit that much of this is also new and foisted upon the Pitrs,
who serve as stalking-horses, like gods and demons, for the writers of
the later epic to impress trite morality but also to bring in new rules.
For example, in 13, 129,2: "An adulterer and a thief are not conversible
to the Pitrs and neither they nor gods will accept the offerings of such
sinners" (asambhasya bhavanty ete Pitfnam, etc.) is a perfectly good
old rule in new form; but in 13, 125, 73 f. the statement that the Pitrs are
so delighted with the freeing of a blue bull (cf. 3, 2, 57 f.) and with offerings
of water and sesame and with the lighting of lamps that one thereby frees
himself of all debts to his ancestors, even startles Vrddha Gargya so that
his hair rises on his head and he asks, "What is the use of setting free
blue bulls?" and is only quieted by the direct statement on the part of
the Pitrs themselves that they rejoice for sixty thousand years if their
descendant sets free a blue bull which urinates. The talk of the Pitrs
here begins with a question of connubial intercourse on Sraddha days and
is carried on with a messenger of the physician gods (the Asvins). It also
takes up the disposition of rice-cakes at a Sraddha. The first cake is
cast into water and goes to the moon; the second is given to the wife
III. SPIRITS. 33
of the deceased; and the third is cast into fire (ib. I9f.). The rice-cake
of the Moon pleases the god and then (so) pleases the Pitrs; that eaten
by the wife causes the Pitamahas (= Pitrs) to give a son to one who
wishes offspring; that cast into fire makes the Pitrs happy, so that they
grant wishes, etc. The Fttvij of a sacrificer becomes his Pitr (pitrtvam
anugacchati) and hence he must avoid connubial intercourse on that
day (etc., etc.; the S text adds a mass of matter on these "gods of gods"
and their feast). Offerings of grain, etc., to the Pitrs are purificatory and
apart from special cases they are made to the Pitrs on the eighth day
(astaka) after the full moon; especially at the beginning of winter or
"when autumn is over and men desire more, and clothe themselves in
skins, and set out on expeditions, and Himavat is really the home of
snow, the sun having lingered long in the southern declension" (R 3, 16,
6f., navagra yanapujabhir abhyarcya pitrdevatah, etc., sevamane
drdham surye disam Antaka-(v. 1. Agastya-)sevitam). In the special
case where the king's body has been burned, after being embalmed in
oil, ten days of mourning pass and the funeral feast is offered on the
twelfth, with rich gifts to the priests as an aurdhvadaihikam of the
departed (to make him happy), and on the thirteenth day is performed
the sodhana or collection of his bones (purification), as described in
R 2, 77, i — 5 (see below). As to the food offered, the same general rule
obtains (yadannah) as is applied in the case of the gods: "What a man
eats, his gods eat" (R 2, 102, 30, etc.).
Allusion has been made above to the seven families of Fathers,
divided according to the seers. In 3, 3, 43, seven ganas or troops of
Pitrs probably refer to the distinction made between the kinds mentioned
as living at the court of Brahman, where are to be found "Agnisvattas,
Phenapas, Usmapas, Sudhavatas, Barhisadas, and others incorporate".
Compare 2, ii,44f.: "Fathers swift as thought, in seven ganas, four being
murtimantas (embodied) and three asaririnas" (having no body; but
S with B, saririnah). The Agnisvattas and Somasadas in Manu are
the Pitrs of the gods and the Sadhyas, respectively, while the Barhisadas
are the Pitrs of the Daityas, Danavas (etc., Manu 3, 195 f.) and are here
also declared to be the sons of the seers, Marici, Atri, etc. The three
epic asaririnas are Vairajas, Agnisvattas, and Garhapatyas (= Barhisadas),
who are all nakacaras, i. e. "they wander in the vault of heaven", and
worship Brahman. The four murtimantas are Somapas, Ekasr&gas (Uni
corns), Caturvedas, and Kalas, who are worshipped among the four castes
and with the others form part of the court of Prajapati: "when these are
satisfied (filled), then divine Soma is also filled" (etair apyayitaih pur-
vam Somas ca 'pyayyate punali, ib. 48). This division is also recognised
in H 936, where it is said that the gods revere the Vairaja Pitrs; but
otherwise no such formal division is recognised, only the various classes
are mentioned on occasion as Somapas, etc. The ganas here described
appear to belong to the later epic, the Unicorns, Four- Veda Pitrs, and
Kalas being known only from this passage, perhaps an extension of the
older groups, called Somavantas, Barhisadas, and Agnisvattas, as they are
in ^B. 2,6, i, 4 f., where the Pitrs are identified with the seasons. The six
seasons and seven families are then equated with groups of Pitrs. But
even in the ordered account of Manu there are different and confusing
systems involved and in the epic it is quite impossible to get any con
sistent grouping. Thus in 12,270,15, Pitrs who "approve of Mantras for
Indo-Aryan Research. III. r b. 3
34 IH. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
the dead" are cited as Arcismantas, Barhisadas, and Kravyadas, by whom
the Moksa doctrine is contradicted (inferentially). The Usmapas appear
to be one with the Somapas, but the latter title is also applied to any
who drink Soma (thus kings are Somapas, 5, 152, 18). The Phenapas,
"foam-drinkers" are said to be those "excellent Munis" who live on the
froth of the Ocean of Milk and are feared by the gods (5, 102,6); but in
13, 141, Q7f., the Phenapas are Rsis who drink foam left over from am
brosia drunk by Brahman at sacrifices. One class often represents the
Fathers in general, as when Usmapas are grouped as worshippers of Visnu
with Rudras, Adityas, Vasus, Sadhyas, All-gods, Asvins, Maruts, Gan-
dharvas, Yaksas, Asuras, and Siddhas (6, 35,22 f.). In 5,109,2, they are
assigned to the South (the general region of the Pitrs), as opposed to the
Dhumapas of the East, and are called Devas, the Dhumapas being Munis
(ib. 108, 14). With Usmapas and Dhumapas are grouped Kslrapas (13, 14, 56),
but they are merely ascetic priests (see §§ 118 — 126). In the later epic
any number of these "drinkers" (cf. Ghrtapas, etc., below) are predicated
as heavenly beings. The Pitrs are called "divinities even of the gods"
in 9, 44, 32 f., where the Pitrs visit Skanda (cf. Yamas and Dhamas under
Yama). Manu's Sukalins (M 3, 197) are the Sukalas of H 985 (ib. 932, the
seven ganas are as above, four murtimantas and three amurtimantas).
The Fathers, whose very existence depends upon descendants (1,179,
14 f.), are naturally opposed to too much asceticism. They advise against
suicide (ib.) and anxiously ask: "Will our son or grandson give us food?"
(13,63,20). This of course refers to the ordinary Fathers, not those who
"exist on froth", etc. One feeds them with svadha, as gods with Soma
(12,29,116). It is their main preoccupation to get something to eat, but
they continue to show an interest in the affairs of their family and occa
sionally come to help their descendants. Thus eight Fathers in the shape
of birds (souls in bird-shape) hold up the fainting BhTsma. On different
occasions they resemble planets in glory, hold one up, give him water
to drink; give Bhisma advice as to the best weapon to use, reconsider the
matter and advise him not to do as they had advised, etc. Pitrs appear
in battle or as a vision at night, and are called svadhabhujas, Fathers,
Munis, and Vipramukhyas. They are not only "like planets", grahas, they
are stars; but the souls of saints appear as stars, falling stars when their
merit is exhausted (5,182,14^; 6,119,97; 3,42,35, etc.). Their usual
appearance is "in the form of mortals", martyamurtidharah (3,41,9),
but glorified. A Pitrgraha, however, is a "Father-demon" who attacks
people and makes them go mad (3, 230, 48), as contrasted with similar
fiends called Devagraha, Gandharvagraha, etc.; here the Pitr is acting as
a fiend. The Pitrs of the South are associated with the All-gods, Pitr-
lokarsis, Devarsis, and Rajarsis (5, 109, 5). The "course pursued by Pitrs,
Paitamahas, and Rajarsis" is the course of moral conduct for man to
follow. The "favorite district of the Fathers" is the South (pitrjusta
dik, 7, 17, 37); pitrsadana = Yamasadana (8, 77, 44); cf. pitrrajasrita
dik (2,46,15) and dik pitfnam as"iva (5,66,14). The chief Father is
the eponymous hero Aryaman (6, 34, 29). The intimate relation existing
between the Fathers and descendants may be shown by the fact that the
Fathers become hysterical when a child is born, wondering if he will
bring good or ill to the Fathers ("3, 159, 13; "the Fathers in the world of
Fathers grieve and laugh", that is become hysterical). Agastya sees his
Fathers hanging upside down in a pit because he has given them no
III. SPIRITS. 35
descendants, and converses with them (3,96,14). Similar is the tale of
Jaratkaru (i, 13, 18). Mandapala lacking children could not stay in Pitr-
loka and became a bird (1,229, 5 f.).
The Fathers are called lokabhavanas, "world -creators" (3, 41, 9),
as they are among the creative forces by virtue of being ancestors of
the gods, purvadevas. The special path, as distinguished from that of
the gods, followed by the Pitrs (Pitryana) is (morally) one attained by
sacrifices and practical duties (3, 2, 75 f.; ib. 41, 9). All duties are arranged
in two groups, sacrifice, study, liberality, austerity in one, and truth, for
giveness, self-restraint, and lack of greed in the other. The first group
is said in 3, 2, 75 to be Pitryane sthitah (but elsewhere in the epic,
as in Hit. 2, 1,7, the first group is dambhartham, 5, 35, 57). As 3, 2 =
12, 7 is late, this Pitryana interpretation is probably secondary, though
the general idea is old (cf. TS. 5, 7, 2, 3 and Chand. Up. 5, 10, I f.). Physical
interpretation of the "Path of the Fathers" is more common. This is the
path leading to the Moon (13, 16,45), but also the path to the South, as
that is where the Fathers live; but this is interpreted as the sun's dak-
sinapatha or daksinayana (southern course, summer-time to winter).
The northern path is followed by those who live a life of renunciation
or quietism; that by the South, daksinena, is for those who follow the
life of active religion, moral but not philosophic. It is also a "glorious"
course, leading to the Moon and aiding priests, all of whom are supported
by men of action (12, 19, 13 f.). The South is the path of Aryaman, of acts,
and ceremonies; the North is the path of Purvavids and Yogins (12, 26, 9f.).
Among the Pitrs appear also the Rsis (§ 118), and they cannot always be
distinguished from Pitrs. Thus the Vaikhanasas are Pitrs and Rsis, and
"Father Rsis who have gone to heaven by means of study" are the Ajas,
Prsnis, Sikatas, Arunas, and Ketus, who belong to the Vaikhanasa school
(12, 26, /f.). The Sikatas and Prsnis appear again with Somapas, Ghrtapas,
Valakhilyas, Prabhasas, Vaisvanaras, and Maricipas, as families of Rsis
(12, 166, 24; also in 7, 190, 34, as Maharsis). See also Yama, "king of
Pretas", "king of Pitrs", etc., and Rsis (§ 54 f.; § n8f.).
It is in all likelihood owing to the old-time identification of the
Pitrs with the seasons that the Rbhus (in 12,208,22 mentioned with the
Maruts, but otherwise well-nigh ignored in epic poetry) are in 3, 261, igi.
exalted as the highest divinities. Their earlier names are lost to the epic,
though Vaja appears as son of a Manu in the Hariv. 465, and even as a
group they are conspicuously absent from epical groupings of gods. But
in this passage of Vana they appear as inhabitants of Brahman's heaven
and "even divinities revere them", for "they are the divinities even of
the gods", devanam api devatalj, and their self-moving world, self-
illuminated, is one of wholly supersensuous beings. In their heaven is no
"woman-made woe", no greed of world-lordship, no hunger, thirst, grief,
sweat of toil, evil smell or bad air, nor other disagreeable things. No dust
is there, and their garlands, as of gods, never fade; for their heaven is
above the heaven where "those who are about to fall perceive their flowers
wither", in the pure region of Meru, and thirty-three thousand leagues in
extent. The Rbhus are also thirty-three according to the B text, but this
is impossible and the S text has for ime devalj, which should be the
Rbhus (trayastrimsad ime deva yesam loka manisibhir gamyante),
trayastrimsad ime lokah sesa lokah, etc. (that is, "the worlds are
thirty-three; the remaining worlds are attainable by the wise"). These
3*
36 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Bbhus "have no oblation, drink no ambrosia, have heavenly bodies, and
are invisible (vigrahamurtayah); they seek no joy in joy; they are the
eternal gods of gods (devadevah sanatanafy), who change not as the
aeons change, know neither age not death, weal nor woe, possessing a
lot desired even of the gods; since it is unattainable to those subject to
desire, but attainable to those who have cast off desire and are become
truly wise". This extraordinary exaltation of the Rbhus treats them as a
group of beings who, for no apparent reason, have become the highest
exponents of spiritual life. The Hariv. 436 f., makes the Rbhus one of five
devaganas of the Caksusa Manu (in the sixth Manvantara), a list which,
as the Lekhas show, is post-epical: /\pyah Prabhuta Rbhavali Pr-
thukas' ca divaukasalj, Lekha nama. Every group here is handed
down in other forms, but the Lekhas have a doubtful individuality as
beings set beside Yaksas and Apsarasas (forms of parts of the personal
incorporate Visnu, Hariv. 14269) and regarded as Father-gods or gods
who are also Pitrs (13, 18, 74, with Somapas and Usmapas as a group of
gods, but with_v. 1. loka for Lekha). In VP. 3, I, 27, the Rbhus are replaced
by Bhavyas (Adyas, Prasrtas, Bhavyas, Prthagas, Lekhas (sic B, for Pras-
tutas and Prthugas; here numbered with eight members to the group). It
appears as if the Rbhus thus exalted must be Pitrs; in which case the
old equation of Pitrs and seasons must have been in the mind of the
poet, for the Rbhus represent the (originally) three seasons as creative
forces. At least there seems to be no other reason for this late and sudden
eulogium on beings so epically inconspicuous as the Rbhus, and the
expression "gods of gods" used of a group (for devadeva is singly
applied to several gods) can apply only to Pitrs (cf. above where Pitrs
are revered by gods, and Manu's group of Pitrs as "Pitrs of gods"). The
complete identification, as ekfbhuta, of gods (Devas) and Pitrs is rather
a late touch made by Agni (i, 7, 9), who himself distinguishes them as
two classes worshipped respectively at the new and full moon.
§ 16. The Bhuts. - - The Bhutas (or Bhutani) are indistinct to the
epic poets, who have not yet arranged the genealogy of spirits so as to
make the Bhuts derive from Krodha, as is done in H 11554; nor, as in
VP. i, 5, 44, from Brahman kruddha (ib. 1,21,25, they and Pi^acas come
from Krodha). They are not yet clearly ghosts, but they lie between ghosts
and other Pisitasinas ("eaters of raw flesh"). Evil Bhuts are closely asso
ciated with ghosts in the epic and in modern times Bhuts are identified
with Pretas, the concept including imps, ghosts, and goblins. In the epics,
apart from such use as appears in Bhutakrt and Bhutakarman (names of
the creator), Bhutadhaman (a son of Indra, i, 197, 29), Bhutadhara (as
earth, RG 4, 44, 129, but with v. 1.), the Bhut as a spiritual being is not
so much an imp as he is a great fiend. In general, Bhut is any creature,
Kalafr pacati bhutani (11, 2, 24 = Mait. Up. 6, 15), but as a malicious
demon its nearest parallel is found in Sattva, "being" and spirit, good
or bad, but with a tendency toward evil. Thus in R 2, 33, 8f., the people
press about to see the exiles, "Sita whom not even the BhQts going in
space have seen", and they exclaim, "Dasaratha speaks as if possessed
by a Sattva" (sattvam avisya, S; sattvenavistacetanah, G; ib. 10 =
Mbh. S 2, 101, 10, satyam! This whole section is stolen from R with required
changes in names!). Compare R 2, 58, 34, Bhutopahatacitte 'va, of a
woman. Bhuts are akasaga, but especially are they night- wanderers,
naisani, going with Yaksas, Raksasas, etc., in troops, all described as
III. SPIRITS. 37
raudrah, pisitasanah (R i, 34, i/f.). People think a Bhut or Raksas
committed the "more than human" act of killing Drstadyumna horribly at
night (10, 8, 26 and 32). Man's mountain foes are hidden Bhuts and Rak-
§asas (3, 140, i and 12). The Bhuts are "huge and very strong" and are
countered by austerity and fire-lauds (see Agni). A traveller is apt to
suffer from them (i, 143, 18). Sattvas and Bhuta-gramas follow an army
desiring blood (R 7, 100, 23). At home, they are the recipients cf offerings,
bali, coming regularly after gods and between guests and Pitrs in the
order of distribution (3, 193, 32; in 13, 93, 15, the samsritas, servants of
the house, are fed first and Bhuts are omitted). In the wilds, Sita begins
with a bali to Bhuts (agram pradaya Bhutebhyah, R 2, 95, 36, Prak-
sip.); cf. Manu, 3, 90, etc. Bhutasanghas applaud heroes in battle (7, 122,
68) and Bhutani call bravo (R 3, 51, 21). Bhuts of the air may be any
beings, as khecara, khacara, is applied to gods, Gandharvas, and
Raksasas, as well as to Bhuts (1,210,7), an^ even Siddhas are Bhutani
khacarani (R 4, 59, 18 — 19). They are usually called naktamcaras,
nisacaras, expressions applied, however, more often to their companion
Raksasas (R 5,5,9, naktamcarah "extraordinarily cruel", atyadbhuta-
raudravrttah; cf. ib. 7, 37, Prak. 5,28, ksanadacaras, night-going
fiends), as in 3, 155, 33, praseduh ksanadacarah, of the Krodhavasa
Raksasas. A wise man "bows his head to Pitrs, gods, and night-wandering
Bhuts", before going to bed (5, 183, i f.). Bhuts are thus of three cate
gories, the indifferent (abhayam yasya bhutebhyah sarvesam abha-
yam yatah . . sarvabhutahito maitrah, 5, 63, I9f., "[wise is he]
who fears no beings and none fears him"), the hostile, and the kind. All
the night-wandering demoniac Bhuts belong among the hostiles, and the
groups under £iva Bhutapati (3, 38, 32), dangerous demons of the moun
tains (cf. 2, 3, 14 and R 6, 71, 13, arcismadbhir vrto bhati Bhutair
iva Mahesvarah). Like the "play- ground of Rudra" appears a field of
corpses filled with Bhuts, Pisacas, Raksas, and other flesh-eating night-
wanderers (n,6, 12, and often). Kindly Bhuts honor a hero (7,37,37) and
guard him or lament his fall (R 3, 52, 41; ib. 6, 91, 62), and these are in
cluded when one offers a bali with that to the gods and Pitrs, as beings
potentially evil but probably disinclined to injure the householder who
shows them respect (cf. VS. I, n). As such they are very likely confused
with the Pretas or ghosts. The mahabhutam as "element" may be re
placed by bhutam, and, conversely, both bhutam mahat and maha
bhutam may mean no more than a big Bhut. Thus in S 3, 313, 43,
praharanto mahabhutarn saptas tena 'tha te 'patan means "have
they fallen because they were cursed by some big Bhut whom they
attacked?", and has a parallel in B ib. 21 (S 314, 19) bhutam mahad
idam manye bhrataro yena me hatah, "it must have been a big
Bhut that felled my brothers". The form is indifferently masculine and
neuter, generally neuter, but with a tendency to regard the neuter as
personified, so that a masculine adjective may agree with it, as in R 6,
79, 35, sadhu sadhv iti Bhutani vyaharanti nabhogatah (ib. 71,66,
Bhuta Devah, "Bhuts and gods"). To sum up the epic Bhutas, as mytho-
logically restricted, they designate beings of a rather vicious disposition,
small and great, and very likely included at first as subdivisions the
particular groups known by special names as cannibalistic night-wanderers.
But as ghosts are also by predilection malicious, the term Bhut had a
tendency to interchange with Preta, till the modern equivalence, Bhuta
38 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
= Preta, became thoroughly established. The tendency to restrict the broad
general meaning to a certain class is seen in the literature immediately
following the epic (Hariv. and Puranas), in which Bhutas are assigned their
proper parentage (that is are restricted to a class) in the divine genealogies.
§ 17. Raksasas, Yatudhanas, and Pisacas. - The close connection
between the various classes of evil demons and spiritual powers not
exactly evil yet not divine enough to be regarded as gods will often be
a subject of special remark. This is sufficiently illustrated by the inter
change of the same name among various groups. Thus in Mbh. the
Raksasa Manimat is a friend of Kubera (§ 83), and Manimat is also a name
of a Yaksa, of a Naga, and of a king who is reborn as such after existing
as Vrtra, while Manimati designates a Daitya-town (in both epics Manimat
is a mountain). It seems that certain characters stood out more as indi
viduals than as fixed members of a group and that such individuals are
sometimes considered as belonging to one and sometimes to another
group. But beyond this, the interrelation of different groups is so close
that marriage connections constantly occur between these different social,
if spiritual, groups, so that the offspring are, in terms of social life, half-
breeds. No group, again, is wholly evil or wholly good. All that can
be said is that each is prevailingly good or bad. The same in regard to
appearance. Thus the following facts are applicable to individual or to
limited groups of Raksasas, who are on the whole prevailingly evil. They
Jielp the gods; they fight against the gods. They are beautiful; they are
hideous. They are weaker than gods or Gandharvas; they overcome the
gods with ease. They protect; they injure. They are different from
Yaksas; but they are so much like Yaksas that the same terms are applied
to both. The facts as thus stated will be illustrated in the course of this
paragraph with the exception of the last. It will suffice to say here that
the Raksasas duplicate in part the qualities of Yaksas because, according
to one tradition, the two species are born of the same mother, Khasa
(H 234 and 11552; VP. 1,21,24, Khasa), who is a daughter of Daksa
(H 169). Red eyes and dark bodies characterise the Yaksas who guard
Kubera; the Raksasas are always red-eyed and those guarding Kubera
are like fiery smoke in color (H 13 132). Here the function of the Rak
sasa is to guard. Whether, in India, the injurer became the guardian, or
the "guardian" (of treasure) became the injurer, is still debated (raks
means injure and guard); but the application and growth of the words
would favor the first interpretation. Raksas (Raksasa) was at first one of
the many harmful spirits, a nocturnal power, a demon of darkness, and
therefore evil. But as injurer of those opposing it, the Raksas is also
protector of what it values, so that raksin, etc., become words exclusively
indicating protector; yet the demon-group, when once formed as injurious,
seldom passes over into the opposed conception. This happens most
naturally when their own chieftain appoints them as guards, as above.
So too in 3, 153, n, it is said that "the Raksasas called Krodhavas'as, at
command of their king, guard this (paradise and treasure) by thousands,
with encircling weapons". But occasionally the Raksas becomes a more
general guardian, as when one "guards the Sun" (§ 38), or, again, when
the Sun-god appoints a Raksasa to "guard" DraupadI (4, 16, n). This
genesis is also what is to be expected from the point of view of other
protecting spirits, like the Assyrian bulls representing powers of evil con
verted to good use. Native data strengthen this view further, inasmuch
III. SPIRITS. 39
as the Raksasa is most closely connected with other powers of evil, sot
that he is often confounded with the Daitya, Danava (or Asura), and isj
most intimate (even interchanging) with the Pisaca fiend. The Mbh. makes
the Raksasas less human than does the Ram. Their king is here rich but
not, as in R, beautiful; only his raiment is fine, but he himself, despite
rich dress and adornment, is more "like a tree in a crematorium than
a kalpa-tree" (3, 281, 5). The demons are here expressly of two classes,
fierce and friendly, raudra maitras ca (ib. 139, 10). They will cook and
eat a man, after slaying him (3, 154, 16; 159,25). They live in caves and
in trees. Their presence portends blood, and when they are seen to "fall
from space" (the sky), it is a sign of battle (5, 48, 104, and loc. cit. below).
Even in the Rama-tale of Mbh., Ravana, the chief Raksasa, is less royal-l
human than in Valmiki's version, and apart from this episode the prominent'
Raksasas of the Mbh. are typical ogres, whereas in R of the chief fiends
only Kumbhakarna is of this lower and popular type, the others being,
so to speak, too gentlemanly for that class. The chief Mbh. Raksasas
in independent tales are Jatasura, i. e. Asura, and Baka, called Asuraraj
(i, 160,4), whose name and title again show the close connection between
Raksasas and other evil spirits; also Alayudha, Alambusa, and Kirmira,
relatives of these ogres, and Hidimba, father of the half-human Ghatot-
kaca; and later, the virtuous Virupaksa. Hidimba is a female counterpart
of her brother Hidimba. Bhima kills the male and marries the female,
who thus becomes mother of Ghatotkaca. The last is thus only half Rak
sasa, but he has the nature of his maternal kin and is accompanied into
battle with the recognised classes of Raksasas, called Paulastyas and
Yatudhanas, who ride indifferently on cars, horses, or elephants, and
appear in any shape they choose, as elephants, tigers, etc., the whole
troop of them having the name of "Nairrti army" (7, 156, H3f. ; ib. I35f.).
They carry divine and human weapons, have long tongues, and in par
ticular Ghatotkaca's chariot is drawn by gajanibhas, creatures "looking
like elephants" (Pisacas, N; see below; ib. 156, 59). Hidimba's son is
described in a repetitive section (7, 175, 4f.). He has pointed ears, stiff
hair, sunken belly, red eyes, thick nose, a copper-colored face and long
reddish tongue, four fangs, a mouth stretching from ear to ear, etc., etc.;
he carries brass armor, a gold crown and earrings, and rides in an eight-
wheel car. The strength of all these monsters increases greatly at or
after midnight (ib. 175, 39). They shower stones, hurl trees, and are either
mountainous in size or small as a thumb, as they momentarily choose
(ib. 52 and 63). Their forte is illusion, which is "born with them" and
they commence to grow stronger the moment the evening gloaming begins
(6,90,65; 7, 156,69 and 77); Ghatotkaca is at last (7, 179, 58) slain by the
dart kept by Kama to kill Arjuna. His mother's brother Hidimba is like
other Raksasas, a purusadin, narasana, cannibal. He lives in a Sala-
tree and has eight fangs, pointed ears, red hair, is very strong and is
much pleased with the smell of man (i, 152, if.; 153, i; 163, 7). His sister
Hidimba takes human form, can fly through the air, knows the past and
future (S), and is accustomed to eat man and then dance with her brother
to various measures after dinner (i, 152, 14). Her savagery is softened in
S by the assertion that she is virtuous and wise although a Raksasi (S
167, 27 f.). Virupaksa is an ordinary epithet applied to Raksasas and other
spirits in both epics, but as a name designates a "virtuous" demon of
this class, called Raksasadhipati of Meruvraja. He is devout and gives
4O III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
liberally to priests at Karttika days, etc., posing as friend of the holy crane
in one of the moral dialogues of the later epic, another illustration of
the tendency to convert the fiend into a guardian of virtue. The same
epithet may be the name of Ghatotkaca's charioteer in 7, 175, 15; in RG
3,7,6 = 2,5, it interchanges with gabhiraksa as epithet of Viradha.
Baka, the Asuraraj Raksasa, lives in a cave; he too is red-haired and has
pointed ears. He gets one human being daily to eat, from a village where
Bhima stays, who kills him (i, 163, 7 f.), and his relatives seek during the
ensuing war to take revenge. Alayudha is his brother (probably) and, as
described, is an understudy of Ghatotkaca, but "lovelier"; and his "elephant-
like" coursers bray like asses. Even the vultures on the car are imitated
from the description of the greater demon (7, 176, if. and 19). He too is
a lord of Raksasas and a friend of Hidimba and Kirmira. His steeds bray
(are kharasvanah), while those of Ghatotkaca have Pisaca-faces (7, 175,
93 and 176, 16). He is at last slain by Bhima, after the two have fought
"like Valin and Sugriva" (7, 178, 29 and 33, Bakajnati). The fighting of
all these ogres resembles, either with each other or with the epic heroes,
that of Indrajit, Ravana, the Asuras and gods (6, 100, 5 if.; 7,96,23; ib.
108, 13). The first simile is stereotyped. Compare the fight of Bhima and
Jatasura in 3,157,60, tad vrksayuddham . . Vali-Sugrivayor bhra-
troh pura strikanksinor yatha. This Jatasura is defied by Bhima "by
his good deeds and sacrifices", i. e. as Bhima was good and Jatasura evil,
the victory was sure. Jatasura had been a guest disguised as a priest
and then, watching his opportunity, had tried to run away with the Pandus
and DraupadI (ib. i f.). Jatasura's son is Alambusa, brother of Baka, also
called son or descendant of Rsyasrnga, Arsyasrngi (6,90,49 and 69; 7,
108, 24 and 176, 15), who as Raksasendra has the best chariot of the
Raksasa army opposed to the Pandus (also drawn by "horse-faced Pisacas",
7, 167, 38). He is ranked as a Maharatha, is called a descendant of kings
(parthivaputrapautra, 7, 140, 19; cf. 5, 167, 33), and fights because of
his ancient grudge (purvavairam anusmaran, Udyog. ib.). Though appa
rently of human ancestry in part, he is a true Raksasa, descending into
earth, rising into the air again, and having any form at will; he is even
tually killed by Satyaki (7, 108, 27f.; ib. 140,18). Alambusa is the name
of an Apsaras and the wife of Iksvaku (9p 51, 5, etc.; R 1,47, n, as wife
of Iks. and mother of Visala). Kirmira, the "brother of Baka", is less
important. He is mentioned in 3, 10, 23 (cf. 7, 176, 4) with Hidimba and
Baka as a foe of the gods, but though he is tall as a mountain and even
has eight fangs and employs illusion, he is finally throttled by Bhima
("as deer by lion slain"). His illusion (3,11,58) is dispelled by Mantras
that kill Raksasas. Oddly enough, he carries a firebrand, ulmuka, the
very thing (see § 49 f.) used to dispel such creatures (3, 11,6). He appears
however like a lightning-charged thunder-cloud. He lives by eating men
and says that even after death Baka is still gratified with blood (3, n, 34),
probably as a libation, since Jatasura also cries out to Bhima, "I will
make a libation of your blood to the Raksasas you have already killed",
tesam adya karisyami tava 'sreno 'dakakriyam (3, 157, 49). He
lives in the Kamyaka woods; Baka in the Vaitrakfya forest. Whether
"brother of Baka" is to be taken literally or only as indicating that
Kirmira like Alambusa is a brother fiend, is perhaps of no importance.
The Raksasas of Mbh., apart from the war and the family-feud with Bhima,
appear as dwellers in mountain-wilds, rough places, disturbing holy places,
III. SPIRITS. 41
by their "beauty" destroying the meditations of saints (3, 113, if.). Yatu-
dhanas are Raksasas formed by Ghatotkaca to fight, illusive forms (7, 179,
39). The female RaksasT bears as soon as she conceives and her children
are born adult in power (i, I55,35f.)- When attacked by Nagas, a Rak
sasa turns into the form of Garuda and devours them (6,90,75). As an
illustration of the possible transference of function in the nature of
Raksasas may be taken the case of Jara, a female Raksasi living on meat
and blood, appointed, however, by Brahman to destroy evil Danavas. Her
image must be painted on the wall of a pious man's house to bring him
good luck, that is to keep all evil from him. As such she then is known
as the Grhadevi, "goddess of the house" (2,17,39; 18, if.); yet she is
still so much of a Raksas that she collects raw flesh at cross-roads at
night (ib.). One of the common evil deeds of Raksasas is to carry off
women. In 1,6, if., an unnamed Raksasa who has been promised a bride
subsequently married to a human saint (Bhrgu) carries her off, but he
drops dead, burned to ashes, when the saint's son is born, apparently,
however, because the son was sun-like, and the fiends are coerced by
luminaries (tarn drstva . . adityavarcasam, tad Rakso bhasmasad
bhutam papata). Rama slew Raksas (raksamsi) because they had de
stroyed the sacrifices, and he thus gave back to the Manes and gods their
wonted offerings (7, 59, 18). Krsna slew Ogha (5, 48, 83, associated with
Naraka and Mura), a Raksas.
Raksasas are sons of Pulastya, fourth son of Brahman, so that even
Ravana when described as "thief of sacrifice and robber of girls" is still «
Paulastyanandana (R 3, 32, 23; ib. 6, 114, 53 f.). According to the great
epic, all Raksasas are sons of Pulastya; but those called Nairrtas are in
particular sons of Nirrti (Destruction), the wife of Adharma, and also the
mother of Fear, Terror, and Death (%66, 7; ib. 54f.). The sons of the
wicked king in this epic are incarnations of these Raksasas and of other
evil beings; as sons of Pulastya the Raksasas are brothers of the Yaksas
(ib. 67, 89). The later Ram. recognises this origin of Raksasas but proposes
another, according to which Brahman himself created creatures to guard
the waters he had previously created and some of these creatures cried
raksamah, "let us guard", while others cried yaksamah, "let us gobble"
(S jaksamah, VP. khadamah), so guards and goblins they became (R 7,
4,4 and 12; VP. I, 5,41). The genealogy of the family of Ravana is un
certain. In Mbh., the mother of Ravana and Kumbhakarna was Puspotkata;
the mother of VibhTsana was Malini; and the mother of the twins was
Raka, sent to Visravas by Vaisravana (3, 275, 5f.). The Ram. derives
Ravana, Kumbhakarna, Vibhlsana, and one of the twins, Surpanakha, from
Kaikasi, daughter of Sumalin and wife of Visravas, Sumalin being son of
Devavati, the daughter of the Gandharva Gramam, by Sukesa, grandson of
Fear, Bhaya, who was the sister of Yama (Kala), by Heti, the last together
with the ascetic Praheti being original royal Raksasas. Sukesa was a
favorite of Siva and received special boons from him and Uma (R 7, 4, 31^
ib. 5, if-; ib. 9, 19). This genealogy is valuable only as showing how close!
is the connection mythologically between Raksas and Gandharva and Yaksal
on the one hand and, religiously, between &va (called Kumbhakarna) and \
the Raksasa host. It is even closer, for the grandson of the Gandharva
married KetumatT, a Gandharvi, and his brothers Malin and Malyavat
married her two sisters (Vasudha and Sundari). Incidentally it may be
remarked that Khasa or Khasa (above) may be confused (cf. Kasaputra)
42 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
with the Nikasa of the scholiast at RG 7, 76, as explaining the "mother
of Raksasas"; the name is not epic (see note to p. 46, below).
It is to be remembered that the Vis"ravas mentioned above is also
father of Kubera by another wife, Devavarninf, daughter of Bharadvaja.
|His nature is contrasted with that of the pure Raksasas, but, in this family
I also, a saintly Raksasa is known, Vibhisana, whose family and councillors
are all good. An attempt is made to derive badness from precedent good
ness in the case of all the Raksasas by insinuating that KaikasT came
at an "evil" hour to her husband and so her sons became evil; but this
is artificial and the Ram. itself distinguishes between prakrta Raksasas
(the common lot) and these aristocrats or princes of evil (R 3, 29, i6f.).
It is impossible here to go into the further details of the marriages and
genealogy of these royal Raksasas. Suffices to say that Ravana's wife is
Maya's daughter; Kumbhakarna's wife is Vairocana's daughter: and Vi-
bhisana's wife is Sarama, daughter of the Gandharva Sailusa. Vibhisana's
virtue is reckoned as one part of a boon given him by Brahman! The
tragedy of the Rama epic begins with "the root of woe", Surpanakha,
whose husband is slain by her brother Ravana and who is sent with Khara,
nephew or brother of Ravana, to rule over Dandaka, where, met and
scorned by Rama, her miseries incite her royal brother to war. Khara is
an Ass in name and in sound (R 3,22,26, kharasvanah). As the ass is
not a mythological animal, it has not been included in the list (§ 8), but
its relation to evil may be worth noticing. Above it was shown that ass-
like braying creatures drag Raksasas' chariots. The sound of the ass por
tends evil; Duryodhana brays, like Khara, when born, and asses, vultures,
jackals, and crows echo the evil omen (i, 115,28). In the ritual, the ass
is chiefly employed as a means of expiating sexual sins, inchastity, violating
a woman, etc., either as a sacrificial victim or as a vehicle of dishonor.
Besides Vibhisana, the epics present Avindhya as a moral Raksasa, who
advises Ravana not to slay Sita (3, 280, 56f.; 289, 28 f.; R 5, 37, nf.); his
daughter Kala is also kind, as is the Raksasi Trijata. The northerners, in
distinction from this whole southern group, are represented as obstructive
creatures, bahuni vighnarupani karisyanti (RG, 6, 82, 57). Though
Ravana has ten heads and ten or twenty arms (Dasagriva, das"akandhara;
the arms vary, R 7, 16 and 103, 34), he sometimes has but two arms and
in other respects is beautiful (despite the snakes in his hair and his
hanging tusks, preserved as the inherited signs of his race). Hanumat
on seeing him exclaims: aho rupam aho dhairyam aho sattvam aho
dyutih, aho Raksasarajasya sarvalaksanayuktata, ("O the beauty,
firmness, goodness, glory, and union of all marks of distinction, in this
king of Raksasas"), and adds, "If he were not lawless, he would be a
raksitr (rather than Raksasa) of heaven". But as it is, he is lokaravana,
bhutaviravin (R 5,49, 17 f.; ib. 50, i). Yet Rama calls him pious and
learned in the Veda (R 6, 112,24). His piety was so great that Brahman
gave him the boon of immunity from all spirits but not from men, because
Ravana despised men; yet being cursed by one of the women he had
injured, he was destroyed through a woman (R 7, 24, i f.). He was cursed
by so many that it is doubtful whose curse effected his downfall, whether
Rambha, or VedavatT (Sita), Uma, or Punjikasthala. Nandisvara also cursed
Ravana because he called Nandisvara a "monkey" (R 6, 60, 7f.). Ravana's
car is drawn by asses (also horses). His chief exploits are to carry off
Sita and stop the sun; he conquered the gods, overran BhogavatI; forced
III. SPIRITS. 43
Madhu the Danava to marry his sister, and Maya to give him his daughter
as wife; stole Soma; and conquered Jatayus, who tore off his arms is vain
as they grew again (R 6, 7 and ib. 7, I — 23, etc.). The latest addition to
R makes Visnu's laugh send Ravana back to the underworld (Praksipta,
7, 23). Ravana is finally slain by "Brahman's weapon". His son and the
other lesser demons are not so strong, but have the other traits of Ravana.
Indrajit, his second son, overcomes Indra (hence his name and titles,
Vasavanirjetr, Sakrajetr, etc.) and is carried by tigers, dowered with divine
boons, dattavara (the weakness of the gods mentally continually leads
to their giving boons to their cunning foes), and is described in terms
used to signalise Yaksas, namely "black, with red eyes". He is described
also as a Danava in H 199, where no difference is maintained between
these classes. Another son, Trisiras, is killed twice over, like a Homeric
combatant (R 3, 27 and 6, 70). The monstrosity of the fiends is not
emphasised except in the few cases where the name demands it in the
case of the royal family, but elsewhere Trisiras' three heads are matched
by the four heads and eight eyes of Kalanemi. The figure of Kumbhakarna
is more popular. He has enormous hunger and sleeps six months at a
time. As soon as he was born he devoured a thousand creatures and
swallowed his foes "as Garuda swallows snakes" (R 6, 60, I3f. and ib. 61
and 65). He really sleeps thirty or thirty-four months (ib. 6, 60, 16). The
later epic makes him an ascetic living in a cave (R 7, 7 and 10), perhaps
because in R 6, 60, 24 he sleeps in a cave. Like other Raksasas are the
lesser demon-nobles, that is, they are deceitful fighters, devoted to injury,
delighting in slaying saints and kings, and are all by predilection "wan
derers by night", nisacaras, ratrimcaras (R 3,42, if.; ib. 43, 5; ib. 45,
19; kutayodhinah, ib. 60, 53). When the Raksasas are themselves divided,
the man-eaters and Pisacas side with Dasanana Ravana, while Gandharvas,
Kimpurusas, and Raksamsi stand for Vibhisana and Kubera (3, 275, 33
and 38); but this distinction is not maintained (3,281,11). As said above,
man-eating demons begin to have power when the night comes, and they
are incapable of defeat at night (3, 1,45 and 11,4), for which reason fires
are lighted at night to keep them off; since they fly from light and fire
(13,92,13). Just between midnight and dawn their power is strongest
(i, 154, 22; 7, 173, 57). Meteorological origin of some of the Raksasas seems
assured by the fact that the "man-eating Lavana", who is an understudy
of Ravana (l = r? ralasya na bhedah) in many points, has to be killed
by Rama's brother (with the weapon that killed his father Madhu in
Visnu's hand), "at the time when summer's heat is withdrawn and the
night of the rainy season has arrived" (R 7, 64, 10). He is here king of
Madhura and nephew of Ravana; in the later Mbh. he is utilised by Indra
to slay Mandhatr (1,27,2; 13,14,268; R 7, 67, I3f.). But as men are
always liable to be turned into Raksasas (see Saudasa, etc.), and as
diseases are Raksasas, it is clear that the meteorological explanation,
which also seems to be favored by the frequent appearance of Raksasas
as thunder-clouds wielding bolts, etc., is not sufficient. Marica is an arti
ficial Raksasa, turned into a cannibal fiend, as was Tadaka, a YaksinI,
his mother. Men who hate priests become Raksasas (9, 43, 22). The female
monsters who plague Sita are simply malformed Raksasa devils with faces
of animals, resembling the female fiends in Skanda's train. Raksasas seem
to consist, apart from Danavas and men metamorphosed into Raksasas, in
two kinds of spirits. One serves as cloud and bolt and mirage, as a type
44 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
of beauty; the other, disgusting, represents disease personified and other
mean evils attacking man. Here belong the "seizers", Simhika (see Naga-
matr) Angaraka, who draw out a man's soul (shadow) and fasten on men
as incorporate diseases. The inward fire which causes digestion keeps
away Raksasas (= indigestion, 13,92,10). In families where evil obtains
in consequence of the violation of marriage-laws, or of the wickedness
of the king, are born decrepit and idiot children and "evil Raksas",
paparaksamsi (12,90,93), apparently "bewitched" (i.e. unhealthy) children.
When a woman faints, "Raksas-slaying Mantras" are said over her; that
is, the weakness is itself the disease-devil (3, 144, 16). Putrid matter coming
from a sore is spoken of as "a Raksasa head" sticking to the sore place
(9, 39, 10 — 13). The so-called Brahma-Raksasa "sins involuntarily" and the
evil of this creature comes from "woman's evil and the evil produced by
the womb" (9,43,21). These creatures drink Sarasvatfs blood but excuse
themselves on the ground that absence of religious teaching, evil acts,
and sexual faults have caused their nature. If fire be there, Brahma-
Raksasas do not hurt the sacrifice (13,92,12; N. as "priests reborn as
Raksasas"; cf. R I, 8, and 12,17). Another class of Raksasas is that of
the Pramathas (cf. Pramathin as name, sub Apsaras). They appear in
connection with Citragupta, who is unknown to the early epic, but they
are fully described in the later epic, as attendants of Siva (who in 12,
285, 87 is Pramathanatha). As invisible spooks they plague at night such
people as sleep at the foot of a tree, eat unholy food, lie in the wrong
direction, pollute water, or do not purify themselves after sexual con
nection. Such people have apertures which give admission to these
"smiters" (pramathas); but good people and those who carry about with
them gorocana or orris-root or keep at home the skin or claws of
a hyena or a hill-tortoise or a cat or a black or tawny goat, or keep up
the sacrificial fire, are not troubled by them, as all these things are
counteractants, pratighatas (13, 131, if.; 125,6; also 13, 14, 389 and
H 8146). Diti was destroyed through neglecting one of these rules (but
by Indra, who thus acted as a Pramatha), when she slept with her feet
at her head (i. e. where her head should be; R 1,46, 16).
Pisacas are smaller demons associated with Raksasas and occasionally
identified with them, as are Yatudhanas (R 6, 67, 68, etc.). As sons of Yadu
the Yatudhanas differ from other Raksasas (R 7, 58, 7f.), but Ravana is
Yatudhanasya dauhitrah (R 6,114,81), i. e. they are identical; though
the Raksasi Hidimba protests that she is "not a Yatudhani" (S I, 167, 17).
But again a Raksasi made by an incantation is called a Yatudhani (13,
93, 78), and Yatudhanas guard Kubera's mountain with Raksasas and appear
as demons in battle, being raised by fire-mantras to slay seers (3,139,9;
ib. I73,5i; 13,93, 56f.)- They are grouped (5,100,5; cf. H ii/Ssf.) with
Nairrtas, as^ "born from the foot of Brahman". Siva is a Yatudhana of two
forms (see Siva) and Yatudhanas and Raksamsi are interchangeable terms
for the servants of the Raksasa king (12, 172, 14 = 5 171, 15). Those tra
velling in the mountains have to protect themselves against the "many
Raksasas huge as hills (which are) Yatudhanas" (3,92,7; possibly distinct,
sc. "and"). One sort of Raksasas is called Mandehas, who hang upon
rocks and fall into water at sunrise, dying daily in fighting the sun (R 4,
4O, 39; VP. 2,8,49). As Simhika is a Raksasi, her son Rahu, who devours
sun and moon (eclipse), should belong to this category; but he is regarded
as an Asura or Danava (asuram tamas is Rahu, R 2,63,2), or strictly as
III. SPIRITS. 45
a Kabandha (i, 19, 4f.) = Svarbhanu (5, no, n; 182, 22; 6, 101, 36). Kubera
takes with him (to Lanka) Nairrta Raksasas with others whom he "creates".
They come, in this legend, from the North, but belong in the South
(cf. 12, 165, 51 or R 3,64, 22, where Nairrti dis is South). Kubera is lord
of the Nairrtas (9,47,31). Ravana himself is a Nairrta Raksasa, Nairrta-
raja, etc. (R 4, 62, 6; 5,18,18). The Krodhavas'as are northern Raksasas
(3,154,20; 5,50,24), slain by Bhima, but also called Yaksas (3,155,24
and 31). They take away the merit of those who own dogs (17, 3, 10).
The feminine form, Krodhavasa, designates a daughter of Daksa (§ 139).
A Raksasa (born a Danava and reborn a Raksasa) is called Kabandha
(R3,69, 26f.; Mahasura in G ib. 75,7). Among deformed humans such as
Karnapravaranas and Purusadas are mentioned Kalamukhas or Lohamukhas
or Ghoralohamukhas (RG 4, 40, 29 with v. 1.), known to Mbh. as "monkeys"
(3, 292, 12), or Asitamukhas = golangulas (ib. RG 6, 3, 35), a curious con
fusion of men and monkeys, possibly involving Raksasas, though these
are always kravyada (13,115,27). Dancing and drinking of blood are
traits connecting Raksasas and Pis'acas, who are usually little demons
of the same sort, only meaner (7, 50, 9f.; 167,38; and above; cf. R 3, 35,6).
In 12, 262, 7, Jajali is "seen by Raksasas", who must be identical with the
Pisacas of the preceding account. S has "he was seen by Raksas and
they (Pisacas) addressed him", but in B an "invisible voice" takes the
place of the Pisaca in reproving Jajali, ib. 42). In R 3, 54, 14 and 17 and
Mbh. 3, 280, 47, Pisaci = Raksasi. The Pisaca marriage-form, however, is
lower than the Raksasa marriage-form (l, 73, 12). The Pisaca is the Dasyu's
god and typical of cruelty (12,278,33 and 268,22 in S, v. 1. dasyuh . .
adatte Pisacams cai 'va daivatam). Pisacas come from the mundane
egg but are not said to be born of Brahman (i, I, 35). The only reputable
Pisacas are those that have ceased to be pisitasana (= Pisaca, R 6, 61,
10, etc.) and act as guards of the White Mountain, a troop devoted to
Skanda (3, 225, n). These become vegetarian and "abandoning their usual
diet live on the fruit of the tree (called Mahasankha) which grows there",
on the Sarasvati (9, 37, 22). But as this is a wonder-tree, "tall as Meru",
the fruit was probably unique. There is also a worthy female Pisaci who
wore pestle ornaments and gave advice as to holy watering-places to the
wife of a priest (3, 129,8), whether as indicating that Pisacas are human
or that Tirthas are not of much account, may be questioned. Another
Pisaci is the guardian of a Tirtha, Tirthapalika, and prevents the impure
who do not love Krsna from approaching it. After the baptism of a Brahman
woman in the name of Han she turns into an Apsaras (S 12, 336, 34f.).
The Kimkara Raksasas, "born of mind", who serve Ravana are "like him",
but the name means only servants of Yama (q. v.), or of Rama (here called
Muditas, R 7, 37, 18), or of Siva (14,65,6), or of Maya, whose wealth is
guarded by Kimkara Raksasas (raksanti . . Kimkara nama Rak-
sasalj, 2, 3, 28; cf. 19). When Raksasas are called good, it is often flattery
(3,157, I3f-), or the merit of "protecting Raksasas" is united with that of
protecting gods and priests; as the true protecting ruler (here Nahusa)
guards all his realm (i, 75, 27). This view is really logical enough. One of the
arguments against excessive taxation is that, if too heavily taxed, merchants
will leave the country, and on the wealth given by them (to priests) "gods . .
and Raksasas support themselves" (12, 89, 25; cf. 3, 157, i6f., "if men
prosper, the Raksasas prosper"). To feed the fiends is to protect oneself,
for it satisfies them and prevents them from injuring. The share given to
46 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
them is small and mean, but they get a share regularly on holy days (R 2,
43, 5). Gifts are made to them, as their bhaga (share), of remnants of
food, food sneezed upon or stepped upon, food leaped over, mixed with
hair, insects, or tears, food seen or licked by a dog, or food not conse
crated with Mantras (9,43,26; 13, 23, 3 f.,' at ^raddhas). In the later moral
epic the Raksasa resembles the medieval devil, to be overcome by virtue,
with book and bell, or the equivalent Mantras, though in the narrative
portion Raksasas annoy and slay pious priests without fear of Mantras or
of virtue. Kings (in the Markandeya addition and in the pseudo-epic) are
exhorted to have no dread of them: "The cruel planets favor the pure
priest . . and cruel pisita^anas, though huge and horrible, cannot hurt
him" (3,200, 85 f.). "I am not afraid", says a king who has been possessed
by a cruel Raksas, rakso darunam, "for I protect my people and cows;
all my priests are learned men, and I constantly strive for virtue". And
the Raksasa replies: "Because you are virtuous I leave you in peace.
Kings who protect cows and priests need fear naught from Raksasas"
(12,77,8 — 30). In the main, these demons scorn gods and goodness and
overcome all powers of men except the power of the epic heroes vaunted
by the poets. A close resemblance may be observed between the three- (or
more) headed gigantic ogres of the popular belief and the three-headed
Norwegian trolls, who were also originally gigantic. On the whole, the
type shown in the Mbh. reveals the Raksasas as brutal and stupid gluttons
of the wilds, but the term includes also a set of ksudra Raksasah,
mean little devils, like Pisacas, often conceived as disease -devils; and
almost all nocturnal terrors are embodied as Raksasas. In R, the royal
Raksasas are nobler and more like Asuras, though the close connection
with the Pisacas is still kept and one Raksasa even has the name "Pisaca"
(R 5, 59, 18). The Hariv. finally incorporates Pisacas into Brahman's creation
as sons of Krodha (H 11554), a Puranic addition (see also under Asuras).
Traces remain (above, and see note) of the (historical) Pisaca people,
whose finale as devils is comparable with that of the Dasyus of an olden
time; while the Dasyu descent to "robbers" is paralleled by that of the
Nagas as respects treasure and that of the Raksasas as respects women,
though the country Raksasas are not represented as thieves but rather
as cruel boors. Yet "Dasyu" is also applied to Asuras (q. v.)1).
§ 1 8. The Asuras. — To the epic poets the Asuras were in general
the a-suras, the "ungodly". They included accordingly all the sinful
demons, both the sons of Diti (called Ditija, Daitya, or Daiteya) and of
Danu (called Danava or Danaveya), who are the chief opponents of the
A-daiteyas or gods (cf. a-sura), and various special groups, such as the
Kaleyas (Kalakeyas, Kalakanjas) and other "children of darkness", who
upheld the great serpent-demon Vrtra in his battles with the children of
light, and are regarded as corporations, ganas, of Danavas and Daityas.
The typical leaders of the Asuras are Hiranyakas"ipu, Bali, Jambha, etc.,
*) The question whether the Pisacas were originally uncivilised tribes or whether
the demoniac name has been transferred to cannibalistic tribes has been discussed by Sir
George Grierson, ZDMG. 66, 67 f., who has collected the passages referring to the Pisacas
as human beings, inhabiting the N. W. (for the names of the Beas Pisacakas, Bahllka and
HIka, 8, 44 = S 37, see my Sacred Rivers, p. 217), and concludes that the Pisacas were
a tribe of omophagoi closely connected with the Khasas, Nagas, and Yaksas (see Khasa
p. 41 — 42). Noteworthy is the absence in the epics of the Vetala demons. A Vetalajanam
is named in 9, 46, 13 among the late "mothers" ascribed to Skanda and various kinds of
Vetalas are known to the Harivamsa, but the genus is not otherwise recognised.
III. SPIRITS. 47
demons slaughtered by Indra, Agastya, etc., or by Visnu (2, 100—102),
together with other groups of demons slaughtered en masse by Arjuna
and other heroes and known as Khalins, Kicakas, and Nivatakavacas
("Daityas, haters of the gods" 1,123,45). The sire of all these demons
was Kasyapa, who by various wives, for the most part daughters of Daksa
(§ I39)t became father of the Paulomas, as they are called after his de
moniac wife Puloma (7, 51, 17). But among the Asuras are often included
(as already observed in the preceding section) the giant fiends known as
Raksasas (really a sort of Asura in Vedic times), who in turn are some
times confused with Pisacas; so that, as Asura exchanges with Raksasa
and Raksasa with Pisaca, there is no clear line of demarcation between
the groups, though the Pisacas are too mean and low to be confused
with demons of the highest type (cf. 3, 285, I, Pisacaksudraraksasas com
mingling as one group). An Asura called Damsa (12, 3, 15 f.) is cursed by
a saint to be reborn in the hellish state of a blood-drinking octopod. On
being released from the curse he appears not as an "Asura" but as a
red Raksasa riding on a cloud (Alarka, as he is called when a "pig-shaped
worm with eight feet", is the name of a mad king of Benares, 3, 25, 13;
14, 30, 2). The Nagas, though distinct from Asuras, are as a group affi
liated, living with them and fighting on their side. The "roaring Asuras"
are thus found in battle beside the Raksasas and Nagas as opposed to
the orthodox side of Krsna and the Fire-god at Khandava (1,227, 24f.;
see also below), and generally the Asuras and Nagas belong together,
though numerous exceptions occur in the case of the Nagas (§ 13). Be
tween the groups of Asuras the poets did not distinguish very carefully.
Thus Danur nama Diteh putrah describes the Kabandha of R 4, 4, 15,
who, again (ib. 3, 70, 5 and 10) is Raksasa as well as Asura. Whether,
like the Nagas mentioned as kings (2, 8, 24) and the Pisacas mentioned
as a tribe, with Kalirigas, etc. (6, 87, 8), the Asuras are euhemerised native
races, must be left, from epic evidence, undetermined (see below). To the
poets they are great spirits. They do not roam about battle-fields gorging
themselves with blood and fat, as do the Pisacas (and Raksasas, e. g. 6,
86, 45). They are "elder brothers of the Devas" (§ 19) and are sometimes
as generous and valorous as the gods. They are invoked in benedictions
with the gods (R 2, 25, 16, tava 'dityas ca Daityas ca bhavantu su-
khadah sad a). The Danava Asuras were originally pious and moral, ac
cording to epic legend (12, 229, 27 f.), though when it is said here that they
"worshipped the gods", credulity is strained. Pride made them sinful and
so they were driven out of their celestial abodes, losing Happiness (per
sonified), who forsook them, as she does all sinners. The moral is too
obvious to permit belief that this legend in detail reflects tradition. Neverthe
less, Asuras are represented as associating with the gods, and, with the
Nagas, as worshipping Varuna in his own palace, probably because Varuna's
place is their home (see below). Moreover some of the Daityas and Danavas
are "beautiful" and their names, Sumati, Sumanas, etc. mean "kind-hearted"
(2, 9, 7 f.). On the whole the Danavas are more god-like than the Daityas and of
course than the Asura Raksasas. The Asuras Madhu and Kaitabha, who "never
told a lie", are Danavas, and the "Arya Asuras" of the tale of Happiness (above)
are called Danavas by Sri herself; only the stupid Indra, who is hearing the
story for the first time (!), alludes to them interrogatively as Daityas. This may
be the implication of the fact that only rarely does a Daitya-female serve
as a typical beauty, as Danava-females do constantly. The foremost Danava
48 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
is the "very clever" Vipracitti, who with the other Danavas is born of
Danu, in antithesis to the "Asuras all born of Did" (a late distinction, 12,
207, 27 f.), as if the Danavas were not Asuras at all. The later epic calls
Vipracitti Daitya and Danava indifferently (12, 98, 49 f.; II 13 884 and 13894^).
Both groups of Asuras are said to be strong, but poetic necessity disposes
of them as if they were weaklings, when it is said that Danavas fall from
their cars and are eaten by fishes and Daityas are routed by the Wind
(-god; 3, 20, 31, and under Vayu § 47). They were driven from heaven at
the end of the Krta age (1,64,28) and took refuge in the caves beside
the sea, in mountains, in forests (the Danavas and Raksasas together, I,
228,1), under earth, but chiefly in the ocean (i,2i,7f.). They appear,
however, on occasion in the air and in the sky, as if belonging there,
as of old. The combined hosts of Daityas and Danavas, on losing the
ambrosia got from the ocean and on being defeated by the gods, first
appear as mountain-hurling gods and then flee into earth and sea (i, 18,
46; 29, 25). Instead of mountainous shapes they often appear like animals,
but, as here, fall finally into sea or earth. They are incorporate in the
shape of animals and kings of the great war, to which fate they were
doomed' in consequence of their desire for power. They are opposed to
the caste-system, the seers, and the Brahmanic power (1,64,32 and 36;
ib. 30, Kravyadas). To the demons enumerated in general as Danavas,
Raksnsas, Gandharvas, and Serpents (pan nag as), and cannibals (puru-
sadani sattvani, 1,65, 5) are opposed the incorporate gods. Thus Kamsa
is Kalanemi and the kings of Kalinga are the Asuras called KrodhavaSas.
As"vapati Kaikeya, Bana, et al., are Asuras, slain by gods or heroes
(the later legend regarding Bana, H 9910, etc., to the effect that his
daughter Usa loved Aniruddha, is not given in the epic proper). A number
of inconsistencies are found in the great epic. Hiranyakasipu is the only
son of Diti; Hiranyaksa is a later addition. Kumbha and Nikumbha are
Raksasas in R; sons of Prahlada and grandsons of Hiranyakasipu, Asuras,
in Mbh. They are brothers of Virocana, father of Bali and grandson of
the above-mentioned "great Asura" Bana, who was slain by Krsna-Visnu
in one tale and by Skanda in another (5,62,11; 9,46,82). So too Danu
has "forty" sons and forty-four are mentioned by name (i,65,2if.). This
prolific demon's most famous offspring are Sambara, Namuci, Puloman,
Kesin, Svarbhanu, Asva (who is reborn as Asoka), Virupaksa, Naraka,
Vatapin (but Ilvala is a "son of Diti", 3,96,5). The Asura called Mayura
is omitted from the genealogical list, and the Sun and Moon mentioned as
Asuras are said to be other than the sun and moon of the gods; moreover,
the descendants of Danu are "without number" (1,65,21—30). The great
Asura Vrtra is listed as son of Danayus, along with Bala and Vira. The
sons of Kadru are the Nagas and the sons of Kala, Kalakeyas, are
"smiters", chiefly moral personifications, Wrath, Destruction, etc. As priest
of the Asuras appear not only £ukra but his sons (see § 125, Atri). The
Asuras are frequently identified with natural phenomena and get their
names in part therefrom, especially cloud-phenomena, to which they are
often compared. Opposition to light and goodness, love of and use of
maya, illusion or deception (tricks), a roaring voice, ability to assume
any shape (they are three-headed, etc.), or to disappear, are their general
characteristics; in which they differ from Raksasas not at all and except for
the first element not from the gods. The common traits being excluded,
there remains as their peculiarity dislike to goodness and light (as goodness).
III. SPIRITS. 49
Not unlike the relation of the Raksasas to the Great-Father (god) is that
of the Asuras, who also are continually receiving boons from Brahman. So
Brahman, for example, gives to Mahisa, a "Danava Asura in the Daitya
army", the very power through which he was enabled to defeat the gods
in battle, till Skanda cut off his head and made impassable for future use
the road leading to the Hyperboreans (3, 231, 105). What distinguishes
the pure Asuras from the Asura Raksasas is their greater cleverness. Maya
the builder is a type of this trait; but also the Khalins, otherwise an un
distinguished lot of Asuras, outwit the gods by recuperating and even
reviving themselves after being wounded or slain by the gods, whereas
the gods know none of these tricks till Vasistha aids them (13, 156, i/f.)-
Brahman had given them a boon, but even without this help the Asuras
were cleverer than the gods (see § 123 Brhaspati). Maya is an architect,
builder of palaces combining all "divine, demoniac, and human" designs
(2, i, 13). His chief work is a palace of such beauty as to be "like a god-
guarded maya" (3,23,12). Compare the play on maya as deception:
"women are maya Mayajah" (13, 40, 4; and R 3, 54, 13). It was Maya who
built the three cities of the Asuras (below). He is the brother of Namuci,
and was spared by Agni; for which reason he made earthly palaces for
the god's friends. He was slain by Indra (6, 101, 22; according to R 4,
51, 14, because he violated the Apsaras Hema), and also by Visnu (7, 174,
36, a later tale). Valmiki knows him as the great magician architect Danava
who makes a magic cave, the Danava palace (R 4, 51, I4f.; ib. 43, 31 and
ib. 5, 57, 24), and also the fiend's weapons (R 6, 101, 2 and 30). Maya is
to the demons what Vis"vakarman, the All-maker, is to the gods (2, I, 6).
Hema is his wife and his daughter Mandodarl is the fair and noble wife
of Ravana and mother of Indrajit; Mayavin and Dundubhi are his descen
dants (R 7, 12,6 and I3f.)- Dundubhi in R 4, 9, 4 is said to be the son
of Mayavin; ib. 10, 22 (the scholiast says that son means brother). They
are both "Asuras", Dundubhi being a bull-shaped monster who challenges
Ocean, the Himalaya, and Valin (ib. n,4f.). His mahisam rupam (buffalo-
shape) is said to be like a cloud roaring like a drum (dundubhi, ib. n,
25 f.). He is here also regarded as a Danava Asura (ib. 46, 9), and his cloud
and roar and attack on sea and mountain represent him as a storm, if
anything. Weber suggested (IS. 2, 243) that Maya is due to Greek Ptole-
maios. The question whether Greeks originated the architectural demon
is not settled by such a subtile suggestion, but it is reasonable to suppose
that the forms of As"vapati Kaikeya (Asura) and the Kicakas (Kaleya Daityas
and also sons of Kekaya, the king of Sutas, by the Apsaras MalavT; 84,
21, 22 f.) represent races (tribes), although on the other hand the forms
of Vrtra and other Vedic Asuras were purely phenomenal and the later
time keeps adding to this sort of Asura. For example, Dhundhu is an
Asura son of Madhu and Kaitabha (called both Daityas and Danavas),
who were slain by Visnu (3, 203, 17 f.). Madhu is the older figure, whose
name may lie in (modern) Mathura. But Dhundhu lives in the earth, con
cealed in sand, and when he wakes and breathes, he shakes the earth,
while the sky is obscured by his breath. When attacked by the intrepid
Kuvalasva (to whom Visnu had promised his energy) for seven days,
Dhundhu spits out flames (3,202, i8f.; ib. 204, 2— 40). He thus appears
to be as much of a volcano as the Sicilian giant. The Vedic Asuras are
chiefly renowned for their contests with Indra and will be discussed under
Indra, etc. Sambara still has his thousand tricks, but is slain by Indra
Indo-Aryan Research. III. ib. 4
5O III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
with the help of Das"aratha (R 2, 9, 13 and 45, etc.). New points appear
of course. Sambara is Timidhvaja and still later his wife appears as Maya-
vati (H 92i3f., also Mayadevi; not epic), as the characteristic Sac I of
Indra becomes his wife Sad at an earlier date (cf. Neria, heroic power,
as wife of Mars, etc.). There are other inconsistencies to be expected and
actually found. Brahman gives the Asuras all boons except immortality,
for immortality is withheld from them; yet Hari, son of Taraka, obtains
a lake (as a boon from the same god) which perpetually restores life to
anyone bathing in it (8, 33, 9 and 30). Although described as beautiful
and generally noble in appearance, the Danavas have, as fighting foes of
the gods, three heads, four fangs, four arms, etc. (3, 173, 53). Arjuna takes
the place of Indra as slayer of demons in the epic, destroying Nivata-
kavacas, Hiranyapur, etc., although in fights waged by the hero Indra
appears still as their typical opponent. The Asuras have no father- god
except Brahman, for Brahman remains also their "father" and gives them
not only boons but good advice (14, 26, 10, etc.). They have no one king,
for various Asuras are called Asuraraj and Asuradhipa. Their overlord, in
moral harangues, is Pride, the asura bhava. Pride, Wrath, and Delusion
were king-demons and the chief king, adhipati, was Pride (12, 295, 10
and 20). Another account names, however, as recognised "truest Asuras",
those who refused to obey Brahman, owing to wrath and greed and pride,
Hiranyakas"ipu, Hiranyaksa, Virocana, Sambara, Vipracitti, Prahlada =
Prahrada, Namuci and Bali (Danavendrah 12,166,26; Asurasattamah, 31).
Mada, Intoxication, the most famous personified vice, is a mahasura but
not a regular Asura, being only a phantom born of Cyavana. He was a
monster (one jaw on earth and one in the sky, etc.), but Indra dispersed
him, so that his power was dissipated and distributed among drink, women,
dice, and hunting (3, 124, 19 f.; 13, 157, 33; 14, 9, 33; later accounts make
him a son of Danu or even a son of Brahman; cf. JAOS. 26, p. 67, for
the Vedic version). Later lists unite Mada with Pramada (H 2289 and
14290). In i, 66, 52, Sura is sister of Bala, both being children of Varuna
by Sukra's daughter Devi. The jatis of fiends are united in their under
ground home in Patala. Taraka is a demon whose name does not appear
in the old genealogical lists, but in what may be called the middle period
of the epic he appears as claiming a boon from Brahman, though, as
elsewhere, the boon is neutralised by a trick, into the account of which
is woven the ancient tale of the lost Fire-god, and finally Taraka is killed
by Skanda, by Krsna, and by Indra, as accounts differ. This Taraka got
Maya to build for his three sons three cities, of gold, silver, and iron, on
sky, air, and earth, which were destroyed by £iva (7, 202, 64f; 8, 33, i6f.).
The city in Patala is Hiranyapur and was made by the All-maker, ViSva-
karman, though invented by Maya (5, 100, 2, nirmitam ViSvakarmana
Mayena manasa srstam, Patalatalam as"ritam), or, it was made by
Brahman himself for the use of the Kalakeyas or Kalakanjas and Paulomas
(3, 173, n). It is also located beyond the sea as the home of the Nivata-
kavacas (4, 61, 27 and 5, 49, 16). It floats about at will and was destroyed
by Siva's weapon in Arjuna's hands (3, 173, 41 f.). Siva (§ 155) is thus
known as Tripurahan, etc. The Kalakeyas occupy in particular the stone
city (R 7, 23, 17). Another city of Asuras is Pragjyotisa, where Naraka
Bhauma kept the ear-rings stolen from Aditi by the Nagas. Both the "stone
city on earth", as"managara, of the Kalakeyas and this town Pragjyotisa
are probably poetic versions of a real city (or cities), as Arjuna slew six
III. SPIRITS. 51
thousand Asuras, Mura, and many Raksasas after the gods had sent him
to kill the robbers (Dasyus = Asuras), and on getting back the ear-rings
he brings back the "Asura women" as wives. Another account represents
all three cities as being in the sky (13, 161, 25). Pragjyotisa in 2, 45, 7;
!4> 75> r? etc., is clearly a human city (cf. Uttarajyotisa, 2, 32, n, a western
town). Muru (sic) and Pitha (Danava) are associated with Naraka in the
downfall of Pragjyotisa at 12, 340, 92 (cf. 7, n, 5, where Pitha, mahasura,
and Muru are slain by Vasudeva, as was Hayaraja or KesMn, who dwelt
beside the Yamuna). The same section speaks of Krsna (Pradyumna) as
destroying Saubha, a city of Daityas, a kos away in the sky, belonging
to king ^alva. This city is at times described as aerial, at times as a human
town. Manimatf as a Daitya-town (ofllvala) is mentioned in 3,96,4. Both
a royal seer and an Asura bear the name Vrsaparvan. The "Daitya's"
daughter ^armistha Daiteyi married Yayati (i, 81, n; 2, i, 17); and Vrsa
parvan the Asura (reborn as king Dfrghaprajna, I, 67, 16; he is wealthy,
2, 3, 3) is thus ancestor of the Kurus and Pandus through the Asurendra-
suta. There is no close family connection among most Asuras as among
the great Raksasas of the Ram. The best developed family is that of
Virocana. Bali is always Vairocana (as earlier). HiranyakaSipu, Prahlada,
Virocana, Bali, and Bana represent five generations of distinguished
fiends. Usa, the daughter of Bana, marks a sixth generation. Hiranya-
kas"ipu, if not Prahlada (= hrada), is a later addition to the tale. Prahlada
is an ardent worshipper of Visnu, while his father is an infidel. Sectarian
interest centres about this family as if it were a real (human) line. Bali,
whom Visnu cheats in his dwarf Avatar, is the oldest member historically.
Virocana has the usual unhappy fate of one whose son is more famous
than his father and is known chiefly as "father of Bali". Prahlada appears
as deciding a dispute of Virocana with a Muni (Sudhanvan), both claiming
superiority and eventually agreeing to refer the matter to Prahlada, whose
natural partiality is modified by some wise words respecting lying uttered
by Kas"yapa, so that he admits the superiority of Sudhanvan because his
mother is superior to Virocana's (2, 68, 65f.; details in 5, 35, 5f.). In S,
Prahlada seems less afraid of lying than of having his head split by Sudhanvan,
who threatens him with this and sundry ills if the does not decide "truth
fully" in his favor and a holy hams a (bird) lectures the Asura on lying
(instead of KaSyapa). Naraka Bhauma is literally "son of earth"; S adds
that his father was Narayana. This is a "secret" certainly unknown to the
genealogist of Adi (7, 29, 32; 12, 209, 7 as mahasura). His bones are to
be seen at Ganges' Gate (Visnu slays him in his Boar form). Karna is
Naraka reborn; as expressed in 3, 252, 29: "The soul of slaughtered Naraka
was born in Kama's form". It is noticeable that the death of the great
Asuras is effected by deceit. Visnu in the form of a man-lion thus slays
HiranyakaSipu because he was an unbeliever (7, 191, 36; 197, 23). Hiran-
yakas"ipu is reborn as Sisupala. In his family were born Sunda and Upa-
sunda, mahasurau, who were brought to destruction through jealousy
by means of the nymph Tilottama. These Asuras enslaved the Nagas and
killed the saints (i, 209, 2f.).
Despite the many tales of Asuras, most of those named in the epic
remain mere names, such as Kapata, or are named only as undistingui
shed victims of distinguished beings (Indra, Krsna, etc.), such as Vegavat
and Vivindhya, who appear only to disappear in the battle with Samba
(3, 16, I2f.). They fight and die, but others, like Ghanabha or Ghatabha
52 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
and Vikatabha (H 12698), are empty names, as is Gavistha, named in the
early genealogy and again named in H, but unknown between. In the
same list appears an Asura Ghatodara, who is known also as an attendant
on Varuna and in R is a Raksasa. Others who are Nagas appear as Asuras,
e. g. Muka, who is an Asura, a Raksasa, and a Naga, (i, 57, 9; 3, 39, 7,
here B has son of Danu and S son of Diti; ib. 16 and 27 f.). An Asura
Paka is made out of Indra's epithet Pakas~asana. Some Asuras known by
name in Mbh. actually do something in R. Thus Anuhlada, son of Hiran-
yakas~ipu, appears in the divine genealogy (i, 65, 19) but only in R 4, 39, 6"
does anything (seduces £aci). In 12, 227, 5 if., the list of Daityas and
Danavas, including purvadaityendra, contains many names unknown
before (Virupaka, Pratirupa, etc.), unless Virupa = Virupaka (2, 9, 14).
Virupaksa, Asura and Raksasa, was, as a Rudra, made lord of Bhuts and
Mothers (see Rudra) by Visnu (12, 207, 34). Some have animal names, some
fiery, some are named from deformity (As"va, Vrsan, Rsabha, Varaha; Vahni,
Vis"vajit; Samkoca, Varftaksa, etc.). Later lists in H (12932^; 14282^),
beginning with 228 if., separate Varahasva into Varaha and As"va. Hara
and Hari in these lists of demons perpetuate the principle of permitting
names of gods (Wind, Fire, etc.) to serve as names of demons. Compare
the sons of Diti slain by Garuda (5, 105, 14), among them Vivasvat as
(sun) demon. Perhaps the earlier usage shows that no great difference
was felt between gods and demons. When good, a god; when destructive,
a demon. Soma rapes Tara, as if he were a demon, though she is wife
of Brhaspati (5, 117, 13), thus bringing on the war about Tara, Taraka-
maya, known to all the epic writers and described in full at H 1340^, in
which the heavenly host is divided against itself, as it is divided when
Khandava is burned (another Tara is raped by Sugriva in the Rama-story,
3, 280, 39, etc.). Despite the large number of classes of demons mentioned
as such by the epic poets, there were probably others known but not
mentioned. The Kumbhandas (demons) are not known as such, but a Kum-
bhanda is minister of the Asura Bana in H 9844 f., and Kumbhandas appear
in other literature (for example in the MahavamSa) as a class of demons
(Kusmandi is a name of Diva's wife, H 10245, and Kus-, or Kus"mandaka,
is name of a Naga, I, 35, n). For the priest of the demons see § 26
and § Ii8f.
IV. THE GODS.
§ 19. Origin and General Characteristics of the Gods. - The
chief Hindu gods are phenomenal, Spencer's effort to prove that Indra
and Dawn were originally ghosts being only the first of various attempts
to distort translucent facts. The language of the early literature is too
clear to be misunderstood in this regard. But by the time the epics were
composed the phenomenal side was greatly obscured. Anthropomorphism
had rendered even Sun and Moon quite human in dress, talk, and action,
while Indra was as much of a family-man as Thor became elsewhere.
But the base remained not wholly covered and even Visnu and Siva occa-
ssionally reveal their origin. Animism and naturism blend in the unification
of spirits and objective matter marked by ancestors worshipped as animals,
mountains, stars, etc. But in one regard this chaos of mythology inherited
from an older age is augmented rather than decreased by the generalising
process conspicuous in the epic. Namely, mythology has been affected
by the star-cult, but to how great an extent is hard to say. All the stars
IV. THE GODS. 53
were divine or saintly beings. Aldebaran was, as Rohini (female), the
favorite wife of the Moon-god; the Pleiades were the "mothers" of Skanda;
the Great Bear was known as the Seven Seers and Arundhatl, the wife
of one of them, waited nearby; the "steadfast" dhruva (Pole Star) being
less often personified in anthropomorphic form. But Dhruva is son of
Nahusa, who in turn was born of Svarbhanu's daughter, Svarbhanavi by
Ayu(s), the son of_Pururavas and UrvasT. Hence all Nahusa's sons, Yati,
Yayati, Samyati, Ayati, and Dhruva, meaning "going", like ayu, or
"steadfast", may have been stars, the myth of Yayati pointing in the same
direction (i, 75, 25 f.) So the As"vins are born "in the mouth" of the mare-
goddess (§ no), as asterism (?). Amavasu (cf. amavasya) is also son of
Ayu or Pururavas (H 958, 1373). A parallel unconsciousness maybe seen
when "Vrtra and Bala smite Indra and (= as) the heat- and rain-months
smite the world" (7, 30, gf.) without thought that nidagha and Vrtra are
the same (Bala = rain-month, often alone as smitten by Indra, 7, 134, 8;
cf. 6, 45, 45; ib. 100, 32); the gharmams'avalj. of Vrtra and Bala (so B and S)
are not distinguished. But most of this is lost in nebulous nomenclature.
Another prolific source of gods is abstractions, constantly personified.
There is no limit to a pantheon where hope, hell, and hunger, cows and
corn, the west and wisdom, etc. are all called gods. Constantly new images
invoke new personifications. Right and Wrong and Gain make an ancient
triad regarded as divine beings, and the "wives" of these beings are
registered, together with female attendants without number. Memory,
Affection, Endurance, Victory, Effort are incorporate forms in the van of
Skanda's army, nor can one dismiss them as poetic metaphor when on
an equal footing with them stands Laksmf, Happiness, the well-known
wife of Visnu , and even Effort appears in both epics as an actual being.
Some of these abstractions have been raised to high place in the pantheon
of active and very real gods. Many of them are Vedic or even pre-Vedic
(Anumati, etc.); others are apparently new, yet no one knows how ancient.
Natural phenomena thus serve with mental and moral traits to make an
endless list of Devas or Daivatas. Night and Light (as son of Day), Dawn,
and Twilight go hand in hand with Love, Wrath, Fear, etc. The same
word indicates different divinities (so transparent is still the meaning)
when SarasvatT, a "flowing", is the goddess Fluency or Eloquence ("mother
of the Vedas") in one place and the Flowing (river goddess) in another.
Such abstractions are seen perhaps at their best in the morality-play of
the later epic, where ethical and physical elements appear. Thus, after
SavitrT, also "mother of the Vedas", has formally announced a discus
sion between Time, Death, and Yama, and the characters have been
properly introduced by Sir Right (quite dramatic), Heaven (Svarga), and
Desire, and Wrath play their parts, making a formal entrance on the stage :
(Svarga): "Know me, O king, as Heaven, who here arrive
" In person: Come, ascend to heaven with me."
But the king, who has learned to despise the joy hereafter, says:
"For heaven I have no use; depart, O Heaven,
"Go away, Heaven" (gaccha, Svarga! 12, 199, 77).
In 12, 200, n, among various personifications, such as rivers and
mountains, appear, as deified forms, ascetic practices, Yoga-rule, lauds
(tapamsi, stobhas, etc.) which, bizarre as they seem even here, are
really only an extension of the principle that makes a great goddess of
Savitrl, the laud par excellence, who as a divinity sends her worshippers
54 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
to heaven or to hell, and says, for example: "Thou shalt not go to hell
where the priests go, but thou shalt go to Brahman's place" (12, 199, 14).
How far the personification is felt as real, can be judged from the fact
that Wrath and Fear and Diseases are "children of &va" (13, 14, 413).
All faults are personified demons, as much as disease is a demon, and
this is a primitive lasting conception. Yet in the description of the Hall
of the Gods, it may be questioned whether the abstractions attending as
courtiers are not in part poetical, for in the list of attendants stand divi
sions of time as well as Time, and the "wheel of right", poems, dramas,
the senses, etc., which seem to be personified for the occasion (in the
Hall of Brahman, 2, n, "dramas" a late addition ^. Ram. has the same
sort of personification, natural phenomena and especially abstractions such
as appear in the passage where Ravana asks: "Art thou Hri, Kirti, 3ri,
Subha, LaksmI, an Apsaras, Bhuti, or Rati?" (R 3, 46, 16). Neuter words
are thus made masculine by implication, as when the personified weapons
(neuter) appear to sight as masculines, tatha 'yudhani te sarve yayulj
purusavigrahah (R 7, 109, 7). Worship is extended to these material
things on occasion and the Sikh's puja of the sword is anticipated in 12,
166, 87, ases" ca puja kartavya. Ancient too are the personifications as
gods of nomina agentis, the Maker, the Creator, the Disposer (Vidhatr),
etc. Often epithets of gods are particularised as separate divinities (Dhatr
= Brahman?), or functioning forces become epithets (Savitr becomes Surya?).
The epic does not solve the problem. Prajapati is sometimes Brahman and
sometimes a separate god, etc.
When, as frequently occurs, a list of gods is given, there is no
unvarying precedence and often in such lists there are remarkable omis
sions. In short, they are made arbitrarily, not according to a scheme. Very
few of the gods mentioned in the epic are of any importance. Many are
grouped gods of the Vedic age existing as a necessary part of a list of
gods who give homage to a great god or applaud a hero. For all they
do individually, they might as well be non-existent. Others live in a tale
or two. A mass consists in the abstractions already referred to. Groups
are named as such along with some of the individuals belonging to the
groups, as if they were separate entities, as when Skanda is consecrated;
but the poet at the end in despair of completeness says that he does not
name all the groups of divinities, devataganas, "because there are too
many" (9, 45, I f.) But there is a tendency in less exhaustive summaries
to embrace the gods under the caption "celestials", opposed to spirits of
air and earth, as divine, angelic, and demoniac, the three constituting the
trailokyacarinah. (R 3, 64, 60). So in S 12, 12, 38 sadevasuragan-
dharvam idam jagat, "the world with gods, Asuras, and Gandharvas"
<{cf. 5, 57, ii, etc.). The gods and other spirits usually come together for
a consultation or to see an exhibition of arms, mingling amicably with
[saints, and often the spirits, good and bad, consort without evidence of
'conflict. Thus in R 6, 79, 25, to see a fight, assemble in the space between
earth and the sky "gods, Danavas, Gandharvas, Kimnaras, and great ser-
[pents". The gods seldom interfere in human conflicts, but occasionally they
jconfuse the forms of the fighters out of partiality (7, 138, 13) or wipe the
sweat from a warrior's face, as do 3akra and Surya (8, 90, 18), the latter
being peculiarly adapted for this office! Except for ancient wars referred
to constantly as the "war about Tara" or the "war of gods and
*) See Prof. Winternitz's note JRAS. 1903, p. 572.
IV. THE GODS. 55
demons", the epic gods do little en masse. In connection with the Asuras
they get ambrosia from the ocean, out of which rise Dhanvantari, the
divine physician, sixty crores of Apsarasas, Sura, Uccaifrs'ravas (§ 68),
the jewel Kaustubha, and last of all ambrosia. In R I, 45 and 4, 58, 13
(janami amrtasya manthanam) the story is well known. In Mbh. (i, 18)
the divine king of tortoises of his own consent upholds the mountain; the
later Ram. identifies the tortoise with Visnu. Here the moon rises first,
followed by Sri and Sura (Varum), and the divine physician comes after
the others bearing the ajmbrosia (this too in RG). Mbh. S adds the Pari-
jata tree and Surabhi. Siva in Mbh. drinks the poison at the request of
Brahman, and Visnu deceives the Asuras by means of a deceptive female
form. In R there are other variations. In 5, 102, Surabhi's birth is given
in this form, but in 8, 60, 7, the honor of having stupified the Asuras is
given wholly to Indra and Agni (in 5, 107, to Visnu). R 4, 66, 32 ascribes
ambrosia to a decoction of herbs collected by Jambavat.
§ 20. The Number of Gods is cited as "Thirty-Three", but is
incalculable for reasons already given. -- Eighty-eight thousand Gan-
dharvas are on Mt. Mandara and seven times six thousand Deva-Gandharvas
once met on the top of a sacrificial post to dance there (12, 29, 75).
Eighty-eight (like eighty-four) is a stereotyped number. In I, i, 41, the
Devas are counted as "thirty-three thousands, thirty-three hundreds, and
thirty-three", a late but very moderate estimate in view of traditional
numbers of gods. More important and perhaps indicative of the gods
actually revered is the number of shrines in a holy hermitage. Thus when
Rama visits Agastya he finds in the hermitage shrines erected to eighteen
gods (including a group as a unit) and these are really the gods most in
evidence as active beings, Brahman, Agni, Visnu, Mahendra, Vivasvat,
Soma, Bhaga, Kubera, Dhatr and Vidhatr, Vayu, Vasuki, Ananta (v. 1.
Garuda), Gayatri, the Vasus, Varuna, Kartikeya, and Dharma (R 3, 12, I7f.).
Narada, implying that they are the gods he himself worships, advises
others to worship Varuna, Vayu, Aditya, Parjanya, Agni, Sthanu, Skanda,
Laksmi, Visnu, Brahman, Vacaspati, Candramas, Water, Earth, and Saras-
vati (13, 31, 6). Probably the poet was right, however, who said that "Men
fear and honor the killing gods, not Brahman, Dhatr, Pusan, but Rudra,
Skanda, Sakra, Agni, Varuna, Yama, Kala, Vayu, Mrtyu, Vais"ravana, Ravi,
the Vasus, Maruts, Sadhyas, and Vis"ve Devas" (12, 15, i6f.), the general
principle being that "without fear no one sacrifices, no one gives" (na
'bhito yajate, etc. ib. 13). The conventional number of gods, however,
remains fixed as three and thirty, divided into families. Apart from this
number, families of gods are everywhere accepted, though the members
of a family are not always the same, and again, as sons of one Father-god,
an effort is made to include among "families of gods" even the vegetable
kingdom. Thus plants and animals are included with the_As"vins as Guhyakas
(i, 66, 40). The "Three and Thirty" are reckoned as 12 (Adityas) -f- 8 (Vasus)
+ ll(Rudras)-f-2(As~vinau), or as (in place of the two)Prajapati andVasatkara
(so Nil. at i, 66, 37), but in truth the distribution is a later product. The
poets inherited the Tridas"a group and used it of the greater gods without
defining it, till R 3, 14, 14 gives the definition above (the two as As"vins; versus
the Vedic definition of the two, as Indra and Prajapati, SB. 11,6, 3, 5; Brh.Up.
3>9j 3)- Tridas~a also means thirty (i, 113, 21) and is used of gods in general,
for example, in 3,85,20, where "Brahman with the Tridasas" has this general
meaning, as it has quite frequently (see usage in following sections).
56 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
§ 21. Leaders of the Gods. - - If, as in 3, 186, 30, the gods go to
sacrifice, they are led by Agni; if to battle, by Indra, and later by Kart-
tikeya. But Indra as the war-lord remains the Sures"a, Surapati, king of
Devas (i, 86, 8, etc.), and he is even called "the only king of heaven''
(5, 45, 6 and 10). But geographical and other factors modify this statement.
In his own district each god is supreme, and it is not often that the gods
leave their proper places. When they do, it may be that they are led by
other gods than the titular leaders. Thus Yama and Kubera lead a host
of gods and other spirits going to a Svayarnvara (i, 187, 6f.). Brahman
and Soma head the gods going to see a battle (7, 98, 33). Each group of
gods has its natural leader, as when Surya is lord of Grahas; Candramas,
lord of Naksatras; Yama, lord of Pitrs; Soma, lord of plants; Ocean, of
rivers; Varuna, of waters; the Maruts, kings of groups; and Indra, king
of Maruts; till in descending scale Mahadevi is named as mistress of
women devoted to Bhaga (14, 43, 6f.). Here the North is lord of direc
tions, but immediately afterwards the East is first (ib. 44, 13). Despite
variations, largely due to sectarian influence, the gods are in general
partitioned off into little groups, each under the lordship of one who is
called best, either as king or as leader (5, 156, I2f.). When Kumara (as
here) is called leader of the Devas, it must be remembered that in 7, 7, 6
the succession from an older leadership is indicated by the words, "Of
old the Suras with Sakra at their head made Skanda their general or
commander-in-chief" (compare the list 6, 34, 2 if., where Vasava is best
of Devas).
Distinctions between gods rest on general differences, such as that
already mentioned between gods that kill and others and between Pitrs
raised to divinity and natural gods. The functions of gods make a distinction
between them which is not very marked, as almost any god does what
any other can do. An older grouping by pairs prevails to a certain (not
marked) extent. In R 6, 12, 36, the speaker thus groups as gods he would
dare to contend with Sakra and Vivasvat, Pavaka and Maruta, Kubera and
Varuna, adding that his own prowess and power is like that of Sagara
and Maruta (ib. 13, 16). The simplest distinction rests on physical traits,
"lord of heat" (Agni), "lord as to sowing seeds" (Earth), "lord as to illu
mination" (Sun, i, 88, 13). The geographical distinction coincides in part
with this. Yama as lord of the (deadly) South; Agni as lord of the East
(full of sacrificial fires); but it extends beyond this. Thus in the war with
Garuda (i, 3_2, 16) the defeated celestials fly, the Vasus and Rudras to the
South, the Adityas to the West, the Asvins to the North, the Sadhyas
and Gandharvas to the East. The rules for offerings show geographical
and sacrificial distinctions. Earth says that a householder must make an
offering of rice and water, or of milk, roots, and water to the Pitrs, and
boiled rice to the Vis"ve Devas. This is offerred in the open air at morn
and eve. Daily offerings are to be made to Agni, Soma, Dhanvantari, and
a separate one to the Creator. To Yama the bali must be cast south
ward; to Varuna, westward; to Soma, northward; to Indra, eastward; to
Dhanvantari to the north-east (13,97, 5f.). Physically, Indra is typical
strength, Vayu of speed; Soma of beauty; Death of anger (3, 141, 21).
But in 8, 92, 13 and elsewhere gods typical of strength, bravery, and
prowess are Kubera, Yama, and Indra. Prowess is also the mark of Visnu,
as beauty is that of the As"vins, patience that of Earth, etc. (R 7, 37, 4f.).
Both Yama and Varuna are famed for "control", the first controlling his
IV. THE GODS. 57
just wrath against the sinner, the second controlling the realm and sinner
(2, 78, i8f.). Similarly, of the gods, who are all wealthy, four are selected
to represent this trait by Valmiki's follower, when he says "such wealth
was never seen before, not of £akra, of the lord of wealth (Kubera), of
Yama, or of Varuna" (R 7, 92, 17).
Before the general characteristics of the gods are discussed, it is
necessary to remark that the term Devata is also applied to a gentle host
of sylvan deities who do not share the characteristics of the supernal
Devas (also called Devatas). There are divinities of house and home and
also of the woods, who seem to belong to earth and stay there. The
greater and rougher epic has little to do with them, but Rama's wander
ings through the woods give opportunity for the more sentimental poem
to exploit them. On occasion, however, they are recognised, as when one
says in I, 154, 3, "Art thou the Devata of this wood, O thou divinely fair?".
The Yaksas are usually gentle but sometimes unpleasant, and probably
Vanadevatas and Yaksas are regarded as of the same class. The Vana
devatas run away, easily frightened, when any fiend or god appears. On
seeing Sita weep they tremble in every limb (R 3, 52, 43). They are called
Sattvas and Daivatani, and Sita invokes them (ib. 45, 31; ib. 49, 33 f.). The
Devata nagarasya is another earth-goddess, the tutelary divinity of the
city (4,9, 15), i. e. the incorporate city as goddess, lovely as a Kimnari
or Vidyadharl (cf. R 5, 3, 27 f.). Every home has also its GrhadevT (§ 17).
In 13, 100, 10, the pious man is told to give pleasure to these grhya
devatah with incense and lamps as offerings. They are invoked with
other beings as witnesses (R 2, n, 15). In short, every place has its genius
loci, whether grove, mountain, stream, village, or house.
§ 22. The Signs of the Gods. — All divine beings are fair. A woman
is sufficiently lauded when called devarupini (i, 153, n; 3, 65, 73). The
One God alone is vidharman, without qualities; other gods have quali
ties distinguishing them from man, who is first of all mortal and so
endowed with mortal qualities, martyadharman. The gods have these
conspicuous traits: they are immortal (i, 18, 27); they do not quite touch
earth with the feet (opposed to the martya who is pada bhumim
upasprSan, 2, 70, 14); they have "divine" beauty, devarupa; they do
not sweat, and have no dust upon their limbs or garlands; they do not
wink their eyes; they have no shadow (3, 57, 23 f.). Some of these points
may be uncertain, as contradicted by other accounts. Thus the garlands
of the gods fade when they are frightened (i, 30, 37). Rama "sees the
huge shadows of gods, Gandharvas, and Raksas" at a place on the
Sarasvati called Subhumika (9,37,9, chayas" ca vipula drstva deva-
gandharvaraksasam). But S has £ayyah (couches) for chayah. Hanumat
asks if Sita is a goddess and says he thinks she is not, because of her
"touching earth", also from her excessive weeping (R 5, 33, n). The
shadow-sign is often ignored; so in R 3, 36, Prak. 17 f., where, as signs, are
mentioned not touching earth, winkless eyes, dustless garments, and un-
faded flowers. Indra as typical of all the gods (R 3, 5, 5f.) has no dust
upon his garments or jewels and does not touch earth with his feet.
Indra's attendants are ever immortal and beautiful and "appear to be
twenty-five years old, for such is ever the age of gods" (R 3, 5, 18, etad
dhi kila devanam vayo bhavati nityada). The voice of the gods is
loud (S 3, 105, i, nirhradinya gira . . uvaca Brahma). Those who are
"like gods" are by implication intelligent to a high degree, as put in
58 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
I, 183, n, "they were like gods (that is) endowed with intelligence, prowess
and might", buddhi, virya, bala. The "immortals" are synonymous
with "intelligent", vibudhas = Devas. That gods are not always wise is
shown by tales where they are outwitted by the fiends, but the respectful
epithet remains as one of their characteristics at all times. An exception
in appearance occurs if a god goes disguised. Then, as man, he appears
as man, for gods go gudharupah with their true form concealed (and
its characteristics). Most of the gods win their best battles by "concealed"
form (deceit) and boast of it. The gods turn into animals at will, as
evinced by the tales of Dharma as a dog, or the tale of R 7, 18, 2f.,
where, in fear of Ravana, Dharma became a crow, Varuna a goose, Kubera
a lizard, etc. The gods appear and "go as they will" (but so do any spirits).
The gods live in fear of man, partly because of physical reasons,
partly on moral grounds. They are dependent on the offerings given by
men, and should these fail, they would be in a wretched state. Also the
divinity of an epic hero in alliance with the All-god renders the Devas
afraid (R 3, 23, 26 f. etc.). A god again, if in high station, lives in fear of
some mortal gaining merit enough to oust him from his place (3, 193,
23 ; see § 66).
§ 23. Habitations of Spiritual Beings. - When not directly in
terested in human affairs to the point of descending to earth, either to
partake of a sacrifice or to intervene in worldly matters, the gods reside
in the sky, where they live in courts of their own "on top of the sky,
in the third heaven", or gather at the halls of their colleagues. Brahman's
court is the highest of these, except when sectarian influence lowers him
below another "highest" god. These residences of the gods are called
assembly-halls, parks, cloudlike "vehicles", cities, worlds, and palaces, and
it is occasionally impossible to say whether the poet thinks of them as
separate or as including one the other, as is true also of the demons, so
that, for example, whether Ravana's "car" is coterminous with his residence
is difficult to say. The court or "hall" of Indra is the rendezvous of the
other gods and this is called Sudharma, but most of the halls of the gods
appear to have no special name ; possibly only the highest gods were
regarded as possessing a "hall" at all. Agni, Sun, Moon, Indra, Brahman,
Krsna, Yama, Varuna, and Kubera are particularly named as having
renowned and beautiful palaces of this sort. Even Indra's hall is known
by name only in Hariv., the Puranas, and Ram. and late additions; 2, 3,
27; S 12, 37, 18 (pravives"a sabham raja Sudharmam Vasavo yatha);
cf. R 2, 56, 36, sabham yatha devaganah Sudharmam . . vivisuh)1).
The general heaven called Trivistapa is a name of the sun, as is
Svargadvara (door of heaven, 3, 3, 26). It is synonymous with Amaravati
and Indra-loka (i, 207, 36 and 210, 7). It is the general synagogue of the
gods (2, 60, 4), but is especially Indra's (3, 24, 21, as lord of Trivistapa)
and is typical of any very beautiful place (3, 100, 18). Mortals who sin
*) This verse is found in both the Bombay and Kumbakonam (sic) texts, but it is
not in G. Yet RB 2, 81, 10 and G 82, 9 both have Sudharma as the hall where Brhaspati
and Indra go with their troop (of gods), evidently the same Sabha as that of Mbh. 2, 3, 27.
As these are the only passages where Sudharma occurs as a hall, common in Hariv. and
the Puranas, it is probably an indication that the "Halls" are a late description, a sup
position favored by other evidence of the same character regarding their inhabitants
(perhaps a loan from the Jains, who have a heaven and gods called Saudharma). Sudharma
in Mbh. is the wife of Matali (see under Indra). In H 6565 f., Vayu takes the hall
Sudharma to Dvaraka.
IV. THE GODS. 59
cannot see Indra's city (3, 43, if.), sinners being defined as those who do
not sacrifice nor bathe in Tirthas, and who do eat meat and get drunk.
Indra is lord of the whole world, and his "hall" PuskaramalinT (2, 7, 30)
is the abode of other gods, half-gods, etc., as well as of the Seven Seers.
There is no use in mentioning all the gods resident there; it suffices to
point out that although Agni and the Sun are said to have their own
halls, that of Indra seems often to be their abode. "Like clouds"
describes the "home of the gods" (2, 3, 25) and, without exaggerating
natural phenomena as a base, there is probably something in that. The
massed clouds suggest palaces and every god like every raj has his palace
or "assembly-hall", but the smaller chiefs live mostly at the court of the
emperor, and Indra is described here after the emperor-idea is naturalised.
* Human conditions are reflected in divine. So the gods have their "play
grounds" as well as palaces, generally on the summit of mountains, some
of these earthly resorts being still "marked with their feet" (devanam
akrldam caranankitam, 3, 139, 4; cf. ib. 158, 83, devakridas, masc.
or neut.) The favorite play-grounds of the gods are the mountains Meru,
Kailasa, and Mainaka (i, 120, n), where "a man who is even a little
rash" is set upon by Raksasas and killed for his daring, since (ib.) it is
the viharo devanam amanusagatis tu sa, "gods' sporting-ground
where man is not admitted". To be noticed is the fact, here expressed,
that Raksasas are employed by the gods to guard their privacy. Not
angels but devils guard the celestial city. Moreover, Kailasa (the especial
udyana or park of Siva), where only gods and the highest saints and
divine seers can come, is also the home of Danavas. It is, however, as
much the home of Kubera as of Siva. Kubera sits at ease on Gandha-
madana and listens to the music of Tumburu on holy days (3, 159, 28).
The palaces of earth are compared with such homes of the gods (not
temples) when one wishes to exalt the human display of marble, jewels,
gold, etc. In these palaces the gods are represented as feasting and lying
on couches, living a life of drunken ease. "Drunk as gods" describes the
condition of Raukmineya and Samba at a festival (i, 219, 9; cf. 8, 10, 7 for
the "comfortable couches"). Beyond and over these mountains of the
North goes the Devayana, "beyond Kailasa"; this is the Devalokasya
margah and divyo devapathah found by the mortal who might not go
upon it (3, 148, 22). The home of Kubera is on the top of the mountain
and beyond it stretches the divine path leading to the heavenly world,
a "terrible uneven path only wide enough for one" (like a bridge to
paradise). The path of the gods, devapatha, is, however, often the path
by which the gods go (apparently) from any starting point, leaving its
trail in the sky to this day. For example, by this path ascended Rudra
to heaven after abandoning the sacrificial animal, and "it appears visibly
to whoso touches water and sings to Rudra a Gatha (hymn, 3, 114,6 — 10);
(the spot from which he ascended being in the Kalinga country north of
the (earthly) Vaitaram river. Metaphorically the path of the gods is virtue
and bravery 4). The visible road may be the Milky Way. The Devapur is
literally a stronghold in the third heaven (diva interchanges with Tri-
J) The Devapathas of the city mentioned in R 2, 17, 16 may be roads' to temples or
royal roads, catuspathan devapathams caityany ayatanani ca pradaksinam
pariharafi jagama (B caityan). Devamarga as apanadvara (!) appears in R 5, 62, 15 — 16
(G 61,4). For the metaphorical use mentioned above, cf. 5,27,27: ma gas tvam vai
devayanat patho 'dya; and 9,5,39 (of bravery).
60 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
vistapa). The "three worlds" are those of sky, atmosphere and earth
(trinaka = tridiva; naka interchanges both with vyoman and with
diva). Another term is viraloka, where dead heroes go, equivalent to
the world of the blest or the highest course (7, 77, 15; ib. 195, 7). The
worlds of the blest are many, opposed to the bad worlds, krcchra lokah,
of sinners. Both are variously interpreted. Those who sacrifice go to other
worlds than those of saints or of philosophers, and according to KaSyapa,
the worlds of the patient are the highest; the bad worlds being hells or
worlds in the sense of rebirth in low forms (7, 125, 76; 3, 29, 39 and ib.
181, 9). The "three worlds" is chiefly proverbial (3, 134, 10) and becomes
a mere formula, "famous in the three worlds", etc., though probably at
first intended to cover the worlds of gods, Asuras, and men (cf. 7, 62, I ;
R 7, 5, n, etc.). Trilokanatha and Trailoka are epithets of Indra as lord
of these worlds, called loka and bhuvana (5, 10, 3 and 6; R 6, 114, 18).
With this interchanges another antique phrase "seven worlds" (3, 3, 45
and 52; I, 179, 12 and 22; RG I, 14, 41, sapta lokah). These worlds are
supported on earth or on water (4, 50, 3 and I, 180, 17). Siva is identified
with the seven worlds he creates (13, 16, 34) "beginning with earth" (ib. 52,
bhuvanah sapta). They are personified (12, 187, 26) as sentient and
talking beings (R 6, 101, 56). But in R 6, 119, 31 f. ("the three worlds see
Sita enter fire"), gods, Gandharvas, and Danavas are meant (ib. 120, 24).
The gods and their worlds are not kept strictly apart, nor men and their
world, the material being sensible. So Rama "can destroy worlds" and
again create "people", the two being thought of as one (R 3, 31, 26). The
Puranic worlds beyond worlds has scarcely affected the epic, which in
this regard as in many others shows its priority (9, 47, 14; 13, 14, 211).
But the later writers influenced by Buddhism are not content with a few
worlds and proceed to pile worlds on worlds as homes of the blest and
the gods, worlds which even Indra cannot see; visionary worlds (svapna-
bhuta lokah), beyond Time (13, 73, 2f.; ib. 81, i8f.). So, in this view,
the Maruts live no longer with Indra but have a world of their own, as
do other gods, where men live blessed with millions or billions of years.
A peculiar description in R 7,23, pr. 4, if. enumerates different worlds
as wind-paths, the first being that of the goose, hams a, the second that
of three kinds of clouds, the fourth that of sanctified saints and singers
(Siddhas and Caranas), the fourth of pious beings, the fifth of aerial Ganges
and Nagas and elephants (water here becomes snow), the sixth of Garuda
and his relations (jnatis and bandhavas), the seventh of the sun and
planets and stars (a thousand leagues above the aerial Ganges, upheld by
Wind), and finally the world of the Moon. In 13, 102, I4f., a round dozen
of desirable worlds are enumerated, implicitly in the order of preference:
the region of Yama, of the aerial Ganges, Mandakini, and Kubera, of
Meru, of Narada, of the Uttara Kurus, of Soma, of Aditya, of Varuna, of
Indra, of Prajapati, of cows, and of Brahman (sad an a interchanging with
loka). The characteristics of these worlds are not unlike: in the world
of the Moon live kind people and no sorrow is there; in the world of
the Sun live those who keep their vows; in Indra's world live centenarians,
heroes, and scholars, etc. The "shining world of heroes" is really one
with Indra's world. When a hero dies in battle, thousands of nymphs and
Gandharva-girls vie with each other for the honor of becoming his wife
(12, 99, 4 and 98, 46). All the worlds have these nymphs; only later are
they restricted to a "seventh" heaven. Theology also invents dauhitraja
IV. THE GODS. 61
worlds, won by those who get the benefit of sons through daughters' sons
(i, 157, 36). But in general the epjc imagines tier on tier of worlds topped
by that of Brahman, Visnu, or Siva, as sectaries decide. Similarly the
worlds of sinners are imagined as separate hells. The later epic delights
in placing certain virtuous people, as reward of their virtue, in certain
worlds. One who takes his early morning bath and is well read in the
Great Epic receives "the worlds of Visnu and the Moon" as his reward
(13, 76, 1 8). Twenty-six or twenty-seven worlds (Buddhistic) may be inferred
from the ascent of JaigTsavya from earth to the point where he disappears
in the world of Brahman ; though these world are those of saints and
ascetics for the most part (after Yama's world and Soma's world), till the
worlds of Mitra and Varuna, the Adityas, Rudra, Vasus, Brhaspati (Nos. 16
to 20) bring him to the world of cows, "three other worlds", and the
world of faithful women (9, 50, 26 f.). Descriptions of the assembly-halls
of the four Lokapalas and of Brahman describe them in terms of earthly
luxury with some strange restrictions of inhabitants. Varuna's Hall contains,
as was to be expected, Nagas and waters and Daityas; Kubera's, besides
Raksasas, Yaksas, and Guhyakas, contains Gandharvas, Apsarasas, and
&va ("God of the Bull"); Yama's contains kings; Brahman's, saints and
seers; Indra's, gods, Gandharvas, and great seers and Haris"candra, a king-
seer (rajarsi); yet all who die in battle go to Indra's heaven and live
happily with him (2, 12, 21) as do all ascetic suicides (ib. 22). Other
descriptions allude to worlds without end, flowing with milk and honey,
in each of which a favored mortal lives seven days (1,92, 10 and I5f.).
Stars are not only saints but worlds that both live and mourn and serve
as future stations for those who live holy lives (i, 210, 36; 3, 42, 32 and
34; 12, 271, 25; 14, 17, 38f.). Opposed to heavens are the hells into which
one falls or sinks, i. e. below earth. Below earth are the delightful regions
of Rasatala, the seventh layer under earth, where is BhogavatT, and in
several passages no difference is to be seen between this Rasatala and
Patala, the depth of earth, later resolved into several Patalas, of which
an interpolated verse in S gives a premonition (4, 18, 22), patalesu pa-
taty esa vilapan vadavamukhe, "he will fall lamenting into the Mare's
mouth in the Patalas" (implying the fire of the Vadavamukha in the water-
world under earth). This under-world is reddened with flames and guarded
by demons (R 6, 75, 52 and 41, 34!".), and the inhabitants of Patala are in
the southern ocean (R 4, 64, 4f.), so that probably, though hell is in
Yama's domain in the South, the "falling" and "sinking" were used ori
ginally of descent under earth, i. e. into the region known to the epic
as the under-world. Neither epic gives the Puranic seven (eight) Patalas
(of which one is Rasatala) ascribed to different classes of beings and
regents, each region having a depth often thousand leagues. But 5, 102, II
may imply a knowledge of this, as it speaks of the seventh layer under
earth as Rasatala and cites the verse which says that no heaven is so
blessed a place (cf. VP. 2, 5, 5, which alludes to this). Patala as Rasatala
is a watery under-world where Vasuki (§ 13) reigns, but being also the
abode of demons and fiends and of underground fires it later became
synonymous with hell (see Yama).
§ 24. Children and Wives of the Gods. --^Uma cursed the gods
to have no children, because they had persuaded Siva to have no son by
her, so excepting Agni, who was out of hearing and so out of range of
the curse, all the gods became childless (13, 84, 76). Ram. I, 36, 22 tells
62 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
j the same tale differently, limiting the curse to the wives of the gods. In
j fact, the gods have many sons by many mothers, nymphs, Naga-girls, fairies,
etc. (R I, 17, Qf.). Mbh. says that bears and monkeys were born at Brah
man's command as sons of gods, Gandharvas, etc. (3, 276, 6). According
to the genealogy of heroes, "part" of a god was born on earth as a hero,
or one hero is a unified portion of certain divine powers. Thus Drona was
a part of Brhaspati, but Asvatthaman was born as the unification of Maha-
deva, Death, Desire, and Wrath (ekatvam upapannanam jajne, I, 67,
69f.). Yudhisthira was "son" of Dharma as a part of Dharma (ib. no
Dharmasy amsam . . viddhi Yudhisthiram). Apparently this does not
hold good in the case of evil spirits. Sikhandin is not born by this sort
of fission but is a whole fiend incarnate (ib. 126, Agner bhagam tu
viddhi tvam Drstadyumnam . . Sikhandinam .. . viddhi Raksasam),
the whole war being in theory a contest of "parts of gods" and complete
Raksasas (only Duryodhana is "part of Kali") and other demons, such as
As"oka, who was the demon As~va; Candravarman, king of Kamboja, who
was the demon Candra (son of Diti); and Vis"va, who was the Mahasura
Mayura (etc., I, 67, 14 — 35). In effect, the detailed description of the greatest
heroes shows that the gods were imagined as real fathers, though by
reason of their Yoga power they can reproduce themselves divinely, so
that Surya, the Sun, being called by a Mantra of the Atharvaveda, comes
to Prtha and "touches" her, whereat she conceives; but "the sun did not
pollute her" (3, 307, 28, immaculate conception). The gods have sons in
f five different ways. They may propagate by thought^alone (the "spiritual"
[ sons of Brahman, etc.) or by word, sight, touch, or, finally, by congress
(15, 30, 22). Valin, Sugrfva, Tara, Gandhamadana, Nala, Nila, Mainda and
Dvivida, Susena, and ^arabha, in the story of Rama, are the respective
sons by female animals of Indra, Surya, Brhaspati, Kubera, ViSvakarman,
Pavaka (Agni), the'As"vins, Varuna, and Parjanya; but Hanumat is son of
Maruta (Vayu) by the wife of king Kesarin and she is a nymph reborn
on earth (R I, 17). Heroes are said to be "like sons of gods", Deva-
putrasamalj sarve (6, 103, 21 f.) Sita is "like the daughter of a god",
surasutopama (R 6, 5, 20). The male children of the gods make a special
group of celestial beings, grouped with Gandharvas, Apsarasas, etc., as
devanam s"is"avah, "sons of gods", in the procession of gods honoring
Siva (3, 231, 44). When the nymphs sport on earth, they join in play with
the Tridasanam atmajah (3, 240, 22), "own sons of the gods" (Three
and Thirty). Such sons are identified with the Gandharvas in 4, 14, 50,
where they are called "sons of the gods who roam the skies, the smiters"
(pramathinah). Devas"is~ur yatha and Devagarbha applied to Abhi-
manyu (4, 72, 8, etc.) also imply the existence of sons of the gods of one
sort or another, as the gods themselves are called Daksasutah (R 5, 48, 16).
Perhaps Devagandharva itself means son of the gods: Narada, Kali, and
other such Devagandharvas are in fact (i, 65, 44) Mauneyas, grandchildren
of Brahman by Muni, daughter of Daksa, a metronymic of the Apsarasas
** also (H 12473). fThe nymphs themselves are "girls of the gods" (Deva-
kanyas sporting with Gandharvas, n, 19, 18, implies this). The Devakanya
turned into a doe by Brahman is an Apsaras (3, no, 37). The term is
used in the same way in the tale of Rsyas'rriga and in 13, 14, 38 and
RG 5, 15, 16 stands in contrast to Devapatni and Devamatr (wife and
mother of gods). Probably after the term became current, it bred a belief
in the special existence of a group thus called, for it sometimes seems
IV. THE GODS. 63
to stand in contrast also with the Apsarasas themselves, Gandharva
DevakanyaS ca sarve ca 'psarasam ganah (5, 17, 22; 13, 166, 14).
But "girl" is ambiguous and in such instances seems rather to indicate
a kridanari (play-girl) than a daughter of gods. In many cases the bliss of
heaven is augmented by Devakanyas (e. g. 13, 107, 35 f.) = Apsarasas. The
kanyas of various special gods are here mentioned (just as Devayositas
occurs elsewhere to designate dancing nymphs, crowned with lotuses and
golden-hued) and described as black, brunette and blonde Deva- and
Daivatakanyas. These Surayositas play on vinas and vallakis (lutes)
and are adorned with nupuras (anklets), having eyes of doe or of cat,
fair waists, and brilliant smiles. The Devastriyah may be seen climbing
up Mt. Meru, but these are the gods' wives (i, 134, 16; 13, 79, 25 f.). The
wife is always sharer of the honor of her divine husband, although he is
rarely faithful to her. The wives differ from these gay girls and women,
kanyas, yositas, and kumaryas, or concubines of the gods, in dignity
and in being accepted everywhere as the one wife, each being hidden from
the eyes of the world, as queens are hid on earth : "What man may
behold the (one) wife of Soma, of Indra, of Visnu, of Varuna, in his house
(concealed)?" (i, 82, 12, kah . . striyam drastum arhati). Such a wife
is the patni (queen) and devi (as queen, devi is used of an earthly
king's wife). Even when physical phenomena require that the Moon-god
recognise twenty-seven "wives" (lunar stations, stars of the lunar zodiac)
and each is called patni, Rohini is really the queen among them (i, 66, 16).
As typical of conjugal bliss, divine pairs are strung together by the poets,
who thus give us the names of most of these queens of the gods, though
they do not always agree. For example, one list ascribes Yama's wife to
Markandeya (saints and their wives are often included in the lists). Some
of the names are of Vedic type, Rudra and Rudrani, Indra and Sad,
Pururavas and Urvas"!, etc.; others are new creations and not so firmly
fixed. Siva himself gives such a list at 13, 146, 4f. : Savitri is the good
wife, sadhvi, of Brahman; Sacf, of Kausika (Indra); Dhumorna of Mar
kandeya; Rddhi, of Kubera (Vais~ravana); Gaurl, of Varuna; Suvarcala, of
Surya; Rohini, of £as~in (Soma); Svaha, of Agni (Vibhavasu); and Aditi,
of Kas~yapa. These wives are all patidevatati, "hold their husbands as
their god". Dhumorna in 5, 117, 8f. (in S), also in S 13, 166, II, is paired
with Yama in a similar list, in which Prabhavati and Ravi represent Prabha
(§ 84) or Suvarcala and Surya (etc.) with a few additions, Narayana and
Laksmi, Udadhi and Jahnavf (Ocean and Ganges), Pitamaha and Vedi;
though Kausika here is^ViSvamitra (and HaimavatI). Brhaspati here rjairs
with Tara; Sukra with Sataparva; Dharma with Dhrti; Vasuki with Sata-
s~irsa; Janardana (Krsna) with RukminT, etc. Vedi cannot be Savitri, another
instance of discrepancy. Dhrti is also an All-god (masculine). Devasena
is added in some lists as wife of Skanda (3, 224, if.; S 4, 22, gf. : Laksmi
is here wife of Damodara, Saci of Indra, Rudram of 3ankara, Savitri of
Brahman, and Devasena of Guha). R has a similar list (R 5, 24, iof.), em
bracing heroes, Kes"inl and Sagara, Nala and DamayantI, Savitri and
Satyavat. The social structure suggested is not carried to its logical con
clusion. Some gojds belong to one caste, some to another; yet the As~vins,
though they are Sudras (12, 208, 24), are warrior-gods, and as such receive
offerings and sacrifice (see § no). Brhaspati is a priest (god). Indra is a
warrior. But no god is representative of the third estate and Indra is no
more a Vanir-like trading-god ; still less are there outcaste gods. All that
64 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
is permitted here is the almost exclusive devotion of Parjanya as rain-god
to the agricultural caste and the practically outcaste (outcast) condition
of the Danavas, etc. There are too no Mleccha barbarian gods, though
the episode of the White Island, common to the pseudo-epic of both
poems, recognises a barbarian God. The "sacrifice-stealing" gods are not
said to be foreign, though they may be so. The later epic is very catholic.
Brhaspati, the priest-god, says: "A black man who acts white is recognised
by the gods as a Brahman, even if he be of the lowest caste. A virtuous
and pure Mleccha is better than a Brahman who does evil" (S 12, 118
after B ib. 6; cf. also on the Sudra-nature of an evil priest, 3, 216, I4f.).
§25. Men as Gods. — The first men were devakalpa ("god-like")
saints who never did wrong, pure vehicles of virtue (dharmatantrani).
They all had the true nature of Brahman, went to heaven and returned
again as they liked along with the gods, and being god-like died only
when they wished. These were those now called Siddhas and Siddharthas,
the blest ("they attained their aim", 2, 183, 63f.; 3, 135, 11). But after
thousands of years men became less virtuous; then they lost their power
of going to heaven and "walked only on earth and sank sinning to hell".
The Karma doctrine sealed this theory and emplasised euhemerism: "The
lights of heaven, the Three and Thirty (gods), Nagas and Yaksas, Moon
(and Sun and Wind (god), all got to godhead from the human state J±Lrough
/manly action" (13, 6,3 f.). But the Fathers of ^Td remain in~lnemory as
men who become so godlike that they are all, even the later Pitrs, called
a kind of god, and philosophy, identifying functions of man with gods and
his soul as one with God, while his body is the home of gods, reduces
the distinction still more. Yet apart from philosophy, certain men are gods
on earth. Whether this honor came first to priest, king1), or husband, the
epic recognises fully that the priest as well as the king is divine, and
that to every wife her husband is or should be her divinity. A distinction
is made in the terms describing the first two classes. A king--or--prince_
or a royal seer is called naradeva; a priest is bhumideva. "earth-god".
It is only as^-^god^thaTirking may accept a gift (he is Indra, Varuna,
jKubera, and Yama incorporate, R 7, 76, 3 if.); it is as a divinity that the
(priest is entitled to his superior position. The king has the high title
naradevadeva (5, 30, i). He incorporates many gods, Dharma, Brhaspati,
Prajapati, and even Bhava and Babhru (Siva and Vismi, 3, 185, 28). He is
the Creator in earthly form and in proverbial language represents regu
larly five divinities (R3,40, 12, etc.).jf^tQucjiJsjdliyjn^ly^healing (15, 3, 68).
Modifications are due to conduct. If not kingly, he is noTkifrg, therefore
no god; and as such may be slain like a mad dog (R 2, 196, u; ib. 3,
33, 16). Hence, as he has "something human", being only "one quarter
Indra" (ib. 7, 59, pr. 3; ib. 3, I, i8f.), he is said to "obtain divinity" on
dying (i. e. complete divinity); whereas, no matter how evil a priest may
be, he remains an "earth-god" (bhusura, S 12, 141, 92), created god on
earth by the Creator above (13, 141, 62). This differs from the philosophical
speculation that merely recognises as anybody's "going" a manifestation
of Visnu, power as Sakra, Agni in digestion, and Sarasvati in hearing
(12, 240, 8), and even makes deva mean sense, "the gods in the senses"
*) E. Kuhn, Zu den Arischen Anschauungen vom Konigtum, p. 216, cites R2,
102 (101), 4, devatve sarnmato mama to illustrate king as deva (ib. ksitidevata of
priests, 13, 141, 62) by consent (cf. Mahasammata). The vs. represents rather the usual view
(king is human) offset by the new view of the speaker ("in my opinion, divine"). G limits
to the individual case, devatvam for devatve (111,4).
IV. THE GODS. 65
(certain in 12, 314, if. = 14, 42> 24I ib. 43, 3Of.; uncertain in 12, 175, 25).
The identification is rather implied also in the theory that when a man
dies and his soul escapes through his feet, it gets to Visnu, through the
crown to Brahman, through the eyes to Agni (etc. 12, 302, 2Of.; 314, if.;
318, if.). The theory that the husband is the wife's divinity is a parallel
to that which makes the parents the child's divinity. Neither (so common
are both) needs illustration; but the underlying sense is totemic in that
it establishes as a "god" that power on which one is dependent (see
above, § 9). Woman herself is (poetically) a divinity, Srih stri (13,46, 15).
The theory of the "gods of gods" (above, § 15) is illustrated by R 2, 34,
52, pita hi daivatam tata devatanam api smrtam (for the others,
see e. g. bharta daivatam, ib. 24, 21; 12, 267, 39; of both parents, etau
maddaivatam param, 3, 214, igf.).
§ 26. Religion and Morals of the Gods. — The priest of the gods,
Brhaspati, exercises the usual functions of a priest, that is, the gods are
a religious body and have their own "divine service". Curiously enough,
the priest himself is no more of an authority than the priest of the demons
(12, 58, if.). In sectarian chapters of the epics all the gods worship Visnu
or Siva, but their priest was not for this purpose, rather to obtain and
retain for them the magical powers obtained by the sacrifice. For the
same reason the gods perform austerities. Yet their puja is not of great
import; any hero or saint is "honored" by the civil deities. They even
dance and sing in honor of a royal saint like Sibi, who was "besung and
bedanced by the gods" in admiration (nrttas" cai 'vo 'pagitas" ca pita-
maha iva prabhuh, by nymphs, angels, and gods, 13, 32, 32)1). The gods
meditate, perform penances, offer sacrifices, etc., and the places where
of old were the fires of their sacrifices are still shown on earth. All the
gods took part in the building of the fires at Visakhayupa, for example,
and Maruts, Asvins, and Sadhyas also muttered their prayers, and saints
and seers sang hymns at Gangadvara, where Siva received the Ganges
(ahnikam japate and sama sma gayanti samagah, 3, 142, 6f.; cf. 3,
90, 15; 12, 12, 3). The gods' festival, however, is not on earth, but at
Indra's city. It is a puja but not religious, consisting in drinking, songA
and dance; in fact, it resembles a human festival, as divine religious exer-\
cises resemble their human models. The gods come and take their seats
in "due order" as the spectators of the dance, which is an essential part
of the feast of heaven, svargasya utsavah. Mahendra, being host, dis
misses his guests after they have enjoyed themselves sufficiently; the
festival being a musical exhibition given by the Gandharvas and Apsarasas
(3, 46, 27 f.). The human utsava is a samaja in honor of a god (i, 143,9),
but the divine utsava is to do honor to a human heroic son of Indra.
The Soma of the gods' sacrifice mingled with the river Payosni and is
still mixed with it (3, 120, 32 f.). That Indra drank Soma with the ASvins
on the Narmada river is referred to elsewhere (§§ 4 and no).
If ethics be part of religion, the divine religion is moral. All in all,
as light to darkness, so is the religion approved of the gods as compared
with that of the demons. The demons are false and eat meat; the gods
*) This use of nrtta = upanrtta is perhaps proleptic, as upaglta follows. The
normal use occurs in 5, 123, 4, upagitopanrttas' ca (of Yayati on entering heaven).
Dance is a common token of honor and worship, but "fore-dancing", pra-nart may indi
cate insult (= prati-nart) as well as honor; pranrtta is used not of the recipient of
the honor but of the dancing person (see s. v. P. W.).
Indo-Aryan Research. III. ib. 5
66 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
are true and drink nectar. Apparently they eat flesh at sacrifices, but they
do not eat bloody flesh, only the essence of sacrifice. Despite the many
sins of the king of the gods, who is famous as an adulterer, deceiver,
and drinker, the epic moralist attributes repentance to him. Dissent from
the belief that the gods love truth appears only in the splenetic utterance
of an impatient king who says that "now-a-days even the gods lie", Deva
'pi nunam anrtam vadanti (8,68, 15). Opposed is a mass of testimony :
"Sun, Fire, Wind, all gods, all creation, depend on truth; truth is equal
to a thousand horse-sacrifices* it pleases the gods and Pitrs; it is man's
highest duty" (13, 75, 29). Banal morality, however, is to be tempered by
common sense. Not to injure animals is a moral law, but Balaka won
heaven by killing a blind beast; and Kaus~ika went to hell for telling an
inopportune truth (8, 69, 39f.; 12, 109, 7). To deceive one's friend is wrong;
to deceive one's enemy is right, etc. All the greatest victories of the
gods were won by deception of which they boast with pride. The gods
cause the fall of the sinner (or slay him, devatah patayanti, v. 1. gha-
tayanti, 12, 132, 18). So the gods are appealed to as arbiters: "To the
Thirty-three thy act of violence is hateful" (3, 161, n; S ib. 162, 13, v. I.
"even to the gods"). The gods "seek wisdom and love purity; they will
pot accept an offering from a man without faith" (3, 186, i8f.). Faith
/means to "revere all the gods and obey all their laws" (12, no, 18). But
Indra as the god of valor demands of his worshippers virtue in the Roman
sense; his warriors lacking bravery fail to go to his heaven and not
lacking bravery but dying face to the foe they attain bliss, irrespective
of their moral state otherwise. Those who desert their friends in battle
are to be burned alive, for "Indra and the other gods whom he heads
give over to misfortune (asvasti tebhyah kurvanti) those who, deser
ting their friends, come home unwounded from war" (12., 97, 2l). Such
a deserter "sinks to the hell Raurava in a sea of woe without a boat"
(S after 6, 77, 35). Indra is god of guests; so hospitality is another means
of winning Indra's heaven; as Brahman's heaven is won by treating well
the Brahman priest (as teacher), and Prajapati's heaven is won by obedience
to one's father. Hence the saying: "The guest has power over Indra's
world". In other words, the appropriate god must be propitiated by
observing his own way of morality. That is the reason why "the heaven
of the All-gods is won by those who are kind to their maternal and
paternal relations" (as they are Pitr-gods; all in 12, 244, i/f.; maternal
and paternal probably represent the distinction in jamis and jnatis). The
order of the state is also regarded, as an ethical matter, by the gods.
Marriages are made in heaven; "monogamy is the state decreed by the
gods for women" (2,68,35). The wife is "given by the gods" (1,157,31).
To see whether a man observe these laws, the gods spy upon him; con
versely, they are invoked as witnesses (passim). The chief witnesses are
(12, 322, 55) Fire, Sun and Wind; others are Moon, Earth, and Water (as
divinities). Later comes the idea of "the inner man" (conscience) and of
Dharma, Right or Justice, as witnesses (i, 74, 29 f.). Yama, as god and judge of
the dead, is also naturally invoked, and the Twilights, as complementary to
Day and Night (as divine witnesses ib.). Fire is a witness of the world" (R 6,
119, 24 f.; cf. 3,291, 22 f. S makes Yama the saksi lokasya karmanam)1).
f) The thorough treatment of ethics "approved by the gods" would demand a volume,
but mythologically it is unimportant, human terms being simply rendered as divine. Virtuous
demons are known and sermons preached by them to the gods are given in the later epic
with telling effect, the stupid and rather boorish Indra being here set against the urbane
demon (see Indra). Compare above, pp. 39 — 40, on virtuous demons.
IV. THE GODS. 67
§ 27. Relation between Gods and Men. Worship. — As shown
above (§§ 4 and 19) the gods help men in battle. When propitiated by
penances or satiated with offerings, they bestow in return largesse after
their kind, or by means of heavenly messengers they give good advice.
One thing only they commonly refuse, immortality, but even this is given
by special gods (see Brahman, etc.). The gods live in Agastya's hermitage
and wait upon the saint, the spot being so sanctified by austerity that in
it the gods, when properly propitiated, aradhitah, "bestow upon pure
creatures spirithood and immortality and kingdoms various" (R 3, 11,94:
yaksatvam amaratvam ca . . atra deva prayacchanti; G 17, 32 has
"wealth" also as one of the gifts, but the donor is here one god, naranam
atra bhagavan vidadhe tapasa vibhuh). The free gift of yaksatva
as well as that of immortality, whether made by one or more gods, natu
rally sets aside the Karma doctrine, according to which "gods and saints
get heaven by their acts" (12, 332,45; cf. 13,6, 14). Other gifts are regarded
as due to merit and possibly immortality or the condition of a Yaksa
(spirit) might be roughly thought of as based on the same cause, but as
expressed the two theories are incompatible. Otherwise the gods assist
men by proxy. A demon (see Raksasas) is sent to interfere with a good
woman's seducer; a woman (see Tilottama) is created to help Visnu and
man, etc. The "bodiless voice", so often heard from the sky, is always
the voice of gods or their proxy (messenger), uttered to warn or advise,
even when it is not expressly stated to whom the voice belongs. In 3,
156, 13, a voice aSaririni divya akas"at, "incorporate, heavenly, from
space", gives advice as to the royal pilgrim's route through the mountains.
A messenger may be sent, taking any form, so that Hanumat is thought
to be "sent either by Vasava or by Vaisravana" as messenger (R 5, 42,
15 ; cf. ib. 50, 10, where he is thought to be sent by Visnu as Rama or
as having assumed the "lovely form" of Kubera, etc.). Dhrtarastra is sup
posed to have been born on earth as a Gandharva (messenger of Indra),
to, help the cause of right (15, 31, 8!), an involuntary Avatar, though he
is perhaps only on a par with other spirits born for the purpose at the
will of Brahman (in I, 67, 3f. and 84 he is "Hamsa, a lord of Gandharvas,
son of Arista"). As a voice the Devaduta informs Ruru that life may be
restored in return for life if Yama wills, a "means provided by the gods"
(i, 9, 7f.). In 3, 260, 30 f., a Devadutaka comes on a car in person to take
Mudgala to heaven and tell him of the happiness there (ib. 261). Another,
"of terrible form", commanded Yayati to fall from heaven, saying thrice
in a prolonged cry "fall thou" (plutena svarena, dhvamsa! 1,89,20).
A voice in space, "of a certain divine messenger", prophecies that the
eighth son of Devaki will slay Kamsa (S 2, 23, n). A voice of this sort
encourages Bhlsma to keep on fighting, as this is the "time appointed by
the Source of All (Vis"vayoni as Brahman) for accomplishing his decrees"
(6, 48, 98). Other signs are given for mortal assistance. When Ravana
threatens Sita, who does not know that he is practically impotent, the
Devagandharva maidens, who know all about it, try to signal the truth
to her by pouting and winking or averting their eyes (osthaprakarair
apara vaktrair netrais tatha 'parah, R 5, 22, n). In combats of men
the pleased gods shower flowers (4, 64, 37f.; as is done also by Devayosas,
9, 46, 96, on Skanda's victory). Not content with this, the gods lend men
their own weapons. The twin brothers of the righteous king thus carry
the "bows of Visnu and the Asvins" (Vaisnava and ASvija, 7, 23, 92 f.).
5*
68 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
The gods in the night-battle themselves seize torches and lamps in the
sky, when waked by the glare of the battle-field (7, 163, I3f.). Usually
they are content to cry sadhu and svasty astu to the heroes (7, 170,
12, etc.). Conversely, the help of the gods is shown by opposition to the
favorite's foe. Such opposition is a fatality, a "divine oppression", which
may attack a whole city (blest is a city devatabadhavarjitam, "without
divine oppression", I, 207, 35). It is only the philosopher who says that
gods give man no physical aid, but help him by making him intelligent.
"Gods do not take a stick and guard men like a cowherd; him they
wish to guard they gird with knowledge" (5, 35, 40). Another implicit con
tradiction of the Karma doctrine comes out in the statement that the
grace of God is effective (yasya prasadam kurute, etc. 12, 337, 20,
Upan. verse and doctrine) and conversely, and materially, a man's personal
defects, blindness etc. are not due to acts of a previous birth, but "the
gods close the doors" of the deaf and blind (devair .apihitadvarah,
12, 263, 13), as it is the gods who give success (5, 191, 15, daivam; S 8,
80, 21, devah sakalam sadhayantu). The very life of a man depends
on the grace of the gods (i, 151, 38). The gods help Uparicara because
he argues on their side the important question whether seeds may be
considered goats for sacrificial purposes (see Vasu). One form of the
bestowal of grace is for the gods to give children, particularly sons. It
is granted as a reward for austerity, and devatejyas, and laudation, and
magical rites (in the list abhicara comes last, 3, 205, I7f.). It is only the
grace of the gods that makes every oblation fruitful (13, 22, 5; see § 31).
The formal worship of the gods consists in austerity, because that is
a means of winning their good-will, as much as sacrifice itself, and lau
dation, van dan a, etc. The Vedic cult passes as the usual accepted cult
save for the (Visnu) passages which inculcate simpler rites and less bloody
offerings. But in the later theory all gifts to the gods are overpassed in
value by gifts to the priests (13, 61, etc.), whether of cows, jewels, houses,
or land. Lamps, flowers, gold, sandals, etc., every desirable thing, has its
reward in heavenly worlds, divine favor, and sensual bliss hereafter. Incense
and lights are given to priests and gods alike, the former being for this
purpose particularly "gods of earth". The thanksgiving service to the
gods, a rite almost lacking in the older cult, is represented as common.
Thus on the report of a victory, the gods are worshipped with flowers as
offerings (4, 68, 23). Sacrifice itself is divine and a divinity identical with
the god Prajapati. Most gods are svistakrtah, "they perfect sacrifice";
only the fifteen Mitra-gods, begotten by Tapas, "steal the sacrifice" (see
Proc. Am. Philosoph. Soc. 1910, 24f.). At a hermitage, no attempt is
made to please with elaborate rites. Vegetables and water are here the
offerings (12, 9, 10, vanya and apas). There is a difference in flower-
offerings. Sharp-scented and thorny flowers and red flowers are for magic,
abhicarartham ("as explained in AV."). Other are the flowers offered
to Gandharvas, Nagas, and Yaksas; they make glad the heart, hence they
are called sumanasas, eumenides. To Bhuts are offered red or black
flowers. Owing to their association with demons, one should not wear red
flowers but white; yet a red flower may be worn on the head (except
the kamala and kuvalaya, lotus and lily, 13, 104, 83 f. and ib. 98, 15 f.).
The gods take the perfume of flowers, Raksasas accept their appearance
with pleasure, and they please the Nagas by serving as food (ib. 98, 35).
The food of Yaksas and Raksasas, however, must be a mixture of meat
IV. THE GODS. 69
and brandy (any spirituous liquor); that of Bhuts, sesame, sugar, etc. The
gods should be offered (by a householder) milk and flowers as a bali;
then, being pleased with him, they make him prosper (ib. 60, the dis
course of Us"anas with Bali, the Asurendra). The same passage discusses
the forms of incense pleasing to the gods. Some are inauspicious, but all
d hup as except the perfume made from sallaki are delightful (to the
gods) if of the first class. For there are three classes, niryasa, sarin,
and krtrima ("artificial", as opposed to the gum and burning stick-
incense); the best of all is guggulu (of the first class) i. e. bdellium;
a guru (of the second, sarin, class) is best for Yaksas, Raksasas, and ser
pents (candana and aguru together, 9, n, 52; as dhupa, R 5, 9, 28, etc.).
The sallakiya incense, hateful to the gods, is the favorite of the Daitya
demons; but gods, Danavas, and Bhuts are all pleased with the incense
made of deodar pine and the vatica robusta (13, 98, 38 f.). Women are
particularly enjoined to make offerings of flowers, as they are excluded
from the elaborate Vedic rites. What they have to do in reference to the
gods is explained by Uma to Ganges: "Good women should rise early,
clean the house with cow-dung, be devoted to the Fire-cult (Agnikarya),
and always, with their husbands, offer flowers to the gods" (13, 146, 49).
The conduct of good women, as here explained, touches the gods further
in that a chaste woman may not look on Sun or Moon (because they are
male), nor at "a tree with a masculine name" (na candrasuryau na
tarum pumnamna, ib. 43). All the gods should be worshipped by a man
in the forenoon; and to get long life (hundred years) one should rise
before the sun in the hour of Brahman, brahme muhurte, be pure, not
break things (this is the sympathetic sum of "not bite's one's nails, nor
cut grass, nor break sods"), and not look at the sun when he rises or
sets nor at midday nor when eclipsed; but the seers, Rsis, got long life
simply by adoring the Twilights. When one worships the gods, one should
put on clean clothes and not prepare for oneself the food for the gods
(samyava, krsara, saskuli; 13, 104, 15!".; 87,41 and 87). The flesh of
goats, cows, gavya, and peacocks (ib. 93) is taboo anyway, whether or
not on account of religious associations is not stated. To urinate against
the sun, cows, priests, or the road, shortens life (ib. 75 ; cf. with all this,
12, 193, I3f.). According to 13, 104,64, the rule against looking at sun,
moon, and stars, naksatra, is for those sacrificially impure.
§ 28. The Days of the Gods. - - These are mentioned adventitiously
and incompletely in the epic poetry. Karttiki, the full-moon day of the
month Karttika is spoken of as most holy (3, 182, 16), but MargasTrsa is
the chief month (6, 34, 35). The twelfth of each month is sacred to Krsna-
Visnu, and he should be adored under a different name every month on
that day (13, 109, 3f.). Compared with ib. 106, I7f., this section appears
to make the year begin with MargasTrsa, as the rules for fasting and
observance through the year start in each case with Margasirsa and end
with Karttika. The fifth and sixth lunar days are for sacrifices to the gods ;
the eighth and fourteenth of the dark half of the month are propitious
for fasting. Rewards of the virtue of fasting once "a day for each month
are enumerated. Phalguna the spring month, is Bhagadaivata (marriage-
month, under god Bhaga). The thirteenth lunar day of any month is lucky
(pras"asta, 3, 134, 20). The day of the new moon, amavasya, is pro
pitious for fighting, because sacred to Indra (^akradevata, 5, 142, 18).
Auspicious days are those of the new and full moon, the eighth, and the
7O III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
thirteenth; also the lunar days (called divinities) represented by the first
part of the day of the new and of the full moon and the latter part of
the day of the new and full moon, Sinivall, Anumati, Kuhu, Raka (lunar
days as divinities, 8, 34, 32). In 3, 275, 5, Raka is an evil demon. Sinivalf
and Kuhu (new moon) make a pair as opposed to Anumati and Raka
(full moon). Devasena, Sasthi, Skanda's wife, is called Sinivall and Kuhu
(see § 161). In 3, 218, 5, Sinivall is the third daughter of Brahman's third
son, Angiras (father of Brhaspati) and, "owing to her excessive thinness
she is both visible and invisible". People call her Kapardin's daughter
(Rudra = Siva wears her on his forehead, the crescent moon). Kuhu is
also a daughter of Angiras (see Agni). The moon-month was virtually
divided by holy days (when one must remain chaste) into weeks, the day
of the new moon, that day week ("eighth day"), full-moon day, and the
eighth day after the full moon. Krsna and Skanda (v. s. v.) have special
days in each month. Skanda has by preference the fifth or sixth of the
crescent month (moon, Sripaficami and sasthi). Krsna has the twelfth, as
already remarked, and the Janmastami, eighth. The eighth day anyway is
half way between new and full and so is a "joint" day (Parvan) and as
such very holy and especially adapted for the fulfilment of desires, when
offerings are made to the gods (Kamyastami). Sunday is the seventh day
of the week, or, as an alternative, the sixth; better is the seventh because
the Sun-god has seven steeds (3, 3, 63 and 64, saptamyam atha va
s as thy am). The year itself is a form of the creator-god, Prajapati or
Brahman (q. v.); in its northern course the Sun begins to take pity on
man. The northern course belongs to the gods, the southern to the Fathers
(passim). See also JAOS. 24, p. 24; and for the year's possible beginning
(in spring), Tilak, Orion, p. 23 f.
§ 29. Shrines and Temples of the Gods. — The usual word for
a shrine is ayatana or devayatana and these words are often trans
lated as temple or chapel (e. g. PW. s. deva° and devatayatana), pro
bably without special consideration of the architectural value of a "temple".
If buildings of any importance are meant by this translation, it must be
said that it is inaccurate for most of the epic occurrence. The ayatana
("resting-place" or "support") is originally a mere place for the sacred
fire, and a small shrine gives its architectural value for the Mbh. in all
except a few doubtful cases. In Ram., where architecture is more modern
than in Mbh., the case is different. It strikes the mind at once that in
Mbh., although the homes of kings and lesser men are described in detail,
with a full account of the palatial homes of the gods in heaven, and even
the watering-places are described as having marble steps, no ornate
description of a god's earthly home (temple) is to be found. On the con
trary, in many descriptions of sylvan hermitages and impromptu settle
ments, the ayatanani appear as hastily erected^ huts or mounds of earth
sacred to a god. For example, in 13, 10, 20, a Sudra leaves a hermitage
in the mountains, and going farther into the wilds proceeds to make a
little retreat for himself. There he builds himself a vedi, altar, a bhumi,
to sleep on, and devatayatanani, which are clearly not of architectural
value. When Rama in the woods builds himself also a hut, a vedi, cai-
tyas and "ayatanani suitable for an asylum" (R 2, 56, 33, caityany
ayatanani ca aSramasya 'nurupani) he builds the same modest shrines,
but the modifying expression shows that the writer recognises more am
bitious ayatanani which would not be suitable for an asylum. And, in
IV. THE GODS. 71
fact, as far as Ram. is concerned, in the same book Rama and Sita are
described as sleeping srimaty ayatane Visnoh, R 2, 6, 4, which must
be a temple large enough for a royal couch; but this is in the city. So
too in the same book, R 2, 33, 20, when the "homes" are described as
unswept, and "deserted by the divinities", the gods' homes, ves"mani, may
be implied, and this would mean temples (doubtful). But at any rate the
first case represents something different from the simple s than am Kau-
beram, Dharmasthanam, etc., enumerated in the asylums (R 3, 12, i/f.).
The Kaccit chapter, which is found in both epics, alludes to devasthana
in R 2, 100, 44, along with tanks, altars, wells, feasts of the gods, caityas
(ib. 62), etc., but the expression is not found in the corresponding version
of Mbh. (2, 5, 100 has caitya vrksah). But in the late passage where
Markandeya describes the end of the age and the evils thereof, the
devasthanas and devagrhas ("god-houses", bethel) are brought into
direct contrast with the reliquaries (of the Buddhists) known as edukas
(3, 190, 65 and 67; jaluka, v. 1.), and in this case, as in many others, one
is not able to say whether a god-house means a temple or not. So with
the more frequently mentioned devayatanani, most of the occurrences
in both epics might apply to a simple shrine or to a temple, if they stood
by themselves. When, however, a determining factor shows what they
mean, it is evident that in Mbh. they are not temples. Neutral in value,
for example, are such cases as those in 5, 152, 2, where one is warned
against disturbing s"mas~anani, hermitages of the great seers, Tirthas,
devatayatanani and ayatanani, in pitching a camp; since the distinc
tion may apply to shrines of seers, as in Agastya's hermitage, which had
shrines to gods and to seers. The same warning is given in 3, 16, 3, to
avoid, in pitching a camp, Caitya trees and devatayatanani. The deva-
grhani burned by Hanumat in RG 5, 49, 16, are not mentioned in the
other text (Bomb, and S), but Ravana's palace is compared to a deva-
grha in R 3, 55,6, and this passage is found in both texts, the simile
suggesting that a temple is meant. This must too be the meaning of
devagara, as used in R 2, 71, 39, where it is said that at the king's
death the devagara s were empty (devagarani sunyani na ca 'bhanti
yathapuram). Here too (ib. 42) reference is made to devayatana-
caityas. In the addition to Ram., 7, 37, 13 f., a king is described as going
to a temple favored by his family, devagaram jagama 'su punyam
Iksvakusevitam, after rising and making oblations to the Fire-god,
hutahutas~anah, and there honoring the gods, Fathers, and priests; and
this devagara is described as having an outer court, bahyakaksyan-
taram, where, after divine service, the king received his ministers.
Perhaps the same interpretation may be put upon the word in R 7, 59,
pra. i, 20, where a virtuous dog lectures on propriety and says that dogs
are not admitted into devagara, nrpagara, dvijavesma, for Fire, Indra,
Surya, Vayu, the divine king (= Dharma in person), and other gods in
the person of the king (viz. Soma, Mrtyu, Dhanada = Kubera, and Varuna)
are in such places. Although the devagara is called punya, holy, it is
not probable that punyagrhani, to be erected by kings, are temples.
They are rather punyasalas or dharmas'alas, rest-houses, giving merit,
punya, to the erectors. The word occurs only in R 2, 67, 12 (devagara
is not in Mbh.; devatagara, Manu, 9, 280). The negative cases in Mbh.
may be illustrated by 6, 112, 11, devatayatanastha devatah, images of
gods "standing on their shrines". They are the object of puja (1,70,49;
72 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
R I, 44, 14), but the ayatana of Kasyapa is mentioned in the first passage
(vs. 51) and this is not a temple. So when Bhima is carried aloft and
visits mountain-peaks and devatayatanas, these are like the tapasa-
yatanas of the same account (i, 155, 22 and 29). Such places are holy
in either case. They are associated with Tirthas, are objects of interest
to travellers, and, as holy places, form a safe place for criminals to consort
(i, 140, 64; ib. 215, 4; ib. 9; and 12, 218, I, in the West and "beyond
Kalinga"). All the devatayatanas are adorned with flowers to show joy
(3, 77, 8). Animals howling there are of course an evil omen (devata-
yatanacaityesu; a common collocation, 2, 80, 30; devayatanacaityesu,
R 2, 3, 18). In R 2, 6, n, "on devatayatanas and ... on turrets", atta-
lakesu, refers to the city turrets (common to both epics). The Caitya
itself is a temple in R 5, 15, 15 (it). 43, 3), where it is described as having
vedikas, terraces, coral stairs, a thousand pillars, and a high roof. No
such Caitya is described in Mbh.; in R it is a palace, prasada caitya.
Usually the Caitya is a sightly tree, holy as the abode of spirits, not to
be cut down, or to be cut only as a tactical exploit in invasion (12, 59, 63).
In R 5, 12, 18, vedikas" caityasams'rayaJi, they are trees standing at
four corners. They were perhaps originally only trees without buildings,
hence caitya vrksah (above), and, when alone, masculine (seldom neuter:
in R 4, 19, 24, caityam; but in R 2, 17, 16, Rama makes pradaksina
around catuspathan devapathams caityany ayatanani ca, the v. 1.
is caityams" ca; in R 6, 130, 2f. : "Let pure men revere with perfumes
and wreaths and music the daivatani and caityani of the city"), Mbh.
5, 192, 58, "revering with perfumes and wreaths the devatas, caityas
(masc.), and four corners". The word tree, vrksa, druma, is frequently
added (3, 16, 3, etc.; R 3, 39, 4; RG 5, 20, 24 smasanacaityadrumavat)
not as if the tree were not the Caitya; since the Caitya is the tree in
other passages. In S 12,69,41 +, it is said, apropos of the Caityavrksas :
"One should avoid to cut them down, as not even the leaf of a Caitya
may be destroyed, for Caityas are the resorts of gods, Yaksas, Raksasas,
Nagas, Pis~acas, serpents, Gandharvas, Apsarasas, and cruel Bhuts", where
devanam asrayah must be interpreted by the preceding caityanam
sarvatha tyajyam api patrasya patanam. But the Caitya is a shrine
or a temple when it is "erected", as in the description of Mamdhatr who
"got half of Indra's seat" because of his piety as citacaityah, or when
it is said that "earth had little room left because of the Caityas raised
by Gaya" (3, 121, 13; ib. 126, 38). "Caityas of the Three and thirty" (gods)
are mentioned in 3, 125, 17, and all these passages alike imply shrines.
In 12, 193, 8, the "gostha of gods" may be shrines or a temple (this vs.
corresponds loosely with Manu 4, 39 but has not Manu's idols, daivata).
In 12, 121 (see § 124) a Candala temple has images and bells (post-epical).
§ 30. Idols of the Gods. -- Images of elephants and other animals
and statues of men are frequently referred to in the epics, and in like
manner images of the gods are found in the Tirthas. "On seeing Visves'vara
of great glory with Devi at Jesthila one wins the worlds of Mitra and
Varuna" (3, 84, 134) means seeing the image, as more clearly expressed
in 13,25,61, NandiSvarasya murtim tu drstva mucyeta kilbisaih
("the sight of Siva's image frees from sins"). In Dharmaprastha at the
Dharma-Tirtha, where spiritual rewards equal those of a horse-sacrifice,
"Dharma sits forever", and one must stroke him, that must be the image,
Dharmam tatra 'bhisamsprs~ya (perhaps washing the image, 3, 84, 102;
IV. THE GODS. 73
tatra Dharmo nityam aste). At another Tirtha (3, 88, 8), "a mortal
would reach Siva's city on seeing the horn of the trident-bearer made by
(the god Siva) himself" beside the Payosm river (it is holy enough to
destroy all sin; there Indra got drunk on Soma); but it is not clear what
the horn represents; it is "high as heaven and spotless", svargad
uttungam amalam visanam, probably the crest on the head of the
image (in this same section is another "visible Dharma", ib. 88, 24, saksad
devo Dharmah). A fetish-use of the teacher's image is mentioned in
i> IS2* 33> where Ekalavya makes a clay image of his teacher and wor
ships it to get instruction refused by the teacher himself. Perhaps the
divine Tirtha images are, like this, mahimaya, of clay. Yet Bhima makes
an iron image of his pet foe and cudgels it (9, 33, 4; n, 12, 15, etena
hi krta yogya ayase puruse, "he practiced on the iron image"). The
images used as battle-standards are of metal and some of these are images
of the gods, pratimas of Dharma, Maruta, Sakra, and the As~vins (7, 23,
88 and ib. 40, 18). So the pratikrti or image of Hanumat stands on
Arjuna's staff (5, 56, 9, etc.). Yet these are not idols in the sense that they
were prayed to, but rather effigies (the first, of the heroes' celestial an
cestors), carried for encouragement or even adornment, as ib. 105, passim,
images of animals. Salya's standard, ketu, is "a great silver elephant,
and adorned with golden peacocks" (ib. 24 f.). But the images, devata-
pratimas, tremble, laugh, and vomit blood, as well as sweat, dance, and
weep, and fall down from the standards (6, 2, 26 and ib. 112, n), just as
the (temple-) images of Lanka in RG 6, n, 28 tremble, sweat, and laugh,
pratimas ca prakampante svidyanti (khidyanti) ca hasanti ca.
The "golden cows" made by Vis"vakarman and given away to the priests
by Gaya (3, 121, 12) are probably sacred images; compare the golden
images of kings and elephants used for the same purpose (j, 69, 29 f.).
When the beauty of Savitri is likened to "a living image of Sri", it may
be a statue of the goddess' vigrahavati 'va Srih, for the people, seeing
her, pratimam kancanim iva, "like a golden image", thought that she
was a Devakanya (3, 293, 25 f.). Compare the "golden (image of the absent)
queen" (in R 7, 91, 25; 99, 8, kaficani patni). In the first tale Satyavat
makes images of horses (3, 294, 13; cf. 6, 3, 9; and R 2, 15, 35). The Hariv.
speaks of images of metal, clay, wood, butter, and salt (H 7810 and 7812),
and shrieking images of all the gods (ib. 12801). Stone images are men
tioned in H 7613 and 7813. The devalakas, or people who make or
carry about images, are mentioned in Manu and Mbh. (Manu 3, 180, etc.;
Mbh. 13,90, n, etc.). Manu punishes adultery with a red-hot image, but
the epic with an iron bed (Manu n, 104; Mbh. 12, 165, 65).
§ 31. The Gods collectively as Fate. -- Out of the great mass of
epic literature respecting destiny and free will it is possible here only to
select a few passages serving the immediate purpose of this paragraph,
which is to show that Fate or destiny is a power developed into indivi
duality out of the general concept of divine power, until it merges with
Time = God. Death is distanta or dista gatifr (R 2, 103, 8), i. e. the end
or course "appointed". This distam, "appointed" is daivam, "the
divine", and both are synonyms for Fate, as bhavitavyam, "that which
is to be", is personified in bhavitr (masc.) in 7, 201, 77. Daivam is the
highest power known, daivam eva param manye (R I, 58, 23, and
passim), and is recognised as such traditionally (daivam atra param
smrtam, 7, 152, 24). It is one with distam, for example, in 5, 77, 8f.
74 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
man's evil "opposed by Daiva", "inflicted by dista". This again is dai-
vavidhi = vidhi, as that which is "disposed" (ordered) by the gods or
by Vidhatr as representing the gods (3, 71, 31; 5, 82, 46). This vidhi is
then regarded as personal, Vidhina sainpranuditati (3, 10, 32), as a
man is said to be "in the will (power) of Dista, because Vidhi is all-
powerful" (cf. Distasya vas"am esyati, 5, 32, 19; Vidhis" ca balavan . .
Distasya 'smi vas"e sthitah, 2, 59, 18). Valmiki affects the use of
Krtanta in the same sense (R 2, 24, 5, etc.). The identity of daiva= dista
leads to v. 1., daivam, v. 1. distam eva param manye (2, 47, 38 and
5? JSQ) 4)- This co-operates with Karma and ability (2, 16, iif.). Another
equivalent of vidhi is niyati, "controlling power" (R 4, 25, 3f.), personi
fied as a goddess (2, 11,42, along with A£a, Samvrtti, Hope and Fulfil
ment). Niyati operates till one reaches the highest philosophic knowledge
(parapratyaya, 12, 217, 23). The relative power of Karma, the divine
power (Daivam), and one's own nature is the subject of endless discussion;
briefly put in 12, 233, 19, "Those who teach the Karma doctrine preach
the efficiency of the act; priests say that the divine (Daiva) is efficient;
natural philosophers say that one's own nature" (is the chief thing). That
the divine power is sometimes analysed as the power of the stars may
be suspected from the antithesis of "natural philosophers" (bhutacin-
takah) and daivacintakali as astrologers (12, 121, 46). For a further
discussion of the knotty point just stated, cf. above, R 4, 25. Fate again is
expressed by bhagya and bhagadheya, the "portion" (9, 2, 3Of.) given
by the gods (cf. bhaga; see Bhaga). It coincides with Greek moira, as
in the refrain, kim anyad bhagadheyatah, "what else than this moira
is of avail?" (ib. 43; bhagya as fate, ib. 47). Heroic characters object
to the fatalism of Daiva, not generally because of impiety, but because
the concept has already merged into a personal abstraction which stultifies
action (R 2, 22, 21 f.; ib. 23, 7f. and 16). But a consciousness remains of
the origin, for pious Rama yields to Fate as the divine will, while ener
getic Laksmana adds to his repudiation of fatalism the defiant remark
that even the gods shall not hinder him (ib. 23, 21). Kala alone (Time)
is weightier than Daiva in Rama's opinion (R 3, 64, 74; ib. 69, 49 f.), but
pure Daiva causes Devi Earth to shake and the sun and moon to be
eclipsed (R 3, 66, n). In 12,28, i8f., Daiva, bhavitavya, Kala, dista,
vidhi, and vidhana are all synonymous. In R 4, 56, 4, Vidhi is the Fate
pursuing a man. As such, "fate" may become death, as in Greek. Fate,
Krtanta, like Yama, "binds one with a cord and drags one off" (R 5, 37, 3,
krtanta interchanging with vidhi, as in 9,65, 16 Krtanta is like Yama
or Kala). So the simile daivadandam ivodyatam (10, 6, 29) makes Daiva
personified as Fate in evil sense. It is a mere v. 1. whether Daivam nin-
danti or devam nindanti be read in 8,91, i: "Low people blame the
god" or "the gods' will", as S has distam for daivam in the important
statement; "This is Daivam (distam) orbhavyam (to be); as Dhatr made
it of old, so must it be" (6, 76, 19). Here the fate of an army is "made
by (the god) Dhatr" and is Daivam (ib. 26). In I, 89, 9 occurs a proverb,
"Fate is the stronger", distam b ally ah, and in vs. 8 this is daiva-
dhinam. Compare too the supposition expressed in 3, 65, 41, "Perhaps
this is owing to the offended divinities", with the preceding, na hy
adaivakrtam kimcit, "there is nothing not accomplished by Daiva".
Moreover, though what is to be is synonymous in many passages with
Daiva, in clearer expression it is said to be not quite synonymous but
IV. THE GODS. 75
conditioned by Daiva: bhavitavyam hi yad bhavi Daivam cestayate
hi tat, "the divine works out the fate to be" (B has cestayati 'va ca);
cf. R 6, 113, 23: Daivam cestayate sarvam, hatam Daivena han-
yate. It is indeed this divine power, expressed by that "appointed" or
that "provided", which is specifically personified as Vidhatr to companion
Dhatr = Brahman. It is or may be considered as a form of Brahman
(hence Brahman is both Creator and Disposer), so that victory is "appointed
by fate" or "by Dhatr" (see Brahman). Hence vihita with Vidhatr as
the divine: evam Vidhatra vihitam . . daivam purusakarena na
Sakyam ativartitum . . krtantam anyatha kartum ne 'cchet so
'yam (S 9, 62, 77, after B 61, 68), "So has it been disposed by the Dis
poser . . the divine cannot be overcome by man's act . . wish not to
change Fate" (who can destroy past, present and future). A similar passage
in 2, 56, 17 and 57,4 explains Daivam (regarded as "the highest and hard
to overcome") as the power which is expressed in what is appointed by
Dhatr, Dhatra distasya vase (sarvam cestati or tisthati, ib. 58, 14).
Instead of distasya vase appear in 2, 58, 18 the words DhatuS ca
vas"am anveti pasair iva narah sitah, "as if fastened with thongs a
man comes under the will of Dhatr" (preceded by "as a falling luminary
steals away the sight, so does the divine power, Daivam, steal away
a man's intelligence"). Compare further, 3, 173, 15, the destruction of evil
demons is nirdisto Brahmana pura; and 5, 39, i, anisvarah . . Dhatra
tu distasya vas~e krto 'yam, "man was made devoid of free will at
the Creator's injunction". Here all is appointed by the god (asvatantro
hi purusalj, 5, 159, 14 f.). In another passage there is a diatribe against
the hathadurbuddhi, who, as hathavadaka, ignores the fact that the
"lord creator", Dhatr ISvara, appoints or disposes and apportions (vi-
dha and vibhajya) according to one's former acts; what a man does
is done according to Karma but through Dhatr (3, 32, 12 — 21, and ib. 183,
86 f., slightly modified, a man's course is determined in part by Daiva,
in part by hatha, in part by Karma). Hatha is power, force, fate as
necessity, impersonal necessity or accident. Hatha as opposed to Isvara
appears again in 12, 32, I2f. (in 19, read hatham for hatam). The per
sonal Daiva is also expressed by Kala, so that daiverita and Kalahata
amount to the same thing (2, 71, 16; cf. daivayogat, "fatally" and "by
chance"). Opposition between the will of individual gods and Daiva may
be observed in 3, 236, 23 : "What is it save Daiva, if, when the field is
sown and the god rains, deve varsati, there is no crop?". So vidhi
makes the gods (as well as men) suffer (5, 8, 52). Indra "recognises fate"
(distam anupas~ya) and renounces the attempt to save Khandava from
the flames (i, 228, 22). Here the will of the gods has been converted into
a power expressed by the Creator acting above the gods. Siva takes the
Creator's place in sectarian writings: mahadevena distam (3, 106, 23).
Time, Kala, is vaguely personified as son of Dhruva, the^ Pole star, a Vasu,
who also acts as charioteer of Siva (i, 66, 21 and s. Siva), but as per
sonified he is usually identified with Death or Yama, as representing him.
But "Kala, the all-compelling", appears as an old man to summon Rama
secretly to heaven in R 7, 103, if.; Kalajfiapta, ib. 6, 53, is one with
MrtyupasSavapasHta, "fettered by Death's fetters" (ib. 58). As an entity,
Time is then subdivided and the four ages, Yuga, emerge as divisions
having separate names as the constituents of an aeon, or whatever it may
be called, one of the ceaseless revolutions which bring the universe back
76 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
to its beginning, the wheel of time conceived by ages. Of these only one
is mythologically important. Krta, the perfect age, is no more personified
than are other time-divisions, nor is the succeeding Treta age of more
mythological worth, while Dvapara appears on the stage only with Kali,
the last of the ages. The first theoretically lasts four thousand years and
each succeeding age a thousand less, with the deified Twilight ages
between reckoned in corresponding centuries, so that Kali is the bad
present age of a thousand years duration (later as years of the gods).
§ 32. Kali thus embodied may well be the finale to the general subject
of gods, for under him the gods are neglected in favor of Buddhistic
teaching (as above, eduka), and again he may be added to the above
remarks in regard to Kala, for he is of like origin. There are two epic Kalis,
however, one the musical demi-god son of Muni (i, 65, 44), whose only
function is to appear as a chorister with other gods and Gandharvas, to
whom he is closely related (i, 123, 57). This Kali (originally Kali) derives
from kal meaning noise (Siva is the noisy god, Kalakala). But the time-
spirit of evil is Kali, who like Kala derives from kal, drive, press, oppress,
so that an oppressive king is called a kali and "Kali catches careless
kings" (12, 12, 29 and 31; ib. 91, 28). Any form of Time is personified,
so that even Kalaratrl ("fatal night") appears not only "noose in hand",
but as an old woman, a black and bloody housewife, kutumbini, scantily
clothed (10, 8, 70). She may be Durga (9, 17, 43). The demon, Danava,
Kalanemi (in Ram. as Raksasa) incorporate as Kamsa (i, 67, 67), "whosek
diadem was cut off by Visnu" (S 2, 51, 22), is nothing but the "wheel of
time" as a form of fate. Kali again is the "dark" wife of Santanu and
mother ofVyasa (5, 147, 19), but as name of Durga (q. v.; cf. R 5, 27,28)
she unites the idea of fatal time and dark time (cf. kalantakopama of
Indrajit, etc. R 6, 88, 2). Kali is evil fate, a synonym of alaksmi: "LaksmI
came to the gods; alaksmi to the Asuras", and with alaksmi enters
Kali and destroys them, "pervaded by alaksmi and smitten by Kali"
(3> 94) Qf-)- So Kali is plain destruction: "In war there is ever kali and
lives are lost" (5, 72, 49). Yet the conception is not that of a permanent
being but rather of personified destruction, liable to spring into existence
on occasion: "When virtue is destroyed, Kali is born", and Kali thus
appears incorporate in all destructive kings, as Dhautamulaka was the Kali
of the Chinese (5, 74, I2f.); Duryodhana was a part of Kali (u, 8, 30);
and Subhadra "was born as Kali and for the destruction of the Vrsnis"
(S i, 245, 19). Vidula says to her pusillanimous boy: "You have been born
my Kali" (5, 133, 30). Kali is the middle one of the triad "virtue, gain,
and desire"; gaining is destructive strife (5, 124, 35). From destruction
to bad luck is but a step; hence "they say that Kali (bad luck) is in
broken vessels" (bhinnabhande kalim prahuh; all broken beds and
vessels are apras"astani, inauspicious, as are cocks and dogs and trees
in a house, 13, 127, 16). In 13, 23, 4, a kalipurvam is a gift of food
obtained by strife, and, like anything leaped over or licked or kalahina,
is impure and taken by fiends. As the sun represents Time (Kala), Kali,
like the sun, is called sarvamalas~raya (3, 3, 20) in his part as agent
of all ills. As the fiend of the dice, Kali is then playing only one part of
his general character. In the great gambling scene of the epic he plays
no part at all. Only S has a maladroit interpolation stating that Yudhi-
sthira was penetrated by the power of Fate, daivabalavista, and "for
a moment entered Kali, and, being entered by Kali, he said 'So be it', and
IV. THE GODS. 77
played" (S 2,98, 24 f.); but this is only in the second game and the con
fusion between Kalim avis"at and avistati Kalina is not happy (pro
bably copied from Nala). In 3, 174, 5, where Arjuna "remembers the kali
produced by gambling", kali (as above) is strife or injury. In Nala, Kali
enters the king along with Dvapara (apparently), though the last scarcely
appears except as subject to Kali and then disappears (3, 58, if.). Here
Kali becomes a suitor of DamayantI, converses with Indra, and is cursed
for his insolence (S ib. 56, 10 has devabhibhuta, Puskara overpowered
by the god Kali, as is Nala by Fate, daivavista, but B 59, 9 says "Nala
entered by Kali"). Kali "went home", after vomiting the Naga's poison
and escaping the "curse-fire" (ib. 72, 43), after the Vibhltaka nut had been
forever rendered infamous by his presence in it (ib. 41).
§ 33. After this brief resume of the general aspects of epic divinities
those divinities themselves must be discussed individually. Yet as several
of these appear as forms of special gods, the concept rather than the
names applied to the forms will best designate the divinities, as far as
this is possible. Of all the innumerable gods counted as such only about
a dozen have any reality as separate beings. The others are mere names
or shadows of gods, and of the dozen not all are of first-rate importance.
The older epic pantheon is presided over by Brahman as creator and
beneficent ancestor of the other gods, among whom Agni, Yama, Varuna,
Kubera, and Indra (not least) are the most energetic, most commonly
referred to, and invoked. They are, in short, most real to the poets, who
regard them as over- gods, guardians of the quarters, though they have
not quite systematised the Four Guardians (see § 91). Sectarian influence,
affecting this older pantheon, gradually raised Visnu from an inferior
position as form of the Sun-god to a predominant position, while the
worshippers of Siva elevated him in the same way to a point where he
theoretically surpassed all other gods, till even his son was made to oust
Indra. To present all this material it seems best to follow as well as may
be (that is, rather roughly) the historical outline, beginning with the earlier
Vedic divinities and ending with the Trimurti or triad which remains till
to-day as the three forms of one God. The order in which the gods are
discussed will then be, in general, such that after Sky and Earth follow
the eight great gods (later) recognised as Guardians of the World; then
the minor gods or spirits recognised less as individuals than as hosts;
then the divine seers, who are practically gods; and finally the three
greatest gods of the trinity. When convenient, however, individuals will
be discussed in their proper environment, Kama immediately after the
Apsarasas, and Skanda after Siva, Parjanya under Indra, etc.
§ 34. The Sky-god. - The venerable Dyaus of the Rig-Veda is
reduced in the epic period to a mere shadow of his former personality.
In the formal scheme of creation he is regarded as a link in the chain
of development (i, i, 29f.) from the mundane egg, and the sons ascribed
to him are epithets of the Sun: Brhadbhanu, Caksus, Atman, Vibhavasu,
Savitr, Ilcika, Arka, Bhanu (cf. Bhanu also as son of Pradha and form of
Agni), Asavaha, and Ravi, one of whom, however, Rcika, is father of
Janamejaya with human descendants (S adds Manu). A Vasu is called
Dyaus and Dyunama (i, 99, 39 and 47), although the formal list of Vasus
does not contain this name. He is represented as a thief, afterwards born
on earth to expiate his crime. The original sense of Dyaus as "shining"
(=vasu) may have led to the name. Dyaus is often feminine: "The (fern.)
78 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Dyaus, sky, was embraced by his head, the earth by his feet" (3,12, 55);
"shone like Dyaus with the stars" (2, 36, 8); "like the autumnal sky, saradf
Dyaus, with the stars" (R 5, 9, 41); "Sarama (fern.) pleased Sita as Dyaus
with water pleases earth", and "Lanka with the hero like Dyaus with the
sun" (R 6, 34, i; ib. 73, 15, fern, implied; cf. dyaur iva magnataraka,
R 2, 9, 66). When Sky and Earth appear as witnesses, the former may be
male (l, 74, 30), but when presented as a rain-giver (R 4, 28, 3), Dyaus is
represented as a female pregnant for nine months and then bearing rain
water conceived of sun-beams. Compare 12, 229, 91: "In the home of the
self-existent Great Father the gleaming (fem.) Dyaus poured forth ambrosia
and Indra rained upon the crops" (in 2, 45, 29, "Dyaus poured rain", etc.,
the gender remains at least doubtful). Without personification, dyaus in
the form divi, "in the sky", and in the phrase pated dyaus (nipated
dyaur mahlm), is the sky conceived of as person no more than are the
clouds which, to be sure, are liable to be personified but ordinarily are
not (cf. with the simile above, "like nabhas, cloud-land, with the stars",
R 5, 10, 34). Dyaus is not "heaven", though the cognates diva and tridiva
are synonymous with svarga, the light-world heaven of the gods. Com
pare "fill dyaus with noise", or "fill tridiva" (mahim apurayamasa
ghosena tridivam tatha, I, 69, 16). "The god rains", as a parallel to
"Indra rains", might imply this god or Dyaus or Parjanya. The citations
above show Dyaus in the only activities recognised as his or hers, as
progenitor, rain-giver, and witness of wrong, in none of which does Dyaus
play the part of a real god. He is a memory only.
§ 35. Earth. -- Earth is the Great Mother, the Broad Goddess, mahi,
prthivl, the "mother of all created things", the nursing mother, dhatri,
who is imaged as a divine cow giving milk to all her children (3,200, 70;
7,69,20, as daughter of Prthu Vainya and as Viraj; cf. 1,49,9 and
H n829f., with H 12019). As the giver of all good, Earth is "father and
brother and sons and sky and heaven", the "cow that milks wishes"
(fulfills all desires, kamadhuk, 6, 9, 71 and 76). It is a later idea that
she will have no "joy of bearing sons", owing to the curse of Urna (cf.
§ 24; R i, 36, 24). Earth is constantly personified, not only as drinking
blood, but as approving of priests, and as typical of patient endurance, i,
68, 14; 3, 26, 14; 51, 40; R 3, 30, 6; R 5, 35, 9; ksamaya Prthivlsamali,
i, 100, 14, etc.). But she is over-burdened; even one person of no account
is a "burden upon earth" (3, 35, 7, bhumivardhana), and a mass of evil
creatures or even the normal growth of population renders patient earth
very impatient; "I cannot endure these people", she cries (S 2, 51, 45 f.),
and she complains to Brahman, who creates Death to relieve her of her
burden (7, 53, 4f.). Or Visnu assures her that war will relieve her and
bids her still "support the worlds" (lokan dharaya, n, 8, 25). The form
of Death, a lovely woman, as here depicted is not old. Earth is bhararta,
oppressed (7, 53, 4) and Death is created to relieve the strain, even gods
being mortal, sarve deva martyasamjnah (ib. 54,48). The tears of
Death seeking to avoid her task become diseases, which kill men, for
"Death does not come with a club". H 2939, Earth's address to the gods,
derives her from Madhu's marrow. As nurse of all, Earth is helper,
medinl, provides wealth, being herself wealthy, vasumatl, and rejoices
to give corn to a generous man (3, 200, 41 ; cf. R 5, 40, 2). In an Aeschylean
image, though differently applied, Sita says, "I shall rejoice to see his
dear face even as Earth, the giver of good, vasundhara, rejoices, having
IV. THE GODS. 79
the corn half grown, when she receives the rain" (R 5,40,2; cf. ib. 6,
33j 37)- In another, when a hero sinks to death, "Earth like a dear mistress
embraces him as he sinks upon her breast" (9, 17, 54f.; R 3, 30, 7; R 4,
20, 5 and 23; ib. 6, 32, 16; ib. 114, 85). In general, the dead derate gam
(Yfjv) samas'ritah (R 6, 54, 9, etc.). Though it is the weight of sinful
demons that afflicts Earth (i, 64, 43), yet when Visnu assumes the form
of a boar and raises her, it is simply the weight of towns and peoples
which sinks her. Here she is an overburdened goddess, "the divine
bountiful producer of corn, whose ear-rings are the mountains", siva
devi mahabhaga sarvasasyaprarohinf . . Sailakundala (3,142,45;
cf. ib. 32 and 29). In poetic phrase, it is not the earth which holds the
mountains, but the mountain which holds earth, jagatidhara; cf. "he
sustained grief as a mountain sustains earth" (i, 176, 43). "As long as earth
endures" (R 6, 101, 57, etc.) is a proverbial phrase, but it is recognised
that "Earth will come to an end" (12, 206, 30). As a hapless divinity she
is adopted (Urvl from uru) by KaSyapa and so is called Kas"yapi (12,49,
7if.); in 13, 155,6, he pervades her by yoga, taking her post, another
late tale. She tells him of new warriors and goes to heaven. To the same
epoch belong the tales which utilise Earth as a moralist. Thus she
advises Indra to employ priests for the removal of sin (13, 34, 21 f., as
mata sarvabhutanam); yet apart from acting as witness of innocence
(R 6, 119, 27) and being invoked for victory with many other divine beings
(7, 94, 47), she is not so important as a goddess as she is qua land, object
of the earth-hunger so conspicuous in the later epic. In this guise she
sings her own song on the virtue of bhumidana, grants of land, and
her secret name is Priyadatta (cf. 13, 62, 35, where Bhumir bhutir ma-
hadevi is cited in Brhaspati's talk with Indra, the Bhumigita Gathas).
He who has her has all (yasya bhumis tasya sarvam, 6, 4, 20), but
one should renounce her for his own sake (5, 37, 17; 129, 49). Earth
deserts the sinful and treacherous (5, 124, 28). For her son Naraka Bhauma
(p. 50) she begs a boon and this is significant, since he is an evil demon,
and earth is recognised as the goddess of demons and spirits, Bhuts,
although one with Aditi as goddess of the gods. Thus in H 3281, where
Aditi is identified with Durga, it is said that the same goddess is "Aditi
to the gods, Slta to the ploughmen, and Earth, DharanI, to the Bhuts"
(on Slta, cf. § 7). Yet land and earth are so inseparably one that it may
be questioned whether even as land divinity does not still inhere in the
Great Mother. Thus, as the divine Sun is afflicted by eclipse, so "divine
Mother Earth" (jagatam mata devi lokanamaskrta bhumih, R 3,
66, 9) is afflicted by earthquakes, due to the same cause that produces
untoward lightning or rain (some divine power apart from her, 2,45, 28 f.),
or to the movement of a demon (see § 18, Dhundhu), or to the shaking
of the world-elephant's head (R I, 40, 14). Even when described as "four-
cornered earth" (3, 126, 40; 5, 149, 9; R 5, 31, 5), the ground where Bhuts
live and bodies are buried, the "home" below (avani, in 3, 310, 6, "house";
cf. avanfpala as king,^ 12, 311, 8; avanim gatah, R 6, 54, 33), she is
still the goddess. So Sibi is described, ekacchatram mahim cakre
(12, 29, 41), "he put the great (mother) under one umbrella" (sceptre, cf.
ib. 132 and 12, 321, 134). Four-cornered by the bye, is rather offset by
the epithet samudranemi (3, 26, 14; 4, 8, 11, etc.), implying a round
surface like the felly of a wheel, "whose circle is the sea". The con
quest of earth includes "her mountains, forests, open spaces, akas"a,
8o III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
seas, and valleys, niskuta, towns, cities, and islands" (3, 254, 31), as
parts of her, also divine (see § 4!".). Metaphorically she is the chariot of
gods or of a god-like hero, mountains being the pole, staff, etc. (3, 175, 4,
etc.). Earth, vasumati, is "clothed with seas" and at the same time a
goddess, devi, "having mountains, forests, towns, etc." (1,170,63; 3,
237, 8f. , forests, mountains, and rivers have no owners, but land other
wise is possessed; "a gift of land saves seven generations", 13, 66, 31
and 36). She has seven seas and islands in R 7, 37, pr. i, 56 (v. § 6).
§ 36. The later epic regards the earth as belonging to Visnu, and
inferentially as born of him: "As gold is born of Fire and cows are born
of the Sun (Suryasutas" ca gavah), so Earth belongs to Visnu (bhur
Vaisnavi), so that he who gives these three gives the three worlds"
(3, 200, I27f.). At times, mahi is opposed to the mountain, as if only the
fruitful earth were the great mother. Thus mahim avasa means "des
cend (from the heavenly hill) to earth" (3, 176, n). JagatI is the earth of
moving beings opposed to the adri or mountain rock (3,237, 18; jaga-
tipala, -pati is king; Jagatpati is a title of Kama, Visnu, and Siva).
When Slta is carried away by the goddess Earth, called Madhavi Devi
and Dharani Devi (as wife of Visnu Madhava, says the scholiast, R 7, 97 >
1 5 f.), she calls upon Earth three times to hide her, and the divine Earth
rose on a seat supported by Nagas and bore Slta down to the depths
(rasatalam). With this conception of the goddess Earth sinking into
earth may be compared the scene where Earth declares that she will
give up earthhood, bhumitvam, and go to heaven, and is then restrained
by KaSyapa (13, 155, 2f.; cf. also 12, 49, 71 f., where Earth again pravi-
ves"a rasatalam). The location of the "navel of earth" at a place in the
Himalayas seen by Hanumat (R 6, 74, 60) introduces an old conception in
more precise form. The witness of Earth may be implied when the de
ceived heroes march wrathfully off casting dust and sand about and over
themselves, whilst lightnings flash and earth quakes (2, 30, 5 f. and 28),
though the act is explained as prognosticating the arrows they would
shoot. When wrestlers prepare to contend, they rub earth on their hands
(84,15,33) and when Bhurisravas is about to die, he "touches earth with
his head" (as if in protest against his unfair antagonist), yet both acts
may be due to natural causes, for ease in wrestling and from weakness
(7, 143, 44). To put to earth the head or grass into the mouth signifies
defeat1), but there is no other invocation of earth except in the direct
and formal phrase "earth may split, the sky fall, Himavat turn" (or "lose
its snow"), and "ocean dry up" (e. g. 3, 249, 3 if., with v. 1. in S; ib. 278,
38, etc.), i. e. before this thing happen, the impossible will happen. Earth
is honored with a laudation at ^raddhas, after Fire, Moon, Varuna, and
the Allgods. As such she is called Vaisnavi, KaSyapI, and aksaya or
eternal (13,91,25), as well as Prthivi and nivapasya dharinl or sus-
tainer of crops. H i2O76f. adds a new feature to the figure of earth in
representing her first as ruined by the poison of the great serpent and
then undergoing penance and sustained by Visnu, whose right arm in
upholding her makes a shadow reaching from earth to the moon. Earth
x) A man who says "I am thine" in battle is not to be attacked, nor one who pro
claims defeat by having his mouth full of grass, trnapur^amukha (12,98,49). Cf. the
modern examples of this in the second edition of Colonel Jacob's Third Handful of
Popular Maxims (1911). On prostration with head to earth, cf. 7, 80, 43, jagama
si rasa ksitim, of Krsrjia abject before Siva.
IV. THE GODS. 81
is here without means of productivity, alinga, till Visnu supplies the
deficiency and makes her fruitful (ib. 12095).
§ 37. Aditi and the Adityas. — Aditi is the "mother of gods"
(9, 45, 13) and as such heads the list of goddesses, HrT, Sri, etc., here
differentiated from Prthivi, though elsewhere identified with Earth (p. 79).
In particular she is mother of the Thirty-three (R 3, 14, 14); also of the
winds, Marutas (12, 329, 53, or Diti, cf. § 48). R regards Dhatr as her
special son (R 2,92,21); Mbh. says, Indra is chief and best-beloved of
her sons; when he is away, she yearns for his return, though equal mother
of all the gods, called by her name Adityas (1,65, n, etc.). As Revati she
appears as a disease-goddess (3, 230, 29) and R makes Aditi's womb a
refuge for Ravana (R 4, i, 120), but her usual aspect is that of beneficent
mother-goddess renowned more for her motherhood than anything else,
though known also as having cooked food for the gods' success and as
having lost her ear-rings, which were subsequently recovered from Naraka
and given to Surya (3, 135, 3; ib. 307, 21). She presides over Punarvasu
(R I, 1 8, 8). As mother of gods she is opposed to Diti, mother of demons;
both were wives of Kas~yapa. She is blessed by Brahman for her asceticism
(13, 83, 27, called Mahadevi as mother of Visnu). Her sons, the Adityas,
are eleven, twelve, or thirteen in number, according to various lists, but
"the wise say, there are twelve of them" (3, 134, 19). S i, 132, 49 emends
B 123, 66 so as to agree with H 1291 if., thus omitting the odd thir
teenth, caused by a desire to get Visnu into the list. Elsewhere the later
epic and H include others (Jayanta, etc.) as Adityas, and the genealogy
calls Brhaspati by this title, but the last may be merely a parallel to 13,
62, 46, where good men are Aditya iva tejasa bhuvi, that is "like
gods" in general or "like suns". They are given by pairs (2, II, 30) and
the usual grouping is in conformity with this. Indra is the chief, and
Visnu, when mentioned, is "last but not least", ajaghanyo jaghanyajah
(H 594; 1,65, iSf.)1). They all come from the mundane egg in i, i, 34.
They are all sons of Aditi Daksayani and Kasyapa _Prajapati Marica; in
H 1 1 549j Indra heads the list and even Manu is an Aditya. In ^anti, they
are said to be of warrior caste and Vivasvat Martanda is eighth (Vedic
position) and father of the Asvins (12, 208, I5f. : cf. § no). The names are
chiefly those of sun-gods, Bhaga, Mitra, Savitr, Vivasvat, Pusan, Visnu,
together with the clan-god Aryaman, and the creator-god as Dhatr, Tvastr;
the earliest grouping being: Dhatr and Aryaman, Mitra and Varuna, Ams"a
and Bhaga, Indra and Vivasvat, Pusan and Tvastr, Savitr (or Parjanya) and
Visnu. Aryaman's importance lies in his being chief of Pitrs (6, 34, 29).
Tvastr is artificer, yielding in dignity to Visvakarman (with whom he is
often confounded). He "made Sita" and made Vrtra (q. v. and 3, 274, 9),
also Indra's bolt and Siva's spear (see Indra and Siva). A v. 1. makes him
adhiraja of Rudras (for rupa, forms, 14, 43, 9). Nahusa sacrificed a cow
to him (12, 269, 5f.). Dhatr interchanges with Vidhatr and both with Brahman
as creator. The two forms are as Visnu under the titles karta vikarta
ca (3, 1 88, 19), Vidhatr also being treated as an independent Aditya
(3, 125, 23). Dhatr establishes laws of life and of death, appoints good
and ill, becomes Fate (§ 31), the disposer of disposition as of events
("Methinks I shall ever be as Dhatr may have disposed me", vidadhita,
l) Here, however, the Adityas are born direct from the flaming face of Vivasvat Pra-
japati (H 593, as sun, Aditya dvadasai 've 'ha sambhuta mukhasambhavah), Aditi
being ignored altogether; as is the fact that they are thus born from one of themselves!
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 6
82 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
i, 89, 10). Dhatr makes and marks; for example, he makes a mole on
a maiden's cheek as sign that she will be happy (3, 69, 7); all creatures
are inscribed through their acts by Dhatr (abhilikhitani, n, 7, 12). In
i, 66, 50, Dhatr and Vidhatr are "sons of Brahman". Vidhatr tests in
person a man's piety (see &bi) and comes disguised to earth (3, 198,25);
generally a power rather than a person. Samvidhatr (vyadadhat, 2,67, 15)
adds a new name equivalent _to Vidhatr, meaning controller (as court-
officer, comptroller). Lists of Adityas will be found also in H 12911 and
14167^; 13, 150, I4f. (H 12456 has only eleven; in H 11549, Visnu has
second place). Soma, s"asin, is Aditya, H 13143^, where "Parjanya" is
paired with Mitra, and Tvastr = ViSvakarman. Jayanta in 13, 150, 15 may
be Soma. Parjanya as "youngest of the Adityas" (H 12498) might be Visnu,
but, as their "chief" also, is probably Indra. Compare H 175 and 593,
and see below for Parjanya (§ 71), Surya (§ 38), and Visnu (§ 143). The
group of Adityas crosses that of the Lokapalas (§ 91 f.). This later group,
as will be shown below, comprises the chief gods outside the triad of
highest gods, but these chief gods are not yet recognised as the eight
World-protectors of later mythology. In the following, however, they will
be discussed in their later order. They differ from the group-gods to be
discussed later in that they are individually important and only gradually
form a group, whereas the group-gods (ganas) start as an organic group
without individually important members and gradually develop members
with special names and individuality. The Adityas form the first division
of the Thirty-three, whose other divisions will be noticed among the Gana-
gods (hosts of spirits by groups, §§ in and 112). Before taking up the
first of the Lokapalas, who is the Aditya par excellence (the Sun), it will
be necessary to say a few words in regard to synonymity in divine groups.
Telang in his introduction to the Anugita (SEE. 8, 219) thinks it doubtful
whether, when Soma and Candramas are mentioned as presiding over
tongue and mind respectively, they indicate the same god. As far as the
epic is concerned, there can be no doubt that Soma = Candramas and
Arka = Mitra. The fact that in the same passage Indra is differentiated
from Maghavat in the same way shows that the author treats the same
god as having different functions, not that he regards Maghavat as another
god than Indra or Arka as another god from Mitra. Nor does it show
(as the author also contends) that epic mythology is not far removed from
Vedic "theogony", because the emancipated soul is identified with Visnu,
Mitra, Agni, Varuna, and Prajapati, as gods "held in highest repute at
that time". Such groups are casual; they are not carefully selected; they
aim only at mentioning a few respectable high gods. The literary rather
than scientific value of the phraseology is important. In one passage the
first "lord" of lights is Indu; immediately after, the first "beginning" of
lights (jyotisam in each case) is Aditya (14, 43, 6 and 44, 4). Candramas
is here lord of Naksatras, but in many other passages this is Soma; while
here again Soma is merely "lord of priests" (ib. 43, 10), just as the lord
or chief of directions is the North and again is the East (ib. and 44, 13),
and Soma again is lord of plants, while the lord of priests is Brhaspati.
This does not mean that Soma = Brhaspati or that North = East, nor does
divergence of functions in the same god as a type mean that the two
names given represent different gods. All that can be maintained is that
different aspects of a god are considered in one case and identical func
tions are ascribed to different gods in the other case. It is quite possible
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 83
that Mitra, Arka, and Surya represented different sides of the same god
without differentiation sufficient to make these aspects different individuals.
So Indra as Puramdara may not be taken as a different god but as the
same god under a different aspect than that presented by his title Maghavat
Indra. A third point remains. Soma is "king Soma", as Varuna and Yama
are "kings"; but such titles are inherited from a remote past and do not
in the least affect the divinity of those to whom such titles are applied.
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS.
§ 38. The Sun-God. — Surya (Helios), the Sun, is, as god, known
under other names, which are synonymous as far as the epics are con
cerned. Aditya alone is the sun and one of the commonest designations
of the sun-god. To this metronymic the epithet "day-maker" is sometimes
added; adityapatha = Divakarapatha or Bhaskaradhvan. A quali
fying "thousand-rayed" or "ray-wreathed" is used alone or added to
Aditya (7, 187, if.; R 4, 39,2, etc.) to designate the luminary (having fewer
rays than the moon, q. v.). Pusan is recognised as the god kicked by
&va, who also knocked out his teeth when Pusan was eating cakes at
Daksa's sacrifice (7,202,49; ib. 59; 13,161,19), and as elder brother of
Parjanya, and the lover of Sandhya (Twilight, RG 5, 25, 27) in distinction
from Suvarcala, wife of Surya (ib. 26); but this last passage is not in the
alternate text (it also makes Kriya the wife of Brahman instead of Dharma
as in 1,66, 14, and Diksa wife of Soma). In the former passage, Siva as
Hara Virupaksa is also Bhaganetrahara (i, 221, 8) or Bhagaghna (7, 202, 47),
that is, Pusan is distinguished from Bhaga, as in the formal lists of Adityas
(§ 37) and in mangalas (so in 10, 18, 16, Siva "put out the two eyes of
Bhaga and broke the two arms of Savitr"). In the extended maugalas
particularly, Pusan, Bhaga, and the Adityas, are all mentioned separately
(e. g. R 2, 25, 8 — 23), and as the arms of the cosmic giant are Dhatr and
Vidhatr, so are his hands Bhaga and Pusan (R 7, 23, pra. 5, 22). But the
identity of Pusan with the Sun-god remains, for he is the god who "shone
in the wars of the gods and Asuras of old" (7, 105, 22) and the god who
"goes, having a thousand rays, after warming the earth, to the western
mountain at the close of day" (5, 179, 39). Savitr "on rising takes away
the glory of the stars" (9, 32, 18; R 6, 12, 20 and 24, 21) and "the day-maker
on rising takes away the glory of the heavenly lights". Surya is gavam
pati, and Arka (sun) is united with tejomayair gobhih (R I, 7, 22;
cf. H 2943, gavam guruh, and 3, 3, 52, gobhir bhasayase mahlm),
as he is apam pati (cf. gopati of Varuna), who is "attacked by Rudra"
(babhau Rudrabhipannasya yatha rupam gavam pateli, R 6,76,93).
The disc of Savitr (7, 38, 18) leaves no doubt in regard to the identity of
Savitr, who "sets in the west" etc. (5,75,12; 12,58,22). Savitr is sarva-
lokaprabhavana and vibhavasu; in the east Savitr rises and sings
the Savitri, bestowing, as Surya, the Yajus-formulas (12, 319, 2f.). The
rising Illuminator destroys the Asuras (of darkness, 5, 108, 3f.). Vibhavasu
is a common name of the sun (i, 86, 8, etc.). Other synonyms are Vivasvat,
Ravi, Tapana(i,68, 13; in, 18; 171,20; 3, 133, iof.; 6, 101, 5if.; 8,49,42).
Arka, Bhaskara, and Savitr are indeed sons of Dyaus (as if separate), but
as the first two are epithets, the assertion simply shows how easily epi
thets become persons. Vivasvat (Savitr) is the husband of Tvastr! (daughter
6*
84 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
of Tvastr), who under the form of a mare bore him in mid-air the two
ASvins (1,66, 35). Ravi, the sun, is guarded by Angiras as Indra is guarded
by DadhTci (3, 92, 6). &va, Indra, and the Sun-god all bear the title Deve-
Svara, "lord of gods" (2,50,16, bhasi divi deves"varo yatha). These
names are also applied to demons and inferior spirits; Surya is an evil
spirit; Bhaga is a Rudra; Vivasvat and Mitravat are evil demons; Arka
is a Danava. They probably represent a time when evil and good spirits
were not absolutely differentiated, as indeed they are not in the epics,
otherwise the mangala would not entreat ' 'safety from all (other) gods
and those that lurk around the path" to harm travellers (R 2, 25, 22). Surya
is lord of the Grahas or seizing spirits (Arka, of heats, 14, 43, 6 and 8;
R 7, 23, pra. 5, 3). Karna, son of Surya, is Savitra (i, 136, 3 and 8). Though
formally identified with Surya (3, 3, 16), Bhaga is the sun especially as
procreative power and as such his constellation, uttara Phalguni, is
suitable for weddings (i, 8, 16; R I, 72, 13 and R 7, 5, 34); the means of
securing a husband's love and obedience is called yas"asyam Bhaga-
daivatam (3, 233, 8, v. 1. vedanam and vetanam), or Bhagadhanam
(H 7013). For Mitra, see below, p. 89.
§ 39. The sub-divided sun includes the myth of Aruna, appointed to
go before the sun on his rising, thus protecting the world from excessive
heat. Brahman thus appoints him, to reassure the seers, but Aruna is son
of Kas"yapa; he acts as charioteer of the sun (1,24, 3 f.). Hence Aruna
and Garuda, who was brother of Aruna, are reckoned among the Adityas.
Aruna's wife is Syeni (but Aruna is an Apsaras). Aruna is deformed.
According to one tale, both brothers were born to avenge the Valakhilya
saints on Indra, who had insulted them (1,31,34; see § 12, Garuda). For
66000 years Aruna is preceded by 66000 saints, who, fallen from Brahman's
heaven, go before Aruna to guard all creatures, until they enter the disc
— of the moon! (6,7,30). Aruna is "like a red wheel", but the foregoer
of the sun, at sight of whom all men begin to pray (7, 186, 3f.). He is
father of Jatayus, younger brother of the roc Sampati (R I, i, 52; ib. 3,
14, 31). He, like Garuda, is Vainateya (son of Vinata). Other sub-divisions
of the sun amount to multiple suns marking the end of the world. At
the time of universal dissolution, the twelve Adityas appear as twelve
suns (the sun is "twelve-souled", 3, 3, 26), of whom only Visnu is eternal
(3, 3, 59; 5, 181,8; 13, 140,34); though in reality ekah suryah (3, 134,8;
12, 352, 10), "the sun is one". Passages (3, 188,67; i°- IOA 7$) colored by
Buddhistic Jihought speak of seven such suns. When it is said that the
sun rains (Adityaj jayate vrstili, 12, 264, n), the process of gathering
up the water and letting it out again is meant. The usual function of
the sun is to drive away darkness and demons (from the gods in the sky
as well as on earth, 3, 185, 30). At sunset he absorbs into himself all the
glory of earth, even the light of flashing swords, and then all evil demons
appear (6,48, 114; 7,50,3; also 6,86,42). Light is goodness and the sun
is superlative goodness, as all sinners are darkness (7, 146, 144; 14, 39, 14,
Adityalj sattvam udriktam kucaras tu tatha tamah). But there is
a "sun of the sun" which supports earth and sky (5, 46, 3), a "sun that
eats the sun", suryadalj suryah, or, an "over-sun" without parts (God;
12, 319, 29; v. 1. S 323, 29 and 42, atisuryas tu niskalah). Yet this is
not myth but philosophy. According to it, a bastard mythology makes sun
and moon the eye (sic) of God (the sun lights, and the moon enlightens;
as the mystic seems to say, 12, 343,66). As "eyes of the world" the two
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 85
suffer eclipse (R 3,66, 10). The sun has, besides light, a black part, pada,
or foot (cf. Visnu as ekapad), which is that which absorbs water during
eight months: "Vivasvat draws up water"; "eight months he drinks and
then pours forth for four" (8, 79, 78; 12, 363, 5f.). In Surya, Ravi, Vivasvat,
live the saints (£anti, ib. 9; cf. R 6, 74, 60, suryanibandhana). Even
God is established on some of his rays (yasya tejovis"esesu svayam
atma pratisthitah). Vivasvat extends his two arms when a saint
approaches to enter his disc, and reaching out his right hand welcomes
him; then the glory of the saint becomes one with the glory of the sun
(^anti, ib. 16). The tapas, heat, of the sun is identified with the ardor
of the saint (tasmat suryo virajate, 5,46,1). But the sun also slays.
The warrior kills with arrows, "like Savitr" and "like Aditya" (6,48,34^;
106,78; R 5,47,9, and 15 f.). To see the sun kabandhanka (R 3,23,11)
i. e. with the appearance of a headless trunk (masses of clouds), is a bad
omen. Epithets of the sun are regularly sahasraras"mi ("of a thousand
rays") and, less often, gabhastis"atasamvrta (7, 13, 26), probably "having
hundreds of hands" (rays), but he eats with these rays as well as protects
with them (3, 33, 71). As the twelvefold sun (above), Surya has one hundred
thousand rays (12, 313,4). The rays make a wreath about his head, man-
damaricimandalah (S for mantra-, at 5, 182, 29; cf. mandaras"mih.
sahasrams~uh, 7, 148, 24). He drives a monocycle, ekacakram, dragged
by seven horses, which grow weary after the day's work (5,46, 5; 6, 120,
53; 7> 189, 54; R 3, 71, 30). A divine (Visnu) Naga replaces them on one
occasion for a month (12,358,8; 363,1). His steeds carry him ten thou
sand leagues in half an hour (R 4, 42, 41) or three hundred and sixty-four
leagues in one wink (S I, 189, 19 f. after B 173, 17). The sun, even as
measured disc, is still called the "exalted bird". The measure of the sun
is in accordance with the fact that the eclipse demon (Rahu) devours sun
and moon, so he must be the largest (also as circle) of the three. The
circle of the demon is 12,000 leagues (diameter) by 42,000 leagues (circum
ference); that of the moon (larger than the sun) is 11,000 by 38,900 leagues;
and that of the sun is 10,000 by 35,800 leagues (but "to those coming
near he seems as large as earth", 6, 12, 40 f.; R 4, 61, 13). Both Rahu and
the Sun are Mahagrahas; Surya seizes the light of the moon, etc. Thus
he is attacked by "cruel Mahagrahas" (6,76,11), while reckoned as one
of these (grahah suryadayah, 3, 200, 85; cf. 8, 87, 4) evil planets.
§ 40. In all these references to the sun, though disc or bird or horse
(see Agni) or bull, he is ever the god, never inanimate. He drinks,
goes home, possesses hands, hair, etc., bestows wisdom, makes speeches,
acts as a witness, etc. He has quite a family. His wife Suvarcala (see
Sandhya above, loved by Pusan) is mentioned in 13, 146, 5; R 2, 30, 30;
R 5, 24, 9, as a type of conjugal affection, his "devoted follower". As
Suvarcala is a plant it may be a sun-flower (heliotropic) myth which she
represents. Older is the story of his espousals with Tvastri (above). She
is called Surenu and Samjna, and, according to H 545 f., bore to Vivasvat
Manu Vaivasvata, Yama and Yamuna, but unable to endure her husband
longer created a similar self, her shadow (Savarna Chaya) and commis
sioned her to act as wife (she bore Savarna Manu, etc.). This Chaya of
H and the Puranas is not known in the epic, but S I, 203, 34 cites Usa
as wife of Surya (Useva Suryam, etc.). That Vivasvat became a horse
and begot by Tvastri the As"vins is referred to in the epic and told in
extenso in H (601, see above). SanaiScara is said to be his son by Chaya
86 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
in H (loc. cit.) and this legend with that of the future Manu is recognised
in 12,350,55; cf. VP 3, 2, 4. Sanaiscara is the planet Saturn (the planets
which appear to meet the Day-maker and Night-maker with especial
pleasure are Sukra and Brhaspati, Venus and Jupiter, R 2, 99, 41). Surya's
daughters are Supraja, wife ofBhanu (3,221,9), and also (?) Sraddha Vai-
vasvati (12, 265, 8, perhaps identical with Savitri, but N. says savitri here
is sa avitrl, "guardian and generatrix of pure birth"). The southern seer
"Cakradhanus" is also called his son, "born of Surya" (5, 109, 17), the
South being called the quarter given by Vivasvat as daksina (ib. to his
Guru, sc. KaSyapa, ib. i); the text says: vidur yam Kapilam devam,
"whom (Cakradhanus) they know as the divine Kapila" (ib.). Kapila is
a name of the sun (3, 3, 24), as well as of Visnu (3, 47, 18), and the Kapilas
(Sarikhyas) are a sect especially favored by the sun (below). In R I, 17, 9;
ib. 5,62, 36, etc., Sugrfva, uncle of Dadhimukha, who has the honey-grove,
is "begotten of Tapana", "the son of him of a thousand rays", Suryatman,
"born of Surya's self" (R 4, 14, 22) and at death he enters the disc of the
Sun (R 7, no, 22). Other sons of the Sun, who return into their father at
death, are the apes ^veta and Jyotirmukha (R 6, 30, 33).
§ 41. Savitri, given in marriage by her father the Sun to Brahman
(3, no, 26; S 4, 22, n; 13, 169,9), is the "mother of the Vedas", the reci
tation of which divine being as verses purifies from sin (3, 200, 83 and
I2>35>37)> a thorough identification of the verse and goddess (japan
devim vedamataram). As goddess she is attendant on Parvati (3,231,49).
She appears to king As"vapati (who, to get children, had worshipped her
for eighteen years with Mantras and ten thousand fire-oblations daily,
eating only at the sixth meal-time), and in person, rupini, promises him
a daughter, "glorious Savitri", whose story of devotion to her husband is
known to both epics (1,241,48; 3, 293, iof.; R 2, 30, 6 and ib. 118, 10).
The goddess intercedes with her husband to have the boon granted; she
has "divine ear-rings which she gave for a priest", and so got to heaven
(12,235,24). She saves from difficulties, durgataranT, and as such abides
in the palace of Brahman (2, n, 34). She is both the mother of the Vedas
(whom "she does not desert", 3, 81, 5) and the mother of the initiated
regenerate (3, 100, 34; cf. Manu 2, 29 and 170). As a dramatic figure she
blesses a Paippaladi priest, a Kausika, and announces a discussion between
Time, Death, and Yama, who as "son of the Sun" (12, 196,6 and 199, if.)
is called Suryaputra and Vaivasvata (the former being applied also to
Saturn and the As"vins). The mark of Savitri's foot is still visible at the
Udyanta mountain (where too is the yonidvara, but the allusion is lost,
3, 84, 93 f.). Savitri, as all knowledge, seems to be differentiated from
Gayatri: "Savitri is first of knowledges and is all (spoken), as Prajapati
is first of the gods, as Gayatri is first of metres" (14,44, 5f.)-
§ 42. Several stories are told of Surya, whose southern limit was set
for him by Manu Savarni and the son of Yavakrita (5, 109, n). When
Mt. Vindhya is angry with him (see § 6), Surya says: "Not by my own
will do I revere Meru. My path is laid out for me by those who made
the universe" (3, 104, 5). The daughter of the saint Harimedhas, Dhvaja-
vatl, was once estopped from further flight through the western sky by
the command of Surya, who twice commanded her to "stand still", and
she stood still (5, no, 13). The sun burns Jatayus' feathers (R 4, 58, 4), but
it is not said that this is due to anger. In the AnuSasana, however, Surya
burns the wife of Jamadagni and being threatened by the saint disguises
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 87
himself as a priest and reproaches Jamadagni for trying to shoot the Day-
maker, who is a benefactor, providing food by "raining on the seven
continents" (13, 95, iSf.). Jamadagni replies that at noon the sun stands
still for half a wink and at that instant he is resolved to shoot. His anger
is averted by supplication, however, and as a reward for his leniency
Surya gives Jamadagni shoes and an umbrella, which first introduced this
sun-guard to man (ib. 96,6 and 14). In a late passage, R 7,23, pra. 2, the
sun declines to fight Ravana. His door-keepers are here (vs. 9) Pingala
and Dandin, and he is called Aditya, Surya, Ravi, Adideva, lord, Martanda,
"witness of the world", "he of the seven steeds", "maker of day" (and
of light), and described as adorned with ear-rings and bracelets, smeared
with sandal paste, with yawning mouth and a thousand gleaming rays.
The reason he gives for not fighting is that he "cannot spare the time"
(na 'ham kalaksipam sahe). As "witness of the world" the Sun sees
all that is done and "with his heavenly eye" watches the rape of Sita,
being so shocked that he loses light (R 3_, 52, 13). Rama calls on him to
tell where Sita is gone, addressing him (Aditya bho lokakrtakrtajfia)
as one who knows what is done and not done, witness of actions true
and false (R 3,63, 16). A very late passage called "the mystery of Citra-
gupta" also makes the sun the witness of all man's acts, but as witness
the god here recounts it all to the judge of the dead. At Parvan time
what a man does goes to the sun, and if he has been generous and given
lamps to priests, then, as he goes through hell's darkness, the gods of
light, Moon, Sun, and Fire, lend him light to see. The "mystery" ends,
not very apropos, with the hearer, who is Vibhavasu himself, saying :
"This is the mystery of Citragupta; the five worst sinners are he who
kills a cow, or a priest; an adulterer; an unbeliever; and he who lives
on his wife. These five are avoided by gods and Manes and will live in
hell on pus" (13, 130, I7f.; see Yama). The sun will not hurt Rama because
he knows him (R 2, 44, 8). He upholds right but, as general benefactor,
"Surya shines upon the good and the wicked" (12, 73, 24). Like Wind,
Fire, and "the mothers of the worlds, the cows, who are deities among
men", Surya is also said to be born of Brahman ("son of the Self-existent"),
and as a divinity he must not be offended; one must not urinate against
the sun nor look at him rising, etc. (as in the. law-books, 13, 125,64;
cf. ib. 60 and 62, and 12, 193, 17 and 24, na meheta; 13, 104, 17). He
who offends thus against Ravi, Bhanumat, lives eighty-six years in hell.
In R 2, 75,21, suryam ca pratimehatu is a curse, parallel (cf. AV. 13,
i, 56) to "may he kick a sleeping cow". Surya comes when called by
a magic formula of Kunti, yellow as honey, great-armed, wearing bracelets
and diadem (3, 306, 10) and "making his body twofold, on earth and in
the sky" begets Karna by mystic Yoga-power, who was born with radiant
armor and ear-rings. He visits this son in a vision and gives him advice
(3,300, 6f.). He is here the beneficent god of a thousand rays, Bhanu,
conqueror of Rahu (Svarbhanusudana, 3, 302, 18 and 20). When Karna dies,
the sun, bhakta, devoted do him, bathes in the western ocean to purify
himself (8, 94, 30). Aditi (§ 37) gives him the ear-rings (3, 307, i8f.). The
story of Karna forms the basis of some of the strongest scenes in the
epic and is often referred to (12, 6, 6 and 15, 30, 9). It is possible that
Karna himself ("son of the bull") represents the sun. He is called Vai-
kartana from his cutting off the armor, and to distinguish him from the
son of Dhrtarastra (1,67,95). His death at the hands of (Indra as) Arjuna
88 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
might point to a sun and storm myth. His family is the object of special
regard on the part of the god, who gives Kunti a copper dish of inex
haustible food (origin of the grail according to Prof, von Schroeder) and
saves Krsna from the amorous Klcaka by giving her a demon guardian,
Rakso raksartham (3,3,72; ib. 262, 2; and 263,21; 4,15,20). The an
cestor of the Kurus called Samvarana is a devout sun-worshipper, and his
name is a personification of the veiling surrounding the sun, while his
wife Tapati is "daughter of Tapana". She is a younger sister of Savitri
and is born of Tapana Surya (i, 171,6), and is formally bestowed upon
Samvarana by Vivasvat (i, 173, i8f.). According to I, i, 44 f., the Kurus,
Yadus, and Bharatas are descendants of the divine beings called (Das"a-
jyoti, etc.) Ten-, Hundred-, and Thousand-light, sons of Subhraj, son of
Devabhraj and grandson of Sahya (v. 1. Manu), the youngest Vivasvat
(Dyaus' son). Kuru is son of Tapati Sauri, hence Tapatyas as metronymic
of the family. At I, 189, 19, the priest Vasistha in S goes a niyuta of
leagues upward to intercede for Samvarana as suitor of Tapati and here,
in a brief hymn to Bhaskara Vivasvat, the god has the (Visnu) epithets
sahasracaksus, trayimaya, and Virificanarayanas'ankaratman,
a hymn approved by the sun, who said it should be muttered by all the
faithful (ib. 24f., japya bhaktanam). "Thousand-eyed" is an epithet of
Visnu and of Indra in other places; it here stands for the usual "Thousand-
rayed". Haridas~va and HaryaSva are both sun-names (R 6, 107, nf.).
§ 43. All the hymns to the sun are late, as shown by internal evi
dence. They may be due to a recrudescence, perhaps political in origin,
of this cult. But even in the older texts mention is made of the ascetic
Urdhvabahus, who stand with arms up-stretched (R 2, 95, 7, beside the
river Mandakini), as does Samvarana (i, 173, 12, urdhvamukhah). The
Pancaratras derive their doctrines from the sun himself (12, 340, 120), and
they number 66,000 or (v. 1.) 88,000 (but both numbers are conventional ;
the larger number in S). In the camp of the Pandus there were "a thou
sand and eight others who were Sauras" (7, 82, 16). That many worshipped
the sun particularly, may be seen from the names of the Kurus' battle-
friends, Suryadhvaja, Rocamana, Ams"umat (etc., I, 186, iof.; Suryadatta,
4, 31, 15). There was also a "secret Veda of the sun" taught to Arvavasu
(3, 138, i8f.). The Bhagavatas identical with the Kapilas have a doctrine
taught Sarasvati by the sun (12, 3i9,6f.; ib. 302,54 and 85; ib. 345, Hf.;
349, 3 and 57). R 6, 107 = Bomb. 105 (106) has one of these late hymns,
introduced as a hoc signo vinces, but not found in the Bengal text.
The sun is here identified with all the gods, including those of the Tri-
murti; he is the bird, of a thousand flames, of seven steeds, saptasapti,
the golden germ, twelve-souled, maker of all, witness of the world, d eva
de va, soul of all gods, destroyer and maker of the world. Compare
yugantasurya for the usual yugantagni (R 5, 37,65). The Mbh. describes
the sun on the occasion of the gift of the food -vessel and then cites
a hymn, first uttered by Brahman to Indra, and told to Narada, who gives
it to Dhaumya. He first gives the names of the sun, reckoned as one
hundred and eight (3, 3,5f.). In S, the names follow the hymn. The lists
of names differ, and in neither text are there the stated numbers
(namastaSatam). Here the Sun is Victory, Jaya, and especially the
refuge of the Kapilas (Sankhyas); he illumines with his rays (gobhih)
the thirteen continents; he is lord of Manus and of Manvantaras; as twelve
suns he dries the ocean; he is Indra, Rudra, Visnu, Prajapati, Agni,
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 89
Brahman, the goose (hams a), Vrsakapi, Vivasvat, and inter alios Mitra
and Mihira. The last (Persian) name gives the approximate period to which
the hymn belongs, evidently that of the Pancaratras also. The sun is also
Bhutatman (S) and is to be worshipped with loving devotion, bhakti,
especially on the sixth or seventh day. His adorers, believing in his love
(tvadbhavabhaktah), will live long. His followers, who clasp his feet,
are Mathara (3,3,68; cf. 12, 293, 8, another late touch), Aruna, Danda
(aSaniksubha, as lightning?), the divine mothers (cf. the Saura Matrs of
9,46,38), Maitri and Ksubh (Love and Harm?), and the mothers of the
Bhuts. Among his noticeable epithets here are alolupa (epithet of Siva,
free from passion), the sacred fig-tree, Kapila, the divine physician Dhan-
vantari, "door of heaven", and different divisions of time and fire. S has
VaiSravano, v. 1. for vai Varuno (error for Vais"vanara?), devakarta
for dehakarta, etc. and adds as epithet, manih suvarnah, which refers
to the manih suddhah or "pure gem", supposed to drink the rays of
the sun (12, 299, 12). It is once referred to under its usual later name
suryakanta (12,218,29). Mitra has lost his individuality in the epics
except in the late (Uttara) tale of his quarrel with Varuna (§ 59f.). The
name is that of a Marut in H 11545. Mitrasena, Mitrabahu, and other
Mitra-names appear in Krsna's family (H 9186, etc.). Many of the epic
data are Vedic tradition, the sun as rain-giver, lord of cows, demon-
dispeller, father of Yama, etc., but others are found only in the hymns, the
pseudo-epic, Hariv., and Puranas. As philosophical adhidaivatam, Mitra
and Arka appear differentiated from Surya (12, 314, 2 = 14, 42, 26, and 43, 7);
also here as neuter, Mitram (14, 21, 4). The perfected saint of the same (per
haps antique) range of thought is identified severally with Visnu, Mitra, Varuna,
Agni, Prajapati, Dhatr, and Vidhatr (ib. 42,65). Sons "like Mitra and Varuna"
(i, 105, 41, etc.) are promised a devotee, i. e. sons of special glory. On a
group of "Mitra" gods see § 50. For Mitra as war-god, see Varuna, § 59.
§ 44. The Moon-God. — Never a god of much importance in India,
save as it mystically represented the yellow Soma plant whose name it
assumed, the epic Moon-god remains much more restricted than its rival
luminary, though it is supposed as a heavenly body to be higher (in space),
larger, and better endowed with rays (i, 18,34; R 7, 23, pra. 4, 16). It belongs
probably to a lower class than does the Aditya sun, for it is one of the
group of eight Vasus (1,66, 19), three of whom, Moon, Wind, and Fire,
are_ retained in the epic list of these pre-epic deities. Only late lists (§ 37)
of Adityas include Soma. The moon is of course never aught than a god
(husband of Diksa, § 38), yet it is generally referred to rather as delighter
of eyes and hearts, a gleaming luna Candida, Candra, Candramas, than
as a god; that is, its gentle beauty and cool light (i, 177, 40) are regarded.
It is physical, as in the figures, "the child crying for the moon", (R 3,
47, 41), "hard to touch as the moon", the nocturnal phenomenal body,
rajanicara, rather than the divinity is implied (4,14,51; 5, 130, 37 f.).
Compare 8, 39, 16, where candram jighrksuli is parallel to a "frog
croaking at a rain-cloud". In this sense also s~as~anka (marked with a
hare) and s"as"in is generally used. Thus Kama is s"as"iva divi (3,301,12),
"like the moon in a cloudless sky" (Vis"akhayor madhyagatah),
that is, the physical moon shining between two stars with which
his ear-rings are compared (cf. 8, 20, 48), describes Karna. For Candra,
cf. the use in 7, 16, 54, citre rathe . . babhase naksatracitre
viyati 'va candrah. So Citraya Candrama iva (R 3, 17, 4). It is
QO III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Candra that is "like a white goose in the blue lake of the sky" (R 5, 2,
58, etc.) When speaking of the sickle of the moon and of the moon in
creasing in the bright half of the month, this is the word usually employed
(Candra, or Sas"in, not Soma), though there are exceptions, and when
Somasuta is described, naturally sahasrasomapratimah is preferred
(7,23,29); also a saumya (gentle) king is likened to Soma (passim).
Besides Candra, Sas~anka, and Soma, the moon is called Uduraj, Udupa(ti),
"water-lord" (boat?), and Indu = Soma(drop), besides names which are
periphrases, Night-wanderer, Water-born, King of Stars, Cool of Ray, etc.
In R 5, 16, 31, naikasahasraras"mi is the moon. Soma as a fighting god
is almost forgotten. Indeed it is said that though he once had a bow and
a war-chariot he gave them away to Indra (I, 225, 4f.). His not very repu
table exploit of raping Tara, the star-wife of Brhaspati (Jupiter), brought
on the Tarakamaya war, which is frequently alluded to as an event of
the long ago. The son born of this pair was Budha (Mercury). Soma
stands here on the side of Usanas (Venus), the star-priest of demons, of
Rudra, and of the demons themselves. As far as the later epic story goes,
Budha is son of Soma and Tara (H 1340), not the son of Rohim (R 3, 49, 16),
the favorite wife of Soma. Daksa gave the twenty-seven stars of the lunar
zodiac (his daughters) to Soma. The remaining twenty-six objected to
Soma's partiality for RohinT, and Daksa, after warning him three times,
cursed him to have yaksman, consumption, which still causes his monthly
consumption, though by bathing in the Sarasvati (where it joins ocean at
Prabhasa), and by worshipping Deves~a, Soma recovered. Yet he has to
keep up the remedy, "drinking there the six essences of Varuna", to
ensure health. As Soma is "lord of plants" and as the gods depend on
vegetable offerings, his decline devastated the world and frightened the
gods, so that they interceded for him (i, 66, 17; 9, 35, 43 f.). The star-wives
are here Yoginis, engaged "in time and weather". He is called here, Soma,
Candra, Udupati (Uduraj in 5» 34> 55). This curse is alluded to in Manu
9, 314, as in the epic 12, 344, 57 ("consumption came upon King Soma
through the curse of Daksa"). The Moon is lord of lotuses, kumudanatha,
and his crescent, the boat (udupa), is the type of female loveliness, as
the full moon ("the quiver of Love"; cf. the Jain Kalpa-Sutra, 38) is the
image of a beauty (smaras"arasanapurnasamaprabhah, 7, 184, 46f.).
Urvas"! (e. g.) is candralekheva (3,46, 15). The moon has a mark, laksman
(7,2,5), which is jagat, the earth (shadow, see H, below), though "men
see it without knowing it" (12, 203, 8). As lord of plants, the Moon restores
to them the moisture taken from them by the sun (12, 52, 33). Soma also
is the "king of priests" (5,111,8; 12,79,13), and delights the Fathers
with ambrosia in the dark half, the gods in the bright half of the month
(12, 47, 39). He is "water-born Soma, and grahaganesvara; without
him is nothing produced" (nirajatena hi vina na kirn cit sampra-
vartate, 13,67, nf.). As benefactor of men he lives with cows in the
world of Brahman (ib. 66, 38). In H 1330, he is ruler of waters.
§ 45. Soma is son of Atri, the seer who had power over the sun,
not ineptly selected, though rather late, by the genealogists, who wished
to assure equal dignity for the parvenu Moon-race with that long claimed
by the solar dynasty. In 7, 144, 4f.; 12, 208, 9, and probably in 13, 155, 12
(by inference), Soma's father is thus made out to be Atri, the line being
then confirmed in Hariv. and Puranas. But the early epic does not know
this derivation, making Soma rise at the churning of the ocean (i, 18, 35)
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 91
or appear as son of Prajapati and Svasa (also later of Aditi). The anva-
vaya, however, is eventually established as Brahman-Atri-Soma-Budha-
Aila, etc. In 9, 43, 47, Atri is the hotr (priest) of Soma at the god's
Tirtha (cf. his as" ray a in 3, 84, 157, which Budha visits), but this may
imply what the same expression has in expanded form at H 1311 and
1334: "Soma the Rajaraj (whose car is drawn by a thousand horses) was
son of Atri, born of his tears, and Atri was his hotr". Yayati is "sixth
from Soma" and Soma alone is called the Prajapati of the Kurus (5, 149, 3),
as if the Atri legend were still unknown. Atri became the moon and sun
(to rescue them and the other gods) in the legend of 13, 157, 7 f., when
they were afflicted by Rahu. H 88 n has Budha as father of Pururavas
and, ib. 629f., gives the story of Budha in relation to Ila, related also
R 7, 87, 3f. Ila was exposed to the female power and became female, but
was permitted by Uma to be man one month and woman the next. Budha
saw Ila (as woman) and after turning her female companions into Kim-
purusis became by her the father of Pururavas (Ila feminine is Manu's
daughter and so of solar origin). Soma's daughter Bhadra was given by
Atri to Utathya and then stolen by Varuna (q. v.; 13, 155, 12). His daughter
Jyotsnakall married Varuna's son Puskara (5,98, 12). In the Mbh. heroic
genealogy, Varcas, part of Soma, becomes Abhimanyu (lives sixteen years,
corresponding to the sixteen days of the bright moon); and in Ram. Dadhi-
vaktra or Dadhimukha is begotten by Soma (1,67, H4f.; 18, 5, 18; R 5,
6i,9f.; ib. 6, 30, 23, saumyah Somatmajah). Soma is identified with
Agni (12, 342, 59). With Agni and Vayu he receives the fruit of Rama's
merit (R 2, 109, 28). See also under Indra. He acts as witness with sun
and wind and other gods (see Vayu and Agni) and unites with^Yama in
fearing a saint (1,71, 39), but apart from Yama (here and in Sraddhas)
he is an isolated god, though perfunctorily serving as giver of blessings
and hence perhaps having a shrine in a hermitage (R 2,91,20; ib. 3, 12,
17 f.), since his special business is to prepare food, being "lord of plants"
(5,156,12; 13,98,17, "Soma's self in various ways produced on earth");
whence his peculiar province is taste, as the Sun's is sight and Wind's
is touch (rasajnane, 14,43, 3°j cf- above on the moon's making moisture
in plants, and 1,227,2, Candramas makes fog). In 3, 57, 37, annarasa
as a gift of Yama might revert to the lunar quality of the god. Like
other gods the Moon has his earthly place (apart from Tirthas, above),
which appears as a mountain north of the Northern Kurus, "hard even
for gods to reach" (Somagiri, R 4, 43, 57 f.; perhaps in 13, 166, 33 the same
"sunless land beside the northern sea" is meant; H 12413, Saumyagiri, is
imitation of the description in R). In R 4, 42, 14, Somagiri (at the mouth
of the Indus) has v. 1. Hemagiri (S). Soma and Somada are names of
Apsaras and female Gandharvi (§ 93 f.). For the moon as a gentle form
and as diadem of Siva, see § 155 f.* His asterism is Mrgasiras (13,64, 7,
gifts according to asterisms). The moon has sixteen parts, only one of
which remains intact; the others increasing and decreasing (12, 305, 3,
image of jiva, one sixteenth pure soul). All Parvan days are sacred; on
days of new and full moon especially one must be chaste (13, 104, 89);
the seventh day the moon is very bright (n, 19,8) and almost consumed
on the fourteenth (ib. 21, 13, saptamyam iva; caturdasahe, of the
dark half, na prltikarah. sas~I).
§ 46. The moon disappears but is not lost, and so it is the same
soul which reappears with a new body, as the moon reappears encom-
92 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
passed with stars (12, 203, i5f., amavasyam alingatvan na drs~yate).
As a good god the moon is tamisrahan, and tamo nighnan, destroying
darkness, "with the help of Budha and Sukra" (7, 84, 20). Candra Sasaiika
destroys evil, rising like a horned bull with a hump, like an elephant
with a gold-bound tusk, like a hams a in a silver cage, etc. (R 5, 5, if-)-
The effect on the ocean of the moon's power is a trite simile (e. g. 6,
58, 32; 7, 172, 35). Gifts at the full moon or on the twelfth day increase
"Soma and ocean"; Soma grants all his wishes who gives ghee and grain
to the priests (ib. 8); the same increase of Soma and ocean is produced
by a bali of rice and honey offered to the rising full moon in a dish of
udumbara wood (ib. 134, 6). The moon is lokakanta, beloved, though
fading (R 2, 19, 32), but reviving on the day of the new moon after the
fourteenth of the dark half (R 6, 93,65). The moon-stone candrakanta
is comparable to the sun-stone and as rarely mentioned (Rama's face is
fair as the candrakanta, R 2, 3, 28, ativapriyadarsanam). In R 7,
102, 6f., a town is so named. This stone is made of moon-beams. In the
bright half of the month Pausa, when Rohim is in conjunction, one should
bathe and lie in the open, half naked, and drink moon-beams (Somasya
ras~mayah pitva, 13, 126, 49). The next section gives rites and prohibi
tions for different phases of the moon (the rite of the lunar day is tai-
thika, ib. 12). Not to cut a tree or chew a toothpick on the new moon's
day benefits Candramas (Soma). The connection with the Pitrs (§ 15) is
here close; it is they who are afflicted by the chewing of the toothpick
(ib. 4). The rule, however, is ascribed to the authority of the Sun-god
(the Pausamasa rite, to Brahman) and is actually found in the law-book
of Visnu (6 1, 17). The Candra vrata or moon-vow (ascribed to Bhisma) is
not the candrayana of the law-books. It should be undertaken in the
month MargasTrsa, when the moon, candra, is joined with the asterism
Mula: "When his feet are joined with Mula, Rohini in his calf, his knees
in Asvini, his thighs in the two Asadhas, when his rump is Phalgum, his
waist Krttika, his navel in Bhadrapada, the eye-circle in Revati, back and
front in Dhanisthah and Anuradha, his arms the ViSakhah, the hands in
Hasta, when his fingers are Punarvasu, his nails in As"lesa, neck in
Jyestha, ears in Sravana, mouth in Pusya, lips (teeth) are Svati, his laugh
Satabhisa, his nose Magha, his eyes MrgaSiras, Mitra in his forehead, his
head in Bharanl, and his hair is Ardra" (13, no, 3f.). As the moon is full
on the night of the full moon, so will he become full-limbed who per
forms this rite, which assures beauty and good fortune to the performer
and also the "luck of knowledge" (ib. 10). The rite consists in gifts to
the priest as well as in making the identifications, limb by limb (Mitra
in vs. 8, lalate mitram eva ca, is for Citra). The chief reason for the
Moon-god's importance is his influence over the Fathers (see the "Fathers'
Path" and Pitrs and Yama). As a god he has a vehicle drawn by sixteen
(perhaps) or a thousand steeds (cf. H 1321, and 12, 37, 33, where a king
drawn by sixteen horses is like god Soma mounting his ambrosial car,
amrtamayam ratham . . tarakarajah). R 7, 23, pra. 3 and 4, 29, says
that the world of Candramas is above the seven worlds of wind, but the
passage is late, describing how Ravana attacked the world till Brahman
intervened, giving Ravana a Mantra for the hour of death, which he is to
mutter as he grasps his rosary, aksasutra, yet it is interesting as
distinguishing the Somaloka (where Ravana's father Parvata tells him of
the local saints and the fiend fights Mamdhatr) from the world of Can-
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 93
dramas above the seven wind-worlds (Soma and Candramas here quite
distinct). So 14, 43, 6 f. Candramas is lord of Naksatras (as Surya is of
planets) and Soma is lord of plants (Soma is the moon -plant). Soma
as ambrosia raped by Garuda (§ 12) and as the divine sacrificial plant
has its own position as usual. To sell Soma would not be wrong if one
had the higher knowledge in reference to it, though usually it would be
a sin (tattvam jnatva tu somasya vikrayah syad adosavan, 12,
34, 31). The putika-plant may be substituted for Soma, and so a month
or day for a year (3, 35, 33 and 52, 23 f.). Pressing of Soma and Soma-
sacrifice are assumed as common meritorious actions. The Naksatras are
both the wives of the god Soma (as Moon) and also the general stars of
which he is Naksatraraj (3,237,11), and Naksatramarga is Suravithi, per
haps the Milky Way or path by which the dead go (7, 192, 72 and 3, 43, 12).
Naksatranemi is both Moon and Visnu (who is Naksatrin), and the best
of Naksatras is Sas"in the moon (6,34,21). The Naksatras are personal
attendants of higher beings (Siva, etc.), suffering and enjoying Karma-
fruit like other beings (5, 29, 15). Naksatradaksinas offered by Gaya
(naksatresu) were probable given to^ the special stars of the lunar zodiac
(7, 66, 10). Asterisms unsuitable for Sraddhas are Prosthapadas, Agneya,
that of one's birth, any evil or hostile (daruna, praty_ari) asterism, and
any forbidden in astrology (jyotise, 13, 104, I27f.). Agneya is Krttikah.
The list as given in 13,64, 5f., is as follows: Krttikah (Agneya), Rohim,
Somadaivata (Mrgasiras, later the fifth), Ardra, Punarvasu, Pusya (Tisya),
As"lesa, Maghah, Phalguni (purva, uttara), Hasta, Citra (as twelfth, earlier
the fourteenth), Svati, Vis"akha, Anuradhah, Jyestha, Mula, Asadhah
(purvah, uttarah), Abhijit, Sravana, Dhanisthah (earlier Sravistha), Satabhisa,
Bhadrapadah (purva, uttarayoga), RevatT, Asvini, Bharanyah (pi.), as twenty-
eighth. Mrgasiras is called (ib. 89, 3) Mrgottama; Satabhisa is called Varuna
(ib. 12); Prostha = Bhadrapadah (purvali, uttarah, ib. 13); like Bharanyafr
is ASvinyah (pi.) in vs. 14. One should not point out Naksatras nor tell
the tithi paksasya (13,104,38). Excluded inter alios from Sraddhas are
kus"ilava, devalaka, and "he who lives by stars", naksatrair ya£ ca
jlvati (13,90, n, an astrologer). Lunar omens are rare. To see the full
moon with broken light on the right is unlucky, but the same is true
of a lamp, and the broken light is the important factor (portends death,
12,318,9). When Soma enters the sun (at the time of new moon), the
gods are fighting Asuras (3, 224, n f.). See Anumati, Raka, etc., as phases
of the moon under Agni (Angiras). For the moon as representing mind,
see § 37, Candramas. While the adventures of the Moon are few and unim
portant in the real epic, the tale of his rape of Tara and consumption
being almost all told of him as a hero, the Puranas give more details of
his equipment (ten steeds, three-wheeled car, not in epics) and even Hari-
vams"a rather delights to exploit him as a warrior (as well as the calf of
sacrifice, H 369, see Kubera), a fact probably not unconnected with the
desire of the lunar dynasty to see its progenitor exalted, as Soma even
becomes a name of Siva and Visnu (H 7581 and 2382). Here Soma is
dvijesvara; "his body is marked with the elephant's shadow", gaja-
cchaya (2476); he is first invoked to fight against the demons (2584^, has
lokacchayamayam laksma), and uses his "weapon of cold" (as Varuna
aids him with water) against the fire of Maya; also fights against Sambara
(l344Of.), when Bhaga retires defeated, etc. The most elaborate descrip
tion of the moon (R 5, 5) is also late, but this is poetical rather than
94 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
mythological exaggeration. For Soma and Agni, see § 52. It is possible
that Trita may represent the moon. He is cast into a pit and curses his
brothers to become wolves, but is rescued by prayer (cf. for interpretation
as the moon on the third day of conjunction, Siecke, Drachenkampfe,
p. 21); but the epic version does not reflect any such origin. The three
brothers are here sages who report the monotheistic cult of the White
Islanders (12, 336). They are "sun-like in glory" and called sons of
Gautama (9, 36, 10).
J §47. The Wind-God. — He is called Vayu, Vata, Maruta, Anila; or,
as purifyer, Pavana; as forceful, Prabhanjana; as bearer of odors, Gan-
dhavaha; as constantly in motion, Satataga and Sadagati; he has too a
venerable title of unknown meaning, Mataris"van, and as messenger of
Indra he is Vasavaduta. As indicated by the last title, he is closely con
nected with Indra, whose messenger and servant he is, though in other
respects he appears as a mighty independent divinity, associated especially
with his friend (son) Agni (see Indra and Agni). Often the names are
fcused as if no divine being were in mind but only the physical phenomenon
t(if this is ever true), and then vayu or vata are preferred, whereas for
the god qua god Maruta is the favorite name. Compare "horses swift as
thought or wind" (vayu, I, 225, n); "clouds mixed with wind" (mis"ra-
vata, 7, 95, 7); "like a rotten old tree felled by the wind" (vatarugna,
3, 16, 20); the whirlwind is visvagvata (7, 46, 10). Yet all the names
interchange rather freely. Maruti is in one epic Bhima, "son of Vayu"
whose "power derives from Matari^van" (i, I, 114; 2,24,4), "son of Pra
bhanjana" and "like Vata" by nature (i, 67, in, etc.); in the other,
Vayusuta Hanumat, Vatatmaja, (R 4, 37, 16; R 5, 9, 31 f.; R 6, 28, 10) and
Gandhavahatmaja (R 6, 74, 70). Vata teaches Arjuna the use of arms
(i, 165, 12); to Vata is addressed the wail of Rama: vahi Vata yatafr
kanta, tarn sprstva mam api sprs"a (R 6, 5,6). A sportive Vayu or
Maruta may raise the dust and plays with trees (R 3,23, 12 and 14; ib. 4,
fi, I2f.). As a Marut, Vayu is the only one to "have great fame" in the
sky, the other Maruts being distributed, one in the world of Indra, one
with Brahman, and four in the four directions as followers of Indra, pro
bably those in the "army of Maruts surrounding Indra" (R 1,47, 5 and
R 4, 64, 14). As independent gods their blessing is sought with that of
other gods (R 2, 25, 8). Vayu (Vata) is the friend of Agni and helps him
(i, 223, 78; 227, 14; 228,40). The hosts of Maruts in the story of Man-
kanaka, progenitors of the Maruts, are called Vayuvega (cf. Vatavega, son
of Garuda), Vayubala, Vayuhan, Vayumandala, Vayujvala, Vayuretas, and
Vayucakra (9, 38, 36f.). The Maruta world or "world of the seven Maruts"
(13, 107, in; cf. ib. 80 f.; ib. 95 and I26f.) and the allusion to the wind
"pleasant, cool, and fragrant", which (or who) carries perfected saints to
heaven, nabhasah paramam gatim, as the "best of seven Maruts"
.(12, 302, 75), show that the usual conception is that of seven winds. This
agrees with the seven Pranas (ib. 27, etc.) in the metarjhy^ical— inlerpre-
Jtation of breaths (winds), though they are distinguished from "mighty eight-
souleoT Vayu". This eightfold Vayu, like the twelve-souled Sun, appears
at the general dissolution of the world (12, 313, 10, astatmako ball),
called yugantavata (7,146,2; cf. 1,154,24, balam Vayor jagatah.
ksaye), and blows in every direction, so it probably represents the eight
directions (cf. § 10, elephant- protectors of the eight directions, blowing
out winds). The "paths of Vayu are seven" (12,47,89=51,6), as other
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 95
sevens are for several, or to conform to the seven Maruts (which amounts
to the same thing); but, as the Pranas are also five, so "Vayu, who moves/
created beings as their soul, divides himself fivefold and enters the body"/
(12,47,65), namely as devadeva, or lord of the senses (12,259,49).
Hence Pavana, wind as purifying power (pavanah pavatam asmi, 6,
34, 31) and the deity of touch (12, 314, 10), becomes a numeral "five" in
post-epical literature. In the epics, citing revelation, Pavana is the "lord
of life" or, as Vayu, the soul of all, and even is the all: Vayuh sarvam
idam jagat (TB. 3, 11, I, 9; Mbh. 3, 313, 66; R 7,35,61; cf. R ib. 55,
"without Anila, Pavana, father of Hanumat, lord of life, the body becomes
a mere log"). A great wind is the "breath of Visnu", hence the Veda
should not be read when a gale is blowing (12, 329, 26 f., VyasatoSuka;
ib. 55 f., Visnor nihsvasavatah). The path of gods leads to Visnu, of
Pitrs the path leads downward. There are here seven paths of the winds,
Vayumargas, and the Pranas are explained anthropomorphically. Samana,
son of the Devaganah Sadhyah, had a son Udana, father of Vyana, father
of Apana, father of Prana, who had no child (ib. 32 f.). Cosmically, Samana
is Pravaha, a wind of clouds and thunderstorms. Avaha is a noisy wind;
it makes the moon and other heavenly lights rise and is identical with
Udana (S, however, inverts the first and second names). Udvaha, the third
wind, sucks up water for Parjanya to rain. Samvaha bears the gods' cars,
roars in clouds and rends mountains. The fifth wind is dry, incorporate
in the Valahaka clouds, bringing portents of disaster (but in 6, 91, 13,
Valahaka clouds are rain-clouds, pravrsi), and is called Vivaha. Parivaha,
sixth, upholds the atmospheric waters (Ganges, etc.), obstructs the sun,
and makes the moon wax. The seventh wind is the death-wind, followed
by Death and Yama, which disperses the breath of all beings that breathe;
it is called Paravaha. The seven are then identified with the Marutas,
sons of Diti (or Aditi), which blow everywhere; probably^ the same as
"the seven Vayus", with whom, as with the seven Agnis, Siva is, as All-
god, also identified (ib. 53 and 13, 14, 410). As material power, Vayu
overthrows trees (agamas, R 6, 97, 19), blowing hardest "at winter's end"
(7>95>7) and "at the end of the hot season" (4,65,1; ghoro mahanilali,
7,95,11; cf. usnaparyaye, 7,98,31). "At the end of the rains Maruta
dispels the rain-clouds" (R 5, 46, 23). Vayu gives testimony from the air
when invoked as witness, with the Sun and Moon (3,76,36; R 6, 119, 27).
Philosophically, Jikejhe Sun, Vayu is the "life of the world" (jagadayu;
3,147,27) and despite his many forms is but one (eko Vayur bahudha
vati loke, 12, 352, 10), the soul of all, on whom all depends (2, 19, 14).
In the later epic, he holds windy discourses on castes and kings (12, 72,
2f., with Pururavas). In one of these he says that he is the "messenger!
of the gods" who speaks from the sky (13,153,26; cf. 3,76,36). In 13,
J54> 3f-> he tells how he retreated from Angiras into the Agnihotra and
lectures on privileges, Brahman's birth, etc. Usually Vayu is the messenger
not of any god but of Indra. Hanumat is Vasavadutasunu (R 6, 74, 62).
Indra treats Vayu Maruta even as a servant, telling him to raise the dust,
for "that is thy work", and Vayu obeys (l, 32, 8). Indra again bids him
help Menaka seduce Vis"vamitra (1,71,41 and 72, i), here as Sadagati. As
Vayu is a Vasu and Indra is the lord of Vasus (§ 112), this relation is
natural from the epic point of view as well as traditional. His friend Agni
is also a Vasu, and Vayu drives Agni's chariot, and helps him burn the
forest (12, 229, 86, etc.; cf. Agni as Anilasarathi, Vatasarathi, I, 15, i; I,
g6 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
228,40). Agni is also called "son of Wind" (see §49). Vayu is typical of
freedom, "cannot be_boimd" (R 3, 55,24), and serves as type of the freed
saint (na vase kasya cit tisthan sadharma MatariSvanali, I, 119, 19).
He goes through air, the swiftest of beings; racing horses "drink the
wind"; he is the strongest god (12, 154 to 157, stronger than Indra,
Death, etc., ib. 155, 10). He has physical power; Indra has fighting ability
(8, 31, 14). He alone put to sleep (in death) the demons of the West,
though accompanied, as forms of himself, by mahavatas (5,110,5). He
is the "smasher" (R 4, 31, 13); hence Arjuna is called Prabhanjanasutanuja
(7, 146, 116; but Indra is Vayubhuta, takes his form if he will). Perhaps
because of their freedom the Maruts first instituted the self-choice of
a maiden (13, 44, 35). The "troop of Maruts" is said to have begotten
several heroes, Satyaki, Drupada, Krtavarman, and Virata (1,67,79?.). In
6, 50, 51, B and S have Marutali as a people.
§ 48. The later epic, like the VP., may imply that the Maruts are
seven times seven. In 9, 38, 37, the seven progenitors of the Maruts
(above) are seven ganas, which may mean seven groups of seven, as
the Hariv. and VP., in giving the tale of Indra dividing the embryo of
Diti into seven parts and saying ma rudah (H 249, ma rodih, origin of
the name, as in R i, 46 — 47), also say that the Maruts were forty-nine
(VP. I, 21, 39); but the epic does not openly recognise this number (till
H 252). The story of Diti is alluded to again in 5, no, 8. Indra is Marut-
pati and king of the Maruts (1,173,48; 2,62,17; 14, 43, 7J, with whom he
is identified as their chief (13,14,324), and who as his sacivas, socii,
laud ever their nayaka, leader, and with moon and stars and planets
add lustre to him (3, 157, 72; R 2, 3, 26; ib. 3,32,4; ib. 5,51,45; ib. 6, 12,9).
In 6, 34, 21, "Marici am I among Maruts", the root and the fact that each
is of a group of seven helps to put Marici in this category. The mother
of Maruts is Marutvati (H 145, etc.) or Diti (below), as their father is
Dharma (loc. cit.) or KaSyapa (H 11849). In 12, 328, 53, the cosmical
winds described above are Aditeh putra Marutah (and so S, but Diteh
may be right). Speed, strength, and his attribute of "bearing perfumes"
are the chief characteristics of Vayu (Analasakha is istagandha, sukha-
spars"a, sarvendriyasukhavaha, 12, 229, 86), till the later epic empha
sises his moral eloquence (above). As the lover of Kunti he comes riding
upon a deer, mrgarudhah (i, 123, 12). The distribution of the special
provinces of the winds, Vataskandhas, is applied to the Marutas as winds
in general (R i, 47, 5). Vataskandha (H 13894, v. 1. Vayuskandha) is the
name given to regions of winds. In 3, 231, 55, the army-corps of Skanda,
which is especially protected by him, is called the saptama Maruta-
skandha, referring to its seven constituents. In H 2479, Vayu supports
the three worlds as saptaskandhagata. Vayu and Agni together wave
fans over Skanda (3, 231, 47) while Indra and Sri march behind the
new battle-god. In Ram., as father of Hanumat, Vayu plays a very active
role. He comes and speaks to Laksmana, advising him to kill Atikaya
with Brahman's weapon (R 6, 71, 98). He is Prabhu, Bhagavat, Sarvatman,
and Satataga (R 6,28,11 and R 5, 13, 63). As Sarvatmaka he attempts
to corruj5f~all the nymph-mothered daughters of Kus"anabha, cursing and
deforming the girls who object to his amorous advances (R i, 32, iof.).
When "penetrated by Love" (Manmatha, R 4, 66, 14 f.), Maruta Pavana
dallies with the nymph (Anjana) Pufijikasthala, and becomes father of
Hanumat. Vayu refused to move when Indra struck Hanumat (§ 86) on
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 97
the jaw and so the earth dried up; but the gods soothed the irate father
by bestowing gifts on the son (Indra gave him the privilege of dying
when he chose and Brahman gave him invulnerability, R 4, 66, 25!.).
Hanumat is here called "son of Kesarin", but only as son of his mother's
husband. Vayu's later name Jalakanta is not known, nor is the Puranic
exploit mentioned of his contest with Garuda, in the endeavour to convert
the top of Meru into Lanka. In Hariv., Vayu is a great warrior, fighting
(H 13 176) with Puloman in company with Savitra, here_and elsewhere in H
called "fifth of the Maruts" (ib. 12787, the seven are Avaha, Pravaha, etc.,
as above). Vayu (H 14288) is listed with Namuci, etc., as a Danava
(H 2285 = 14288); but in H 11540, Vayu is one of the eight Vasus, born
of Dharma and Sadhya. He is lord of "the bodiless Bhuts", as well as
of odors and sounds (ib. 265 and 12493). At the assembly of gods, to
hear the complaint of Prthivi, Vayu as Prabhanjana, "being urged by
Brahman", went through the assembly, calling out Silentium! (ma s"abda
iti), thus acting as a "masher" among the rude gods (H 2911). His
roar in battle terrifies the demons; he is the bhutam uttamam ("highest
being"), and bodiless; the charioteer of Agni (Agner yantr); and, as
lord of sound, is born in the seven notes of music (H 2480). He joins
Agni to subdue Maya, and becomes one with Agni (ib. 2617, so 'nilo
'nalasamyuktah so 'nalas ca 'nilakulah). In 13, 25, 38, Marudgana
is the name of a Tirtha. The host, gana, comes to earth followed by
Indra Marutvat and his spouse Saci (3, 168, u). Indra "PakaSasana con
quers his foes with the help of the Maruts" (12, 23, 29). Any Maruta
travels through space on a car (R 2, 71, 8), probably a cloud, as in 8,
19, 8, clouds cover Himavat in summer impelled by winds (Marudbhih
prerita meghah). The list of (twenty-three) Marutvats or Maruts "born
of Marutvati" (H 11544^) is unique but noteworthy as including under
the title the names of Adityas and kings as well as names of fire (see
§ !»)•
§ 49. The Fire-God. — Agni (ignis) is Anala, son of Anila, the Wind-
god (2, 31, 48; RG 5, 50, 14); described as having seven red tongues
(also seven red steeds), seven faces, a huge mouth, red neck, tawny eyes
(honey-colored), bright gleaming hair, and golden seed, "the first dispeller
of darkness created by Brahman". Most of the epithets given him occur
passim, but a few, located below, are unique or almost so. For the
formal description, cf. i, 228, 37 and 232, 5 and 19 (saptajihva here
= RV. 3, 6, 2; Mund. Up. I, 2, 4), and with pingaksa cf. pinges'a (2, 31,
44). His right to distinction and many of his attributes are conveyed by
these epithets, which fall into three classes, as they describe his appearance,
functions, and relations. Thus he is Dahana, burner, Plavamga, leaper,
^ikhin, pointed, Arka, light, Vibhavasu, Jvalana, SvargadvarasprSa, gleaming
to heaven's door, Krsnavartman, Dhumaketu, black-tracked and smoke-
bannered, Citrabhanu, Timirapaha (Tamonuda? 3,^217, 14), bright remover
of darkness, Pavaka, Pavana, purifier, and Suci, Sukra, pure; also, as all-
devouring and especially as eater of oblations, he is Sarvabhuj (-bhaksa),
Havyavah, Havyavaha, -vahana, Vahni, Hutabhuj, -vaha, Hutasana, and
mouth of the gods (mukham devanam). As the wise god, he is Kavi,
Jatavedas, Pracetas; as maker and lord he is Loka- and Bhutabhavana,
Dhatr, Kartr, Bhutadi, Bhutapati, SureSa, SureSvara; as child of the water
he is Apamgarbha; as maker of gold, he is Hiranyakrt, Hiranyaretas,
Vasuretas; as universal, he is Vais"vanara and Pancajanya; as springing
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 7
98 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
from the fire-stick, he is ^amigarbha and Aramsuta (R 5, 13, 41); and
as father of Kumara, he is Kumarasu (Rudragarbha) ; while as maker of
paths and of Vedas, he is Pathikrt (pontifex) and Vedakartr. On intro
ducing himself to Sibi he says "I am Vais"vanara Jvalana Dhumaketu"
(3, 197, 25), and to the Pandus he says "I am Pavaka Agni" (17, I, 36f.).
His common name, Anala, has already been mentioned under Vayu, who acts
as his charioteer (Anilasarathi, Agner yantr, etc.). "Hutas"ana Jvalana,
mouth of the gods, is ever present at Prabhasa" (3, 82, 59; Vatasarathi,
12, 172, i ; cf. I, 15, i). Rama and Laksmana are Agnimarutakalpau,
(R 5, 39, 53); "Laksmana is as Anila to Rama as Pavaka" (R 3, 31, 17). Many
of these epithets are shared with other gods : Varuna, the wise ; Vayu
the purifyer; the Sun-god, pure and far-shining; Indra and others as
creators. Oblations are poured into Agni's mouth (7, 102, 32), who himself
is then "mouth of the gods". "Swift as Agni or as Wind" are Indra's horses,
and Agni is manogatih, swift as thought (S 3, 270, 6 Agnyanilo-
gravegaih for B atyanilo-). Like Sun and Wind, Fire is but one
(i, 232, 13; 3, 134, 8), but his forms are many. He is trividha, threefold
(in earth, air, and sky), in i, 229, 24 = 5, 16, 2, and many in his functions
(bahutvam karmasu, 3, 217, 3). Always he has seven flames, Saptarcir
Jvalanah (i, 225, 35), tongues, or weapons (Saptajihvanana, -anala, -heti,
i, 232, 5 and 10; H 13956). The seven are also interpreted as seven
distinct fires, the three sacrificial fires, agnitreta or tretagnayah (R 4,
13, 23), with which are identified the father with the Garhapatya fire, the
mother with the Daksina, a_nd the Guru with the Ahavanlya (12, 108, 7),
together with the Sabhya, Avasathya, Smarta, and Laukika (3, 221, 5 and
13, 14, 410 with N.'s explanation of the seven). Instead of seven flames,
Agni has three points, Tri^ikhajH 12292), perhaps as fires. Metaphorically,
five fires are "self and fire" added to the three one has to tend (father,
mother, Guru). Other counts have to do with sacrificial fires: five, 3, 134,
12; six, 2, 35, 16; eightfold, i, 229, 25 (cf. AV. 13, 3, 19); twenty-seven,
in Indra's palace (2, 7, 21, yajnavahahi pavakah, so, not asterisms);
thirty (13, 103, 36). Agni divides himself into five as pranas (H 13938).
The ordinary "five fires" refer to those about an ascetic (13, 90, 26 = Manu
3, 185 ; cf. i, 86, 16, and Ravana as paficagni in 3, 275, I6).1)
Among fires must be reckoned also those which to us are purely
metaphorical, the audarya, "belly-fire" (of hunger, extinguished with
food, 12, 17, 5), and the head- and navel-fires (3, 213, 3 f . ; S adds nabhyam
agnih pratisthitah), as also the fires of love and wrath. That there
may be no doubt as to these being real fires, the poet of 2, 71, 15; 72, 14,
says that owing to the hero's "wrath-fire" krodhagni (kopagni, 4, 62,
14; 12, 139, 44, etc.) flames burst from his orifices, together with smoke,
sparks, and fire, "as if from the holes of a burning tree". The "fire of
battle" may be due to sparks from weapons, but "divine weapons" and
even elephants' tusks add to this fire (7, 20, 39, etc.). Pure metaphor is
"fire of grief, extinguished with water of wisdom" (n, 8, 49), and interesting
only on account of the last expression. The "mental fire", manaso
'gnih, is jiva (soul), "like pure fire, like fire of lightning" (12, 187, 31;
*) Fausb011, Indian Mythology, p. 171, refers to "ten sorts of fires"; but the
passage he cites gives not ten but seven (13, 1005 = 13, 14, 400, ye vayavah sapta
tathai 'va ca 'g nay ah). He perhaps meant 14, 21, 4f., where ten gods are called ten
fires (with "ten oblations"), all metaphorical or philosophical, the gods of the senses re
ceiving the fuel of the senses, etc.
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 99
ib. 241, 20). There are other fires, of knowledge, jfianagni (6, 28, 37),
of the curse (3, 72, 31), and above all of the eye, which can burn (evil
eye). Even Gandharf, when she looks at Yudhisthira, raises a blister on
his finger (11, 15, 30). But these and the "foe-fire", the "family-coal" (in-
jurer, 12, 173, 24), must be passed over for the more important "fire of
the demons" and the mystic forms of Agni. The normal fire is produced
by twirling a fire-stick (aranim agnikamo va mathnati 12, 81, 6) or
"out-twirling fire" (nirmathisyami pavakam, R 3, 68, 27), but the fire
of demons comes from the oceanic fire in the underworld and will even
tually destroy the world. It is the "water-fire in ocean" (toyagnifr sagare,
12, 139, 44), or Patalajvalanah (i, 21, 7) and arises from the wrath of the
Sun (3, 3, 57) or from the wrath of Aurva Bhargava materialised (H 2149).
It is commonly called Yugantarka, Samvartaka Vahni (7, 32, 46 f . ; 3, 188,
69). In 6, 7, 28, it is located on the Malyavat Mountain (Kalagni), but in
5, 99) 35 it is in Nagaloka. Apparently the same fire (5, 99, 17) is kept
in a resplendent egg sunk in ocean. At the end of the aeon the fire will
hatch and consume the three worlds; no one knows the origin of this
egg (ib. 18). From the ocean is taken the name "Fire of the Mare's mouth".
One offers at Vadava Tfrtha a cake to Saptarcis, who appears morn and
eve on Hemakuta, where Vayu is ever to be seen (3, 82, 92; ib. no, 5).
The supreme deity, in the unitary conception of the universe, as Agni
Vadavavaktra, drinks the waters and lets them out again ; as Samvartaka
Vahni he is one with Samvartaka Surya and Anila ; Fire, Sun, and Wind
all being samvartaka as helping in the final overthrow (3, 189, 12).
Thus the demoniac fire is interpreted as divine. Curiously, though fire is
divine, no common fire, vrthagni, is sacred enough to burn the pious
dead. The epic hero blames the Fire-god that he had not been hallowed
when he consumed the hero's father (15, 38, I3f. ; 39, I dhig Agnim,
etc.). The crematory fire is a special form of fire; it is not much respected
but is not impure (3, 222, 6; ib. 200, 89; R 3, 33, 3, na bahu manyante
s~ma£anagnim). Fire is especially invoked at burial feasts (13, 91, 23 f.).
All good people worship fire. The king on rising goes to his bath-room,
dresses, prays to the Sun, and then enters the Fire-chamber (agniSarana),
where he honors Agni with kindlings and oblations accompanied with
Mantras (7, 82, 13). To discover signs of victory, Indrajit lights the fire of
vibhltaka wood, and draws omens from the flame, with perfumes, grain,
the sacrifice of a black goat, etc. (R 6, 73, 17 f.; ib. 80, 5 f.). The agnis~ala
or -agara (-s"arana, -grha) is also found in the hermitages, and the
fear of its igniting the forest, conjoined with the fear of its going out,
probably resulted in the erection of these god-houses (cf. R 2, 91, n, etc.,
and ib. 99, 12). Fires started by dry bamboos rubbing against each other
were dreaded; only Indra could extinguish them. A phrase "igniting fire
ignited" pradipya pradiptagnim (2, 64, 10) refers to camphor. Fire is
the sire of gold (13, 84, 42 and 56) and tests gold (R 3, 29, 20), as Agni
tests man's truth. He is the deity presiding over speech (12, 314, 5, etc.)
and man's truth is tested by an appeal to Agni, the test consisting in
walking through fire (below, Sita), or in submitting to Agni's action,
whether he burns the man's house, etc. So Jatavedas "spares the houses
of the good" (3, 134, 27; cf. Manu 8, 108). Dull fires alarm augurs (4, 46,
25); smoking flame implies disaster (R 6, 10, 15). Suttee is recognised
by both epics (i, 76, 46; ib. 125, 31; 12, 148, gL; R 2, 66, 12; R 5, 26,
7, the asatl does not die with her husband). In 15, 33, 21, "good women
ioo III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
true to their husbands" perform suttee by drowning. Committing suicide
on the pyre of a beloved object is not confined to wives (3, 137, 19). *)
Agni is witness of the world and as such is invoked by conspirators,
doubted wives, etc. (7, 17, 27; R 6, 119, 24 f.). In H 13928^, Agni is the
son of Sami and of Sandill (cf. H 992), and "witness of the world". In R 4,
5, 15 f-, Hanumat "makes a fire", janayamasa pavakam, as preliminary
to forming a military alliance and the contracting parties then shake hands
(hastam pidayamasa panina) and circumambulate the fire as witness
(R 4, 5, 13), which is placed between Rama and Sugriva and "revered
with flowers" (cf. the expressions Agni saksikam sakhyam, sagnikam,
etc., R 7, 33, 18; cf. ib. 5, 58, 138). Agni's so-called son Drstadyumna is
born from a sacrificial fire enkindled to injure the foe. The strength of
the foe "is poured upon the fire" (5, 126, 2, medhagni = samgra-
magni). On the other hand, fire drives away demons (13, 92, 13). On
entering a forest, Arjuna swings a torch for protection against evil spirits
(i, 170, 4), and priests keep off evil from the king by making him mount
an elephant and carrying fire around him (2, 21, 23). Real wifehood im
plies the presence of fire (ceremony); hence Agni evades the truth in
acting as a witness (though he fears a saint's curse more than a lie, I,
5, 27 f.). It is on this occasion that Bhrgu curses the god to be an "all-
eater" (i, 6, 14), but the fulsome laudation of Agni here amounts only
to the usual flattery of a god in a hymn or laudation (Brahman calls Agni
"lord of the world" and "creator", etc.). Only the hinder rays are his "all-
eating form" (i, 7, 20 f.).
§ 50. The varied activities of the Fire -god led to the theory of the
Adbhuta and other "various Agnis" exploited as historical, genealogical
characters in 3, 217 f. As descendants of mother rivers the different Agnis
appear in the history of Agni hiding in water, Agni being created by
Brahman and identified with Angiras, third son of Brahman. Angiras' son by
Subha or Vasud(h)a was the gods' Guru, Brhaspati; his eldest daughter
was Bhanumatf (the fairest); next came Raga (best loved); next, Sinivali
(so thin as to be visible only at times), called also "daughter of Kapardin"
(Siva); the fourth and fifth daughters were Arcismati (as masculine, a name
of Agni) and Havismati (S has Kuhu and Arcismati as fourth and fifth);
the sixth and seventh were Mahismati and Mahamatf (seen at very grand
sacrifices), and lastly (but see S above) "the blessed one, whom the
people, as they see her, address with the exclamation kuhu! and say
that she is without a portion (kuhukuhayate eka 'nams"e 'ti; S, eka-
neka). There are thus six or seven lunar days as female forms of Agni.
The account continues with the names of seven holy fires as six sons
and one daughter of Brhaspati by Candramasi, his lunar wife, who bore
Samyu, Nis~ayavana, Vis"vajit, Vis~vabhuj, Vadavagni, Svistakrt and the pu-
trika Manyati, Svaha (mother of Kama, Amogha, and Uktha). Each of
these fires has his restricted work. Samyu is occupied with seasonal and
horse-sacrifices; his wife Satya, daughter of Dharma, is mother of Bharad-
l) Ascetics may die by fire, though the general epic rule forbids suicide. Compare
Holtzmann, Mahabharata, I, 26 and 147; also JAOS. 21 (1900), 146 f. The possibility
of suicide on the part of a wife is recognised in both epics and is approved as the proper
thing to do for a Sati; but it is not practised except in the later addition of Mbh. (i, 125),
describing the suttee of Madrl, the wife of Par^du. That a wife should die with her hus
band is so common a rule (found in Africa, South America, etc.) as to make it improbable
that the idea of suttee is modern. What is (comparatively) modern is enforced suttee by fire.
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 101
vaja and Bharata (fire of full-moon sacrifice). Bharadvaja's wife, Vira, bore
Vira (Rathaprabhu, Rathadhvana, Kumbharetas), father of Siddhi (Mithya)
by the Sarayu. Bharata had a son Bharata and a daughter Bharati; he is
called "lord of three maidens" (= Pustimati in 221, I !) The "league-
making" fire comes from NiScyavana ("not budging"), and he also "makes
good" or cures and hence is called Satya Niskrti, whose son causes
wounds and makes people cry, hence Svana Rujaskara. ViSvabhuj (no
"children") is the digestive fire and he married Gomati (this river appears
as Gopati in S). For Manyati (Svaha) Manu is also read. Her son Kama
(love-fire) is "more beautiful than any being in the sky", and Amogha is
like his brother in that he has a bow and wreath of flowers; but he is
the "fire of battle". So, as warrior, Agni has a bow and discus (7, n,
21 ; 23,94, given to the Pandus) and becomes Diva's arrow (13, 161, 29).
In describing the Pancajanya fire, who begot "the awful fire of the Pitrs
and the Brhat and Rathantara" (melodies), S makes Hari (Visnu) his son,
and both texts make him father ("from the navel") of £iva (and "born
of strength") of Indra, and of Vayu (S omits the absurd "and of Agni").
He begot also the (two) Anudattau and vis"ve bhutani (sic), also the
five (B as twenty-five) sons of Pitrs. &va as fire is devoted to Sakti
(Saktipujaparah, 3,221,2, S has Saktipujayanih!). Here too belong,
as fires, strange groups of gods (§ 27) who "steal sacrifices", arranged in
three pentads, one being Mitra gods. There are others, not less vague
and mystic, sons of Tapa(s), Purandara, Usman, Prajapati Manu, ^ambhu,
Avasathya, the five Urjaskaras, "five gold-like sons of sacrifice", also the
"exhausted sun", Gavampati Pari-(or Pra-) s"ranta, who "created demons,
Asuras, and mortals". Angiras's son Brhadbhanu had as wife Supraja,
daughter of the Sun (Suryaja, but S reads Brhadbhasa ca Somaja),
and this Bhanu had six (S, four) sons, Balada, Manyumat, Visnu (Dhrtimat),
and Agrayana ("his oblation unites with that of Indra") and "Agraha and
Stubha" (not in S). S adds the account of Nis"a, wife of (Bhanu) Manu
and her five sons, but omits from her sons "the two AgnTsomau", and
changes her daughter's name from Rohini to Harim (both texts unclear;
apparently making this daughter of Manu the wife of Hiranyakasipu).
The five Pavakas (sons of this wife of Manu) include Kapila, "author of
the Sankhya-Yoga"; the other four are VaiSvanara ("honored with Par-
janya"), Vis"vapati, Samnihita (the "fire that evokes speech"), and Agram
("who cause_s bodily activity"). The Grhapati (222, 4) fire is next derived
from Saha Apa, the "power in the water" (husband of Mudita), and is
identified with Adbhuta, whose wife is Priya and whose son is Bharata.
This fire fears his descendant Niyata Kratu, the fire that burns the dead,
and his history introduces the story of Atharvan (below), at the end of
which all fires are said to be mothered by the rivers and to be essentially
one; also as mental offspring to be derived through Atri from Brahman
(3, 222, 28). Though reeking with mysticism, this account is fairly clear
and very instructive, showing that as different distinct fires were con
ceived the fire of digestion, the fire of love, the fire that hurts and cures,
the fire that guards leagues ; and that the new-moon fire, etc., are special
divinities apart from the moon. This last fire, daughter of Angiras, called
Sinivali (new moon, also birth-goddess) is differentiated not quite logically
from Kuhu. The epic admits four such moon-phases (8, 34, 32), as fastenings
of the heavenly car, Sinivali, Anumati, Kuhu, and Raka, the first two being
the prior (days of the) new and full moon respectively, and the last two
IO2 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
being the succeeding parts (lunar days) of the new and full moon. But
in 3, 229, 5o» Devasena, wife of Skanda, is called Aparajita (also name of
Durga), the_ Unconquered, Giver of Good, Laksmi (also wife of Visnu),
Asa, (read As"a, Hope), Sasthi and Sinivali and Kuhu, that is, both moon-
phases are one with the Sasthi (lucky sixth day after birth). Agni Pathikrt
is adored when one starts on a journey, either in this world or to the
next world, with the remainder of the new- and full-moon sacrifices (3, 221,
3°> 5j 83, 9; ib. 16, 43). A special service is necessary if sacred fires
cross, in honor of the £uci, Viti, (cf. AB. 7, 6) and Davagni (fires). The
last is common as a forest-conflagration (da° or da°). If a woman in her
courses touch the oblation-fire, a rite must be performed in honor of the
Vasumat fire. If the fire of a woman who is lying in touch the agni-
hautrika fire, a rite is ordered (tabu of sutika). If cattle die, a rite is
performed in honor of the Surabhimat fire, or if one alive is reported to
be dead. This Puranic analysis of fires is comparable, but not the same,
with the "forty-nine fires" recognised in VP. I, 10, 17, ekonapancaSad
vahnayaft.
§ 51. Agni is an actor in several epic scenes. He was cursed by
Bhrgu (above) and disappeared, but was found in the Sami wood (9, 47,
14 f.). The Saha fire, fearing the funeral fire, made Atharvan his proxy,
gave up his body, and hid, but he was betrayed by fishes, whom (Vedic
tale) he cursed to be eaters of everything; then (also Vedic) from water
he fled into earth and made emeralds, metals, deodars from his bones,
iron from his liver, etc. (3,222, 7 f.). Agni was made sick by eating butter
for twelve years and was advised by Brahman to try a change of diet.
With Vayu's help he devoured the Khandava forest (historical?), though the
elephants formed a fire-brigade and seven times thwarted him, till Arjuna
helped him (against Indra, I, 223, 64 f.). Elsewhere Agni coops up elephants
as fires surround them (7, 22, 14). Atharvan as a fire appears also in the
demoniac ceremony to raise an apparition from fire in secret rites (aupa-
nisadah kriyah), performed by means of the Mantras of Brhaspati and
Us"anas as declared in the Atharvaveda (a karma vaitanasambhavam,
3, 251, 21 f.). There is no doubt that the poets regarded this Veda as a
work pertaining to evil magic and to a fire-cult for evil purpose. But the
seers are Atharvabhutah, H 11520. Agni's disappearance in i, 37, 9 is des
cribed as hiding in a cave. In 13, 85,8 f., he retreats first to the sea,
then to the trees, and is betraved by frog, elephant, and parrot in turn,
each of whom he curses. So the frog loses his taste, the elephant has
his tongue turned back, and the parrot Closes his voice. But the gods com
pensate each. ''Agni is here older than Siva; he is creator of all, one with
Love, father of gold and (by proxy) of Skanda. Other gods being sterile
(see § 24), Agni alone is competent to raise a son capable of combat
ing Taraka. Agni is "father of Skanda" in 2, 31, 44, at which place the
god is also exalted and a general prayer is addressed to him and other
gods in these words: "May Agni give me energy, and Vayu give me
breath; may Earth bestow upon me power, and Water make me blest"
(ib. 42, the "Vedas are born for Agni's sake"). Direct identification of
Fire with lightning and Sun (q. v.) is common. [Thus when Agni searches
for Indra and fears to enter water, he is reminded (in another laud, 5,
16, 6) that he is "clouds and lightnings", and this is probably the three
fold fire, namely Agni, Surya, and Vidyut, though explained as "maker,
sustainer, and destroyer" (ib. 2 = 1, 229, 24; cf. I, 7, I9f.: tvam karta
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 103
ca 'nta eva ca, tvam dharayasi lokams trln1), thus a first Trimurti).
He "whose light is from Brahman" carries the other gods and drags the
car of Brahman (8, 46, 38), saptitam gatah, perhaps a conscious assi
milation to his seven steeds. His own golden car he gave to Arjuna
(8, 31, 55)- Perhaps this was the "horse -yoked car" (the horses are red,
H 13936), which Prajapati gave offhand to Indrajit to bribe him (R 7?
30, 15). Besides becoming a horse, when disguised, Agni appears as a
goat or a pigeon (below); but when he hunts for Indra, he, for obvious
reasons, "puts on the garb of a female" in the tale already narrated. He,
like Indra, is fond of women and is an adulterer, and for these reasons
he is presented as a goat. No maiden may offer libations to Agni; if she
does, she goes to hell. He is chagavaktra as Naigameya Agni (bahu-
prajah) in which form he amuses Skanda (3,226,29; ib. 228, 3 and 5)-
An oblation poured on a goat's ear (or on gold) is virtually made to
Agni. A goat, a ram, and a horse represent, respectively, Agni, Varuna,
Surya (13, 75, 37; 84,47 and 56; 85,j47f.). Agni is unscrupulously vora
cious, burning up the hermitage af Apava (12,49, 38 f.), burning a child
(3, 127, 2f.), and accepting other human sacrifices, even accepting for an
evil purpose the sacrifice of the ten heads of the fiend (3, 275, 20). The
head of a horse is put on the fire-altar in the horse-sacrifice to work ill
to one's foes (7, 143, 71), and this or any other fire of destruction is all
good to him, is himself; for he is consecrated for progeny-getting and for
suicide equally (i, 120, 40; 10, 7, 56). He is "the priest" and as a priest
he appears disguised in the Khandava episode (i, 222, 30 f.; so chasing
Maya, ib. 228, 41). In the story of Sudars"ana (daughter of a king Dur-
yodhana and of the river Narmada), his beloved, he appears as priest to
woo her, and gives as s"ulka his continued presence as Agni in Mahis-
mati (13,2, 32) 2). The son of the god and of the girl is called Sudarsana
(name of Agni's discus) as a sort of metronymic (but also Pavaki). He
married OghavatI, who was raped, in accordance with the guest-right, by
a priest, who was Dharma in disguise! Agni supports the guest-right as
he is "guest of all creatures" (3, 313, 66). The account in 2, 31, 23 f., says
that Nila, king of Mahismati, was attacked by Sahadeva after the hero
had got tribute from Mainda and Dvivida, sons of the As"vins (monkeys),
who lived near the famous caves of Orissa, but Nlla could not be over
come because Agni helped the king. Sudarsana and his son Agnivarna
appear in Das"aratha's genealogy (R I, 70). Agni is represented as an
adulterer, paradarika, who gave a boon to all the women living in that
place, that they should wander free and not be restrained (svairinyah,
aprativarane, 2, 31, 38); but he is lauded by Sahadeva as father of
Rudra and destroyer of sin, son of Wind, origin of water, and god of
purity, who bestows happiness, and is invoked: "Cleanse me by thy truth
and give me, O Agni, contentment, prosperity, learning, and joy" (ib. 50).
As protector of the guest-right in another form, the right of the refugee,
Agni tests Sibi, under the form of a pigeon. Despite the fact that the
pigeon is ominous of death (§ 12), Sibi refuses to give up his unwelcome
4) Fausb011, op. cit. p. 174, compares the three forms with the "explanation" of I, 7,
19 ; but it should be said that this is not the explanation of the text. Agni is one of the
three horrible forms of Siva (q. v.) and is identical with sun and lightning also as forms
of the same god. In H 7422, conversely, Siva is lauded as Atharvan = Agni, yajfte
hutah, etc.
2) The father of the bride gives a dowry and the bride-groom gives a sulk a in this tale.
IO4 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
guest. According to 3,208,7, this tale shows that it is right to eat meat!
In I, 197, 29, both Sibi and Vis~vabhuj appear as names of former Indras,
but here he is son of UsTnara and Madhavi, daughter of Yayati, with
whom &bi and his brothers sport in heaven (i, 86, 6), though also repre
sented as son of Hiranyakas'ipu (i, 65, 18; 5, 118, 2, 9, and 20). As Saura-
theya, Sibi is son of Suratha (an Apsaras, H 14164) and father of Kapo-
taroman (3, 197, 25 and 28), the "bull of the Saurathas" (so S). A parallel
story to the received version, according to which he weighs out his flesh
to compensate the hawk (Indra) for the loss of the pigeon (Agni), is to
this effect: that Sibi killed and cooked his own son for a priest to eat
(3, 198, 2f.; usual tale in 3, 131, 28), and would have eaten thereof himself,
had not the priest, who was Vidhatr in disguise, resurrected the son.
The same story of the pigeon is told of his son Vrsadarbha or Brhad-
garbha (13, 32, 4 f), but Agni does not here appear; only Indra with the
gods come to see the great act (in this version Sibi actually dies). Agni
is "more pleased with the feeding of guests than with offerings of food
and flower and paste" (3, 200, 22).
§ 52. Agni's amorousness stops at violating the wives of the great
seers. He fell in love with them when they slept, but, though glorious,
they were cold and "pure as moon-beams". Becoming the Garhapatya fire
he "as it were, fondled them", but, being unable to rouse their passion,
he went to the forest (of all places!) to commit suicide (3, 224, 29 f. ; ib. 38).
In the meantime Svaha (i, 199, 5; 5, 104, 8; R 5, 24, 26, devi), daughter
of Daksa, who loved Agni, assumed the forms of the wives (except that
of Arundhati) and through her instrumentality was born Skanda (Pavaki,
Svaheya), son of the supernatural Adbhuta Agni, who had been engaged
in carrying oblations to the Sun's disc (3, 224, 14 and 28), till the sight
of the seers' wives induced him to transform himself into the special
Garhapatya form of fire. Svaha is recognised regularly as Agni's wife
(13, 146, 5 and oft). The rest of his family is variously interpreted. A
god who is his own father and has as many forms as^there are sacrifices,
with parents and sons in each form, who is born of Sandilf, or Aram, or
water, whose father is Brahman, or Angiras, and who is sire of all the
gods as well as sprung from the mouth of Visnu and appears as a form
of Rudra and is listed among Pitrs and among Vis"ve Devas (above, and
13, 91, 29) and Vasus, is not a god to be genealogically fixed. One re
current phrase makes him chief of the Vasus (Holtzmann) and this is
the only important item (Apa Saha mentioned above as an Agni, husband
of Mudita, is a Vasu in H 152. Cf. 6, 34, 23; 7, 6, 5, etc.). Sandill (and
Agni ^andilya) as mother is distinctly later than AranT. Besides the
Sudars"ana of the legend above, Drstadyumna is son, i. e. a bhaga or
part of Agni; and AgniveSa was a saintly hero "born of Agni". He learned
the use of "fire-arms" (agneyam astram is used by gods and heroes)
from Bharadvaja and taught them to Drstadyumna's father (i, 130, 39 f.).
The north-eastern mountaineers in general are also born of Agni (7, 112,
31, Kirata Agniyonayali), perhaps because Agni's district is the East
(cf. VS. 9, 35, Agninetra Devalj are in the East), though as world-protector
he has the South-east (4, 30, 25, his district is East), but his altar inclines
to the North-east (R 2, 99, 24). As sons of Agni, the Ramayana adds Nila
(the ape) and "fiery-mouth", Ulkamukha, also Asanga (R i, 17, 12; ib. 4,
41, 2 f . ; ib. 6, 30, 25), and the "very glorious saint" Suprabha is also "son
of Agni" (R 7, 96, 4). Agni himself is the ape-sun (3, 3, 61) Vrsakapi
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 105
(H 12292, etc.), but only as supreme Atman (&va, 7, 202, 136). Agni-
kanyapura is the city of the "girls of Agni", but they are the divine
maidens of his harem (13, 25, 43). H 7738 assigns them to Uma's_court,
though H (73 and 83) also recognises, as real daughters of Agni, Agneyi
and Dhisana. The saints called Agnisvattas and Agnidagdhas might be
called connections of Agni, as they are regarded as Pitrs, "without fire
and with fire", according to VP., where they follow the enumeration of
fires (VP. i, 10, 18); but they are apparently connected only through having
been burned by Agni (or eaten) at what the epic calls the Agnicaya or
Agniras~i (RG 4, 60, 17).
The relation between Agni and the other gods has already been
shown in part. Krsna (q. v.) overcomes him, but he is one with Krsna-
Visnu, as he is one with &va, for whom he "removes difficulties" (12,
343, 23), and with the Sun. He is especial friend of Vayu and fights against
the demons (Asura Bali, 7, 25, 20) on Indra's side, but against Indra in
his own interest, to aid the Valakhilyas in creating Garuda, as also against
Varuna and other gods (Khandava, 1,225, 13 f.). The Agnistut, because it
praises Agni alone, is disliked by Indra (13, 12, 4f., Indradvista). Vayu
is friend and soul of Agni (cf. Vayu as father of Agni, § 49) and the friendship
of the two is as proverbial as that of David and Jonathan (cf. 3, 147, 29, "the
Tove"of Agni and Anila"). "Pavana the friend of Anala" lives in the western
district (5, no, 19), but Agni's own district is in the East (above). Together
they create the White Mountain and ^aravana, birth-place of Karttikeya,
through Siva's seed, and with the seed Agni produces gold in the Ganges
(R i, 36, 19; ib. 37, 22); Agni as Vayusamanvitah; cf. 6, 86, 20, Agner
Vayusahayasya yatha kaksam didhaksatah, but whether personifi
cation as divinities be intended here may be doubted. Agni and Soma (united
above in the late Markandeya episode as forms of fires, Agnisomau) are
"born from the eyes of Brahman" in the hodge-podge of 12, 343, 9f., sa
Purusah prajah sisrksamano netrabhyam Agnisomau sasarja; cf.
ib. 342,68, AgnihSomena samyukta ekayonitvam agatah. An attempt
is made here to cast them as priestly and warrior-like into different orders,
but it is confused, as Agni is a Brahman and Brahmans are Agnibhutah
(ib. 343, 15), and Agni is also a Ksatriya: yah Somas tad Brahma yad
Brahma te Brahmana, yo 'gnis tat Ksatram, Ksatrad Brahma
balavattaram (ib. 9). The Vedic distinction (SB. 10, 4, i, 5) between Agni
as the priestly caste and Indra as the warrior (so created) is here lost
sight of (cf. Agnlsomiyam Brahma, 12, 343, 65 f.; the two gods uphold
the priestly power). Agni will carry no oblations in a kingless land (12,
67, 5). Soma and Agni, combined in the East, appear as the "two eyes of
Dharma", because it is the East which was first made the starting-point
of oblations (so at least N. explains caksusl Dharmasya, 5, 108, 4).
Agni is Kumarasu (Skanda is Agneya, 3, 232, 3; Agnija, R 7, 4, 24), and
is &va (and Brahman, 13, 85, 147), whose eye he is (13, 14, 324), and
general lord of Pitrs (ib. 313), whom he saves from indigestion, as he does
the gods, by keeping off the indigestion devils (12, 92, iof.). He is himself
in epical and Vedic literature "all the gods" (3, 224, 20, S has agnih
sarvas" ca devatali). That Agni is all the gods, is called a devasya
Sasanam (14, 24, 10, read vedasya?). As father of Kumara (S 7, 41, 28
calls Kumara Vahnisuta), Agni gives him a goat, chaga, the vehicle
of Agni, with which he is identified (13, 86, 24). The Krttikas and Agni
constitute the "asterism and divinity of the sword", respectively (12, 166,
io6 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
82). In 3, 231, 44, Skanda is Krttikasuta and the Krttikas are a "seven-
headed" asterism (3, 230, n) of the personified Sword (as Dharma), and
(i, 221, 85) they are the naksatram Vahnidaivatam, that is, Agni is
their divinity, which shows that the Krttikas means sword and also that
Agni himself was understood as a war-god. He takes upon himself part
of the sin of Indra, on condition that he may cast the sin off again upon
those who do no not worship him with "seeds, plants, and flowers", but
this is a sectarian insertion in favor of bloodless sacrifice (12, 283, 31 f.).
Another slight indication of Agni's being a warrior (besides his actual
battles) may be found in the comparison introduced when he searches
for the lost Indra and fears water, "since fire arose from water as the
kingly power arose from the priestly" (each is overcome by its source,
5> I5> 34 =38, 13). Having found Indra, Agni agrees to help him on the
understanding that he shall share in Indra's great ceremony, Mahakratu
(Indragnyor bhaga ekali, 5, 16, 32). Agni helps Indra's son particularly
by giving him (Arjuna) his bow and ape-standard (i,6i,47f.). His insatiate
greed (5, 26, 6) has the general redeeming feature that "he is unwearied
in doing work for man" (5, 29, 10). Agni's beauty is often spoken of,
especially at night, and when strengthened by prayer and butter, mantra-
hutarcimali (6, 60, 25). The abhimantrita fire only a boaster pretends
to defy (5,61,9). Fires as heroes defend Bana's city (H 10458 f.).
§ 53. As the god of ritual, Agni is recognised as approached by the
threefold circumambulation. The bird that sacrifices itself in fire "goes
thrice around Agni" as a beginning (agnim trilj parikramya, 12, 146,
23), and in the marriage-ceremony this is the rule (R I, 73, 36, trir agnim
te parikramya uhur bharyah). As upholder of priests, his rule is
their model: "the law of Fire is the law of priests" (12, 141, 64; here,
in contrast to the aindro dharmah of warriors, the agniko dharmalj
gives the right to eat all things: brahma vahnir, mama balam, says
Vis"vamitra when hungry enough to eat a dog). As one ceremonially im
pure may not look at Sun, Moon, or stars, or touch a cow or priest, so
he (the ucchista, 13, 104, 63) may not touch Fire. Such a man is ex
communicated, "Agni accepts not his oblation" (13, 126, 29 f.). Nor can
any oblation be made without fire: nastam hutam anagnikam (5, 39,
42). Above it was shown that Agni as papahan burns sinners (cf. 12, 68,
42, papan dahati, of the king functioning as Agni). But Agni has the
same role when acting as the Samvartaka fire. Compare 5, 48, 65 : "Like
Agni at the end of the age, introducing a new age, I shall burn all the
hosts of robbers, destroying them" (N. yugante s"atrunam samhare
jate sati), though it may be forced to assume that here the simile implies
Agni papahan. Elsewhere, however, the Fire of Destruction is expressly
to bring to an end the Kali age and reissue goodness unsullied. As averter
of obstacles (above) Agni precedes Ganes~a, (§ 145), who appears only as
deus ex machina in Adi, and in this role, as well as giver of boons, he is
said to have blessed Gaya ; he also introduces here the pernicious doctrine
of the "grace of the Guru". Thus he grants Gaya the power to know
the Vedas without study, simply, as Gaya begs, through "austerity, chastity,
observances, vows, and the grace of the Gurus" (7, 66, 2f.). Gaya con
cludes: avighnam ca 'stu me nityam dharmakaryesu, Pavaka,
"may there never be any obstacle in the performance of my duties",
which request the god granted. To honor his own Guru, Brhaspati, and
Indra, Agni, sent as a messenger by Indra, goes to Marutta and accepts
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 107
hospitality, but when Marutta says that he will burn Agni with his (Ma-
rutta's) eyes, the Fire-god, "afraid of being burned", trembles and runs
away (14, 9, 8f.). In another section of the same book (58, 46), Agni burns
fiercely to aid Utanka, after first appearing to him in the form of a black
horse, and saying that he was his Guru's Guru. So by burning he frightened
the Nagas into giving Utanka the stolen ear-rings, as elsewhere (i, 3, 128 f.)
the ancient Apamgarbha Vais~vanara is the horse of Indra (ib. 149; cf. yo
's~vah so 'gnih, 167). Usually as horse he is white; his light has power
and he is fearless; though like the light of the Sun his light cannot pene
trate the "darkness of Death's realm" (in the South, 5, 109, 21, tamah
. . abhedyam bhaskarena 'pi svayam va Krsnavartmana). In
H 13928 f., Agni is described as general Devaduta (messenger of the
gods), whose soul is Wind, whose source is water, as he is the water's
source, the red one clothed in blue, chief of gods (devagryafr), the maker
of the Vedas (Vedakartr, epithet of the Sun), the hara of oblations, and
Hari; also Svadhadhipa, Svahapati, Devadeva, Rudratman, etc., where, as
warrior, he overthrows the Daityas. Otherwise, Devaduta is not applied
to Agni, though it is not an uncommon expression and in 3, 55, 22f. is
used of Nala as messenger of Agni himself, inter alios (in 3, 260, 30 f.,
the "messenger of the gods" who converses with Maudgalya is not named).
Agni's last appearance in the great epic is as a mountainous obstruction
in the path of the heroes who are climbing up to heaven. He bids Arjuna
cast into the ocean the bow the god had given him after receiving it
himself from Varuna, and when the restitution was accomplished, "seven-
flamed Pavaka disappeared" (17, I, 43). The epic does not ascribe to
Agni the later epithets, Abjahasta, Tomaradhara, Rohitas'va, and Chaga-
ratha, though it suggests all save the first ("lotus in hand").1) In H H36of.,
the sixteen priests of the fire-cult are enumerated, with many textual
errors in C (= 3, 10, 6f.), some of whom, like the Hotr, Samitr, and
Samaga (3, 100, 14) are _common enough to be incidentally mentioned in
the epic itself; others (Agmdhra, Nestr, etc.) are too technical to find a
place there, though all of course were well known, as were the Agni-
hotras (3, 82, 36, etc.) and Agnistomas (ib. 83, 88 f.) incidentally referred
to (with atiratras). Agnyahitas and Anahitagnis (those wo do and do not
keep up the sacred fires) are also mentioned in both epics, but these or
equivalent terms are found everywhere. An Agni-Tirtha is mentioned in
3, 84, 46 (Agnidhararn samasadya trisu lokesu vis"rutam, tatra
'bhisekam kurvano hy Agnistomam avapnuyat), as being so ce
lebrated that a bath there brings the reward of an Agnistoma. On "hell-
fire", see § 54 f., and on Soma and Agni, § 45.
§ 54. Yama. — Yama is the son of Vivasvat (see Adityas, § 32).
According to 1,75,1 if., Yama Vaivasvata, son of Vivasvat Martanda, was
born after Manu (also son of Vivasvat). Instead of the last statement, S
has "and also Yarn! was born as daughter of Martanda" (S I, 69, 15). In
H 552, the pair are called Yama and Yamuna. But the twin sister plays
no part in the epic as such, being only a relic of the old Vedic myth.
As Yama is sometimes identified with Kala (Time, as the universal de
stroyer), the scholiast identifies with the sister of Yama the "sister of
Kala", Bhaya Kalabhagini, who married Heti, the Raksasa king, father by
her of Vidyutkes"a, who married the daughter of Sandhya called Salaka-
*) For a very complete monograph on Agni, in the Great Epic, cf. Adolph Holtzmann,
Agni nach den Vorstellungen des Mahabharata (1878).
io8 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
tankata, mother of SukeSa, whose three sons warred with the gods till,
overcome by Visnu and Garuda, they abandoned Lanka and fled under
earth (R 7, 4, i6f., and 23; ib. 8, 49). According to Mbh., S 2, 23, 20 f.,
the event described in VP. 5, i, /of., where it is said that the birth of
Balarama was transferred from DevakI to Rohim through the agency of
Visnu's power, yoganidra (cf. H 3306), took place through the activity of
Yama by means of yamya may a. The word here means "constraining",
with which signification the epic always connects the god's name (6, 34,
29, Yamah samyamatam aham, distinct from Kala, ib. 30). The same
notion underlies the raudrani yamyani samani, imprecative Mantras
(2, 80, 8; or "addressed to Yama"?). Yamalaya is often a paraphrase for
death itself (3, 313, 116). In Yamaksaya there is a play on the double
sense, "abode" or "destruction" of Yama (R 2, 60, 3; R 4, 53, 36 and often),
and so Vaivasvataksaya (3,96, 9; R 7,73, 8), though the usual expression
is Yamasadana (2, 77, 18; R 3, 22, 4, etc.), or equivalents (yiyasur
Yamalokaya, 7, 84, 28; Yamasya gehabhimukham hi papam [tvam
nayami], R 7," 68, 20), A vaguer term is visaya (9,53,20; R 2, 9, 63).
Even a boar is addressed: nayami dandadharasya Yamasya sadanam
prati (3,39,48; cf. ib. 10, netadya Yamasadanam, according to metre),
for (see below) animals "go to Yama's abode". It is called the "city
of the king of ghosts", Pretarajapura (i, 67, 122) and Dharmarajanive-
s~ana (3, 240, 30, the objective of slain heroes in both cases). No distinction
is made between this abode of the King of Justice and Naraka, hell (cf.
R 2, 12, 89 and 92). Here "Death" leads one to Yama's abode, but usually
the slayer leads (i, 41, 14; ib. 94, 21; ib. 151, 40; ib. 153, 29, gamisyami
tvam adya Yamasadanam, for yatayisyami or gamayisyami). Heroes
dying in battle are said to increase the realm of the god, Yamarastra-
vivardhanah (6, 79, 60 and oft); being "dedicated" thereto, Yamara-
straya mahate paralokaya diksitah (7, 153, 2; cf. pretaloka, ib. 155,
14). Paraloka appears as v. 1. of Yamaloka (4, 16, 51 = 8 20, 70). On the
sacrificial aspect of battle, cf. 5, 58, 12; 12,20, 12, etc. Yamasya netr is
applied to Rama (as Indra) "bringing to Yama" heroes slain (3, 25, 10).
The son "leads his father up" out of hell (i, 74, in). He who dies cannot
escape the city of the king of ghosts (i, 118, 31 f.); he "comes into the
ghost-power" (Pretavas~am gatah, S I, 134, 71 f., where Preta implies
Pretaraj or Pitrpati, 7, 50, 14, with v. 1.). Besides being Pitrpati, Yama is
Dharmendra, acting as judge; as when he sentences Nrga, who, after
going to the Pitr-world of Yama and being ordered back, "falls headlong
into a well", evidently from a confusion between the heavenly abode of
Pitrs and the lower home of ghosts (13, 70, 20 f.). But the Pitrs too in the
epic live in the South: nayami vah..dis"am Pitrnam as"ivam (85,59,
13); "I saw Yama established in the South" (3,168,14); "Yama, righteous
king and lord of all beings, presides over the South, the course of de
parted spirits" (3, 163, 8; yamya dik = South). The "sacred and marvel
lous palace of the Pretaraja" is called Samyamana (ib. 9). In 7, 142, 10
(not in S) it is called Samyamani, as in 13, 102, 14: "Vaivasvati samya-
mani jananam" (the poets love to parody) = Vaivas vat a sy a sadanam,
"where only truth is spoken, and the weak torment the strong" (ib. 16).
In 7, 72, 44, Samyamani sada sukrtinam gatih is the abode of the
dead, rendered glorious by the brightness of warrior slain, though Vai-
vasvata, Varuna, ^atakratu (Indra), and Dhanesa (Kubera) are all repre
sented as receiving him as guest (see Lokapalas). It is called the "royal
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 109
residence", rajadhani Yamasya (7, 83, 27). "Yama's rajadhani, enve-
lopped in darkness, (lies) beyond the end of earth" (in the South, R 4, 41,
45, as Pitrloka). To be more exact, as is Markandeya, it lies eighty-six
thousand leagues from the world of men (3,200,46). All human beings
who die have to go to Yama's abode, but the inhabitants of Kuruksetra
do not have to "see the province of Yama", that is, on dying they will
go direct to heaven (9, 53, 20, Yamasya visayam te tu na draksyanti
kadacana). Also there are tales of people and animals being taken
direct to heaven. Thus in 13, 102, 62, Indra takes a priest and his pet
elephant direct to heaven, and in the battle-scenes it is clear that heroes
are thought of as being conveyed at once to abodes of bliss, their life-
sacrifice exonerating them from all liabilities. Also animals "go to Yama";
he is prajasamyamano Yamah (3, 297, 66), constrainer of all creatures
born. Compare 6, 77, 69: "With four arrows he dispatched the four war-
horses to the horrible home of Yama (Vaivasvataksayam ghoram)
and with one arrow sent to death (mrtyave) the charioteer" (cf. ib. 79,
n, as"van anayad Yamasadanam). Even battle-cars are sent to the
world of Death (Mrtyulokaya, 7, 28, 30). But here they are conjoined with
elephants and horses. Other passages show that not only human beings,
but all "living beings" go to Yama's abode. Thus in 3, 200, 40 f., the
province and the road to it are described. It is as horrible as a dense
jungle, but no trees give shade, as one goes to it. There is no water to
drink, no place to rest. By the "messengers of Yama, who do his will"
are dragged along the dead, men, women, and all other animate creatures
of the earth (anye prthivyam jivasamjfiitah). But those who have
been generous and ascetic find relief. Those who have given lamps have
the way lighted; those who have fasted are carried by geese and pea
cocks. There is a river (§ 4) called Puspodaka, which is as pus to those
who have done ill, but sweet water to those who have in life given water
to others. In general, those who have been generous (to priests) "are free
from Yama's words", which seems to be a repetition of what is said ib.
vs. 24, namely that they who have been hospitable (to priests, bien entendu)
do not go to Yama at all (no 'pasarpanti te Yamam), i. e. as judge.
The further statement that one who gives samskrtam annam (cooked
food) to the priests (vipresu) obtains the world of Brahman, because
Prajapati is food (ib. 38 = Pras. Up. I, 9, etc.) may also imply the direct
ascent. Three persons "go the same", samam yanti, the giver of food,
speaker of truth, and he who gives without solicitation (ib. 42). Fear,
Terror, and Death are sons of Wrong, Adharma, and Nirrti Devi, mother
of Nairrtas, who keeps watch and ward over sinners (i, 66, 53 f.; 12, 122,
46). Nirrti is exit from life and so, as destruction ("he binds destruction,
nirrti, upon his mouth who speaks unkindly", I, 87,9) synonymous with
niraya (cf. niryana, death) and Naraka, the place of spirits below earth
and place of those destroyed. Compare 5, 29, 45, etc vinastahi ksa-
yam gata narakam dirghakalam, like barren sesame seeds, sandha-
tilah, "they have gone to destruction for the long time" (of thirteen
years). They are not dead but banished and so gone to hell (destruction).
In the same breath Kaikeyi is addressed as nirayagamini and told to
go to hell (destruction), narakam gaccha, ma ca bhartuh salokatam
(R2, 74, 4 and 12); narakam vrajet means "go to destruction". Those
who look at Rama with evil eye are smitten by Yama's rod and go at
once to niraya (R 7, 82, n). Narake and nidhane interchange as v. 1.
no III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
when it is said that a priest-slayer's family fall to hell (destruction), in
answer to a doubt as to whether hell exists, or, as expressed immediately
after, "those sinners who do not sacrifice do not get to yonder world
(heaven), but meet onslaughts (apatan, N. narakan), just as savages do"
(Pulindas and ^abaras). The explanation of this term (12, 151, 8) is elu
cidated by the concrete case: "Thou, who art guilty of priest- murder,
shalt fall headlong for successive years; there shalt thou be tortured by
vultures and peacocks having beaks of iron, and after that thou shalt be
reborn on earth in a low form. Thou thinkest, dost thou, that the next
world amounts to nothing? Let me tell you that Yama's messengers in
Yama's home will remind you of the contrary" (pratismarayitaras
tvam, 12, 150, i$f.). A sinner is "cooked by fire terribly in awful hell"
(narake ghore, 3, 128, 12; as narakagni). He finds woe in the river in
Yamaksaya (12, 302, 31). Dogs, ospreys, crows, with iron beaks, and
vultures, all drinkers of blood, enter the body of one who disobeys his
Gurus; and in man's destruction, narakadane, and going to hell, para-
manirayaga, in hell, mahaniraye (Yaj. 3, 222), after he has sunk into
the forest in the province of Pitrs, Pitrvisayavipinam avagahya, he
is pierced with the wood's sharp axes and swords, plunged under hot
Vaitaram (§ 4) and comes for judgment before Yama, whose wind blows
before him that is about to die (pura 'bhivati maruto Yamasya yah
purahsarah, etc., iambics, 12, 322, 29 f.). Here Vaitaram is mahanadi
as if one with the Mahanadi river in Kalinga, two hundred and fifty miles
south-west of Calcutta ("Byeturnee" in Cuttack), where "Dharma once
sacrificed and Siva once seized the sacrifice, upon whose northern bank
lies the gods' way, the path to heaven" (3, 114, 4f.), a river holy enough
to remove the sins of those that bathe in it (3,85,6). The river of Yama
of the same name is also called Mahavaitarani (6, 59, 127) and is in Yama's
southern district, "near the town of Yama", but it is horrible, raudra
ghora (6, 103, 38; 7, 146, 37; ib. 171, 51), though also, as above, it is
represented as in the home of Yama (12, 302, 31). Its heat, usna Vaita
rani, accords with its southern position. Vaitarani is the river of passage
filled with vaitaranas, passengers (5, 109, 14). The uncertainty as to
whether the Vaitaram is in Yama's realm or only leads to it and its double
character as a holy river, Mahanadi, and as the river of torture in hell,
makes it probable that it is the same river under two aspects. The heat
is transcribed by "acid" (heat) below.
§ 55. In hell, cruel men with clubs, lances, and pots of fire torment
sinners, who are also tortured by forests of swords, hot sands, thorny
trees, and y at an as (torments) of various kinds, until, purified but not
yet free, they are reborn as worms, etc. (13, in, 92 f.). Men slay again
here those already slain; a field of carnage, where lie heaps of slain men,
horses, and elephants, resembles the realm of Yama (8, 92, 10). Incorporate
though the ghosts be, yet these Pretas feel the mutilations to which they
are exposed and shriek aloud. Worms gnaw them; dogs (sarameyas)
devour them; they are plunged into the river of blood, Vaitarani; they
are burned in hot sand, cut by sword-leaf trees, plunged into the hell of
roaring, Raurava, and into the river of acids, ksaranadf (Vaitarani), and
cut on razor-blades. They beg in vain for water ; they hunger and thirst,
and are pale and wretched, appearing, with loosened hair, muddy and
rough (R 7, 21, I2f.). Both the river of acids and the river of pus (above)
are elsewhere unknown to either epic, but Jain literature recognises the
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. in
acid stream as Vaitaran! (Sutrakrtanga, i, 5, i, 8 and Uttaradhyayana 19, 59).
In the Ram. scene, Ravana attacks Yama and sees these horrors as he
approaches the realm, defended by Yama (and Varna's anucaras), Kala,
and Mrtyu, conceived (as in 9, 45, 17) as distinct personalities, though,
as already remarked, often identified (cf. 2, 56, 10: "Be happy while you
can; neither disease nor Yama = death will wait for you to become
happy"). Another passage introduces Yama and Death as one and is further
remarkable for its reference to the tree of torture: "Didst not thou
(Ravana) plunge beneath the ocean of Yama's army, whose monster is
the rod of Death, (that ocean) adorned with Salmali trees, having as its
mighty billows the noose of Kala, and as its serpents the servant (club)
of Yama, to win a great victory and repulse Death?" (R 6, 7, 13 f.). The
Salmali (also -i) is the tree of torture in hell (as hell, cf. Manu 4, 90 and
Yaj. 3, 222), known to later literature but not to the early epic. Sita alludes
to it in R 3, 53, 20: "The noose of Kala noosed about thy neck I see;
thou seest golden trees (art about to die) ; thou lookest upon the horrible
Vaitarani rolling down its flood of blood, and the fearful wood whose
leaves are swords ; and soon shalt thou see the Salmali tree, sharp, and
loaded with thorns of iron, though its blossoms are of gold and its leaves
of beryl". It belongs to the later epic and Puranas (cf. the kutas~almali
of the Red Sea, R 4,40, 37; and as torture-tree, 13, in, 93; 18, 2, 25;
ib. 3, 4). As already indicated, Yama's hell is but temporary. A seller of
Soma spends thirty (v. 1. three hundred) years in the hell Raurava (13,
101, 13) and is then reborn in a low form, where (ib. 24) he may have
a memory of former births. A murderer's years in hell equal the number
of drops he sheds. Adulterers live in hell as many years as the body has
pores (ib. 104, 22 etc.), etc. Hell is a watery place, a lake (3, 58, 2; 10,
5, 14), a muddy hole (R 5, 27, 27). Hells are spoken of as the "lowest
worlds" (adhama lokah, 3, 199, 14) but how many there are is doubtful.
Kalasutra in 3, 1 57, 45 is not a hell but Fate's line baited for man. Manu
and Yajnavalkya (loc. cit. above) recognise twenty-one hells. The Visnu-
Purana, naming twenty-eight, adds that there are many others (VP. 2, 6,
28, "hundreds and thousands"), in fact a different hell for every kind of
offence or at most for small groups of allied offences. These hells of the
later eschatology are really compartments of the general "province of
Yama" and are situated in VP. under the seven strata below earth's sur
face. Many of the later names are those used as descriptive epithets in
the epic, such as "sword-leaf forest", somewhat as attributes of gods
become special gods. Others are quite new and unknown to either epic,
while a few attributives or descriptive terms, already names in the epic,
are retained (Raurava, Kala), although the sinners occupying them are not
the same. But the chief interest from the epic point of view lies in the
fact that the twenty-one or twenty-eight hells of the later period point
to an original seven by first trebling and then quadrupling. As the epic
has Rasatala as the seventh stratum (5, 102, i) below earth's surface and
places there the hell to which a liar goes (13, 6, 34), while the evil demons
are punished by being confined in Patala, and as the worlds are seven
(3» 3> 45) > it is probable that this sacrosanct number operated to fix the
hells, confused with strata, as seven (afterwards increased threefold). A
survival of this primitive belief may perhaps be found in 13, 45, 19, which
says that verses sung by Yama himself are to the effect that a man who
sells his son or his daughter (by accepting a price, s~ulka, for her) "ob-
ii2 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
tains as his portion urine and excrements in the hell called Kala", niraye
Kalasahvaye, described as saptavare mahaghore. Of course, sap
tavare should be nominative plural. It usually introduces the statement
that "seven earlier and seven later" (ancestors and descendants) suffer
for a man's crime (as in 7, 198, 15 ; or in the form sapta 'varan sapta
purvan punati, 3, 186, 16; cf. 3, 85, 92 and 13, 26,62, etc.); but here
as the verb and subject are singular (mudhah samaSnute) this in im
possible and the author of the gatha Yamodgitah must have connected
saptavare with the following mahaghore niraye as a locative. A "hell
on earth" (narako bhaumah i, 90, 4f.) is rebirth (also as nom. prop.)
and the tormenters here are Raksasas (vs. 8), but this is metaphor. To
be reborn is hell, and earthly interests are the fiends that plague the
soul, preventing it from entering the "seven doors of heaven" (ib. 22,
seven moral qualities ; N. says the fiends are wives !). That the hells
actually are seven in number is asserted by several later authors (Ram.
Ved. Sutra, 3, I, 15, etc.), both Brahmanic and sectarian, probably first
Brahmanic. If in the (Jain) Uttaradhyayana 31, 12, the "fifteen", rather
doubtfully recorded by Professor Jacobi according to names, could be
fourteen (?), it would be a link between the seven and others (above).
§ 56. Yama as a god of war carries a bow (yamyam dhanuh, 7,
23, 94), which he gives to a mortal hero, and arrows given by him are
also mentioned (R 6, 91, 46, Indrajit shoots a Yamadatta against Vibhisana,
the arrow of the god of justice being used by the fiend against virtue !).
Usually Yama carries a rod (of justice) and noose (to catch souls). The
battle-club or rod inspires that '"fear of the other world" which alone
makes men virtuous (12, 15, 5 f . ; cf. 3, 56, 10). The rod itself is ^then
personified and becomes Danda, a form of Yama himself (only a Sudra
is nirdanda, 12, 15, 9f.). Yama and Antaka, "end-maker" (Death), are
each dandapani (cf. dandapanir iva 'ntakah or iva kruddhah, stan
ding phrases). Yama is higher. Yama wins the battle and Antaka cuts
off the heads (3, 139, 14). He is classed with Kubera, Varuna, and Rudra
as a warrior (5, 162, 27; 6, 83, 41). Yama uses also the Kaladanda, while
Death and Kala admire him (R 7, 22, 23 f.). The arrows of heroes are
like Yama's danda, as is also BhTma's great club (3, 154, 17; 6, 85, 33).
The image is so conventionalised that one can say (3, 11,43): "like Indra
he let fall his club like Yama's". An unusual image compares an arrow
to Yama's tongue or Antaka's tongue (7, 179, 54; 9, n, 52). One who
"has entered Yama's fangs" is virtually dead (7, no, 19). "The door of
Death" (Mrtyu) opens upon Yama's home (R 4, 6, 25 f.). Both Kala and
Mrtyu bear nooses and on occasion are felt as poetical equivalents of
Yama, though, when analysed, Kala is to Yama as Yama is to Mrtyu, the
superior power. Death's noose, rod, world, place, "the fangs of Death",
etc., are all used as of Yama. Even Mrtyuh kimkaradandabhrt occurs
(8, 56, 120) and an arrow is "like Mrtyu's tongue" (v. 1. sister, svasam
for jihvam, 6, 116, 3; cf. 7, 116, 54). The servants of Yama are messengers
or kimkaras, who live in the North as well as elsewhere (R 6, 74, 59).
The club is the god's servant, so that a warrior is described as "like
Yama with his servant (club) in hand" (9, 32, 42; cf. 50). Kimkaras are
also a class of Raksasas (p. 45). In 13, 62, 27, Mrtyur Vaikimkarah
is taken by the scholiast to be a derivative of Vikimkara (Kala), "son of
Time" (viparitam kar'oti); but vai must be a separate word, Kimkara
being the club of Yama. In 3, 298, 38, since Yama here comes alone
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 113
and carries no club, there is a purely conventional force in sakim-
karah. The messengers, Yamadutah, are (like) Raksasas, having pointed
ears, huge mouths, and reddish hair, and being deformed but massive
(12, 138, 117). They fetch the dead (3, 297, 14) with exceeding speed
(5, 151, 26). Rudras are also attendants on Yama, as Maruts are on Vasava
(3, 237, n), and a hero is said to be appear like Antaka, rod in hand,
like Rudra, and like Yama with the Rudras (6, 102, 36 f.). Either Yama or
his messengers noose the soul of the dying (n, 4, u and 3, 297, 17). In
the last passage Yama does the work of his men, purusas, and is de
scribed as king of Pitrs, Lord (Bhagavat, Devesa, Isvara, etc.), appearing
with a diadem and red clothes, shapely, dark, with red eyes, glorious as
his father the sun, and bearing a noose in hand. Philosophy sees in failure
of the senses the messengers of Yama (R 2, 64, 66) and forms of Time
(Kala), while man's body is Yama's car (n, 7, 12, read vidhayah with S;
ib. 19, yamyam ahu ratham). The tales treat the messengers more
mythologically. Yama once said to a certain man clothed in black, who
had red eyes and hair and the legs, eyes, and nose of a crow (the bird
of death) : "Do thou go to Brahman-town and fetch hither a man of the
Agastya clan whose name is Sarmin. Don't make a mistake and fetch the
wrong man". But Yama's messenger made the mistake and got another
man named Sarmin, who on arriving wished to stay. But Yama told him
that this was impossible; he did not understand Kala's orders or he would
not ask such a thing. So he was exchanged for the right Sarmin after
a lecture from Yama (13, 68, 5 f.). The god also lectures Naciketa (13,
71, 7f.), when this boy, cursed by his father to "see Yama" (die), fell as
if thunderstruck and went to Yama. His father's tears, however, caused
life to sprout in him and he returned to consciousness and told his father
what he had seen. He said he had found the Vaivasvata Sabha or Hall
of Yama a very charming place and had seen the worlds of the good
where rivers ran milk and mountains were made of butter. In H 4924,
Krsna makes Ocean and Yama restore the drowned son of Samdlpani.
§ 57. The Sabha here mentioned is more fully described in 2, 8; it
was made by Visvakarman (All-maker), is more than a hundred leagues
in extent, golden and sunny, where wishes are granted, and there is no
cold, hunger, sorrow, old age, etc.; but all good things "to lick and chew"
are there (all is tasty, rasavat; cf. Yama's gift to Nala, 3, 57,37, anna-
rasa). This palace contains royal and priestly seers (some found again
in the palace of Indra), kings, saints, and heroes (Nala, the two Ramas,
etc.); also Kala and Mrtyu, Pitrs, those who die during the southern
course of the sun, etc. They are cheered with dance and song. Besides
those mentioned there are also the Wheel of Time and "Yama's men
appointed to lead time", that is, to reckon men's lives, as well as many
trees and other incorporate objects. The Fire-god is in the Sabha too,
and all revere Dharmaraja (Yama). Late as is this passage, comparatively,
it fails to mention at the court of Yama his scribe Citragupta, who be
longs in fact entirely to the post-epical period of the pseudo-epic (13,
125,6 and ib. 130, I4f.). At 5, 109,6, Nllakantha understands Citragupta
to be implied by nigadyate (in the South, "Dharma, truth and Karman
are reported there, and there is the fruit of action for the dead"), but
there is no such implication. Even when Citragupta is mentioned, the
Sun, as witness of acts, "reports" them when one dies (13, 130, 17). The
late passage I, 74, 30 f., which speaks of Yama punishing sinners, says
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 8
H4 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
only that the witnesses of the evil act are the gods, Sun, Moon, Wind,
Fire, Sky, Earth, Water, the heart, and Yama himself. Noticeable also but
not unexpected is the fact that Yama's abode is one of bliss. As a god
he lives happily and his residence is a heaven of saints and heroes like
those of other gods. The antithesis is brought out clearly in several
passages. Though he goes with "death and diseases" in a parade (3, 231,
36; Antaka's charioteer is Roga, disease, 12, 322, 42), yet he is master
of the diseases, etc., and so can give Hanumat immunity from disease
(R 7, 36, 17). As Dhamaraja, king of justice and right, he may even allow
an exchange, whereby, if an equitable substitute be offered, one's death
may be deferred. Thus Ruru by permission of Dharmaraja gives up half
of what remains of his life to restore Pramadvara to life (i, 9, 3 if.). The
parents of the boy killed by Dasaratha will ask Yama as Dharmaraja to
take them instead of the boy (R 2, 64, 28 f.). As god of right he is good
to the good and bad to the bad (he also has goods, and is renowned as
having wealth and happiness, a Plutos as well as a Pluto, R 5, g, 9; ib. 6,
114, 33). He chastises, but as instructor: anusasti.. s"ivah s"ivanam
as~ivo 'sivanam, but as death at his command comes to man as vices
and "there is no death but this, though some call Yama death" (5, 42,
6f.), so, to the pious, death is only a tiger made of grass, having no
terrors for the good (ib. 15). There is much of this higher teaching and
also allusions to hell as merely low births, as on the other hand there
are allusions to hell eternal (3, 183, 70; 5> I32) 20, etc.); but one is a
denial of a popular belief and the other is due to extravagance, for no
one believes in eternal hell, and few believe in a hell merely mental, or
expressed in terms of low birth. But the principle that Yama is not evil
to the good leads back to the belief that good people who go to him
enjoy themselves. Only the evil mourn in Yama's sadanam (13, 102, I4f.).
He is s"ubhakarman, "whose acts are noble" (8,45, 31 f.). The visaya
or province of Yama contains frightful regions, but also regions worthy
of the gods, so that his abode is like that of Brahman (13, in, 41 f.) On
Ravana's inroad he saw the good rejoicing in song and music ; those who
had given houses during life now lived in beautiful houses and had gold
and gems and radiated glory as they went. Ravana released the wretched
sinners and for a moment they too enjoyed themselves; but then the
Pretagopas (ghost-guards) and other Yamayodhas attacked the fiend and
being assisted by Yama, Mrtyu, and Kala would have overthrown him
had not Brahman intervened. Apparently on the appearance of their guards
the sinful ghosts return to torment (R 7, 21, iof.). Only here is Yama's
rod described as having nooses at its sides (Kalapasas on Kaladanda,
used by Yama). Yama helps that female death whose tears become
diseases (R 7, 22, 24 f.; Mbh. 7, 54, 40 = 12, 259, 34 f., a late conception),
an awful but beneficent power. In old days, Visnu once assumed the part
of Yama, Yamatvam karayamasa, and no one died (3, 142, 35). Then
the population of the earth increased to such an extent that earth sank
down under the weight and Visnu had to raise her (see Visnu). Possibly
this may reflect the view of the Indo-Iranian Yama-Yima.1) The tale appears
in various forms. In i, 197, I f., Yama becomes Samitr, or cook of the
gods, preparing their sacrifice (see above on the rasa), and so men ceased
to die. Again it is said that of old there was no fear of Yama as death,
*) Compare Jackson JAOS. 17, p. 185. On Yama as cook, cf. §45 (moon?).
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 115
but when they became wicked Visnu made Samavartin (Yama) regulator
of sinners and of Pitrs (12, 207, 35; cf. 122, 27), just as he made &va
overseer of Bhuts and Matrs. The origin of the name is not explained.
It may be for samavartin (cf. Visnu as Samavarta, 13, 149, 96), but
perhaps is better taken as it stands in the sense of "equal-acting", i. e.
as a fair judge and punisher (even "of secret sins", 5, 35, 71).
Yama's name has demoniac associations in the name of Yamas"atru,
a Raksasa (R 6, 44, 20, v. 1. Yajnasatru) and in the names of Raksasas
in 12, 98, after 13, where S adds Samyama, Viyama, Suyama, as sons of
Satas"rnga (perhaps taken here from PurSnic sources). The Yamas and
Dhamas who guard the road to heaven seem to be a sort of Pitrs, but
the text itself says that they are of unknown form (9, 44, 33); they are
heavenly beings (3, 261, 6). The followers of Skanda given by Vayu are
called Atiyama and Yama (9, 44, 45), constraining (yam) powers; and
so perhaps the Yamas. Cf. the Yamaratha vow of Yama's wife, H 7941.
§ 58. The family of Yama is more restricted than that of most gods.
He is absent from the group of gods who, in R I, 17, are commissioned
to become sires of monkeys and other opponents of Ravana. Later on
this defect is rectified and in the expedition of ^atabali to the North he
is accompanied with "the sons of Vaivasvata" (R 4, 43, 3). Still later
(R 6, 30, 27), the five sons of Vaivasvata, all "like Kalantaka", are Gaja,
Gavaksa, Gaveya, Sarabha, and Gandhamadana, of whom in the first book
Gandhamadana is sired by Kubera and Sarabha by Parjanya (R i, 17, n
and 14). Not Yama, but Dharma is father of Yudhisthira: "From Dharma
was born Yudhisthira; from Maruta was born Vrkodara; from Indra was
born Arjuna; and from the Asvins came the yamau (twins) Nakula and
Sahadeva" (i, 63, 116). The epic scarcely knows Yama as Dharma, but
always calls him Dharmaraja or Dharmendra (7, 6, 6), except in one tale
where (i, 108, 8) Animandavya, a discontented saint, goes to "the sad ana
of Dharma" and reproves him for a false judgment and punishment, cursing
the god to be reborn (because of that punishment) as Vidura, a scene
repeated in I, 63, 93, but without this complete identification. Dharma in
post-epical literature is constantly used for Yama. So in the stage-
directions at 3, 128, 13 f., only the extra-metrum title Dharma is applied
to Yama. Here a priest is being cooked in hell fire, narakagni, and his
king, also in hell, speaks to "Dharmaraja" in behalf of his Guru. So when
Mandapala goes to the Pitr-world he asks the "gods near Dharmaraja"
why he gets no reward (i, 229, 8); but when Bhlma is "bound by the
noose of Dharma", he is not bound by Yama but only by restrictions
imposed by right (2, 70, 16). In 5, 128, 45 and 47, the "nooses of Dharma"
may be these, but might be Yama's. Dharmaraja is a title applied both
to Yama and to Yudhisthira, and Yama seems to be on his way to identi
fication with Dharma, but it is as well to observe the distinction (3, 84, I
Dharmatirtha, etc.) usually preserved in the text, especially as i, 108
appears to be later than I, 63, where "Dharma" is cursed to be born as
Vidura, but is not called Dharmaraja and has no sadana, or in other
words is not quite Yama. The difference is plain, if one thinks of Yama
as father of Yudhisthira or as husband of the ten daughters of Daksa
(i, 65, 14), one of whom, Laksmi, but only as identical with &I, is patnl
Dharmasya par excellence (12, 59, 132), while Yama's wife (§ 24) is
Dhumorna (5, 117, 9= 13, 166, u). "Yama's mother" is mentioned in a
simile comparing an arrow to the "night of Fate (Kalaratri), noose in hand",
8*
n6 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
and to "Yama's mother (or nurse) of horrible form", tarn . . Yamasya
dhatrim iva co 'grarupam (9, 17, 43). In R 7, 20, 31, Yama is iden
tified with Vidhatr and Dhatr (he is here preceded into battle by Agni,
ib. 21, 2). As Dharmaraja he has seven priests, rtvijas, in the South, of
whom the only prominent one is Agastya (Unmucu, Pramucu, Svastyatreya,
Drdhavya, Urdhvabahu, Trnasomaiigiras, and Agastya), a late attempt to
expand the "seven seers" of the North and apply the same groups in other
quarters (13, 150, 34). One fifth of the divine energies which make As"vat-
thaman is supplied by Yama (in conjunction with Siva, Antaka, Kama,
and Krodha, ekatvam upapannanam jajne, I, 67, 72). Later mytho
logies give as names of his wife SusTla, Vijaya, Hemamala, which are not
epic (in 3, 265, 3, it is intimated that his wife may be wandering about
on earth as a beautiful woman). Nothing is made of Yama's relationship
with Manu Vaivasvata, and indeed except as Vaivasvata nothing is made
of his own relationship with the Sun-god. In the epic, Yama rides on a
car or goes afoot; the buffalo (as his vehicle) appears first in H 14826.
Yama is said in 13, 89, if. to have taught the Sraddha observances to
king Sasabindu in accordance with the lunar zodiac (what virtue lies in
every star), though ib. 91, 7, the originator of the Sraddha was Nimi. The
usual verba ipsissima of the later morality-plays are ascribed to Yama
(one has already been cited). "Yama said that an angry king consumes
root and all like fire ; but if pleased, he bestows wealth like a divinity"
(12, 82, 31). "1 cut short his life and deprive of children him who runs,
studies, etc., while impure" (13, 104, 72 f.). These gatha Yamagltah
perhaps extend into the following verses, but they are not edifying enough
to cite. It is possible that Krtanta may mean Yama when it is said that
Vasistha could "bring back his sons from Yama's abode but did not
transgress Krtanta" (i, 174, 9). Krtanta appears "frowning and fiery"
(yugantakaie, 2, 72, 15), but is probably Fate as (pace Nil.) he is in
3, 183, 79; so he is Fate in 12, 33, 15 and 47; 153, 13, and 50 (also a
common name for Fate in Ram).1) "Fourfold Death" (Mrtyu), of whom
Visnu made Time the lord, includes according to the scholiast deaths by
sword, foe, Yama, and acts, Karman (12, 122, 33). See § 31.
§ 59- Varuna and Ocean. — Vestiges of his ancient glory and position
remain to "king Varuna" (16, 4, 16), who is armed with noose and thun
derbolt (as"ani, I, 227, 32; cf. ib. 31, mahas"ani as Indra's weapon), and
once had a conch-shell (see below; 2, 53, 15 is doubtful, cf. ib. 49, 26,
kamsyam or s"ankham Varunam, made of a thousand niskas of gold).
A warrior in action is "like Varuna" (9, 55, 29) and warriors are "children
of Varuna" or "like sons of Varuna" (7, 155, 45; ib. 36; Ambupati and
Mitra are here leaders in battle). Varuna (Ambupati; Ambupa in R 7, 3,
1 8) and Mitra accompany Indra in the Taraka war (7, 84, 21), as subor
dinate leaders (cf. R 6, 26, 18, "fighting like Varuna for Indra"). He per
forms the Rajasuya sacrifice as victorious king at the Yamuna -Tfrtha,
after conquering in war men and gods. He is here "Aditi's very fortunate
son, white Varuna" (9,49,12, sitaprabhah). As a successful warrior, he
is linked with Indra (warriors are "like Indra and Varuna", 3, 45, 12; in
R a stereotyped phrase, e. g. R 3, 37, 3; R 3, 5°, 4; R 4, 12, 10; ib. 52, 4),
or with Yama (R 5, 40, 6; R6, 66, 3); successful warriors defy "the bolt of
Indra and noose of Salilaraja" (R6, 71, 34). But only Rama (Visnu) breaks
the bow of "immeasurable Varuna" (because this was really Visnu's bow,
*) Compare also Kalantaka-Yama and similar epithets of Fate in the form of Yama.
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 117
R i, 77, i; R 2, 1 1 8, 39 f.). Janaka (ib.), however, received bows from him
and perhaps other arms (R 2, 31, 27). As one of the "killing gods" he is
to be honored (12, 15, i6f.). He inspires kingly control (varuna samyama
2, 78, 19). The list of gods of power in 8, 92, 13, Kubera, Vaivasvata,
Vasava, is in S (ib. 99, 14) increased by the addition of Varuna. The conch-
shell, belonging to Varuna because born in ocean, is given, in 3, 174, 5,
to Arjuna by Indra, though in 2, 3, 9f., it is brought from Bindusaras (with
Bhima's club) by Maya, who carried off the wealth there (where Bhagl-
ratha dwelt and Indra had made sacrifice), originally hidden by Vrsaparvan,
and it is here called (Varuna s"ankha) Devadatta. The bow and arrows
(got originally from Soma), Varuna, at Agni's bidding, gives to Arjuna
(Khandava scene), as also the club Kaumodak! and the war-car once used
by Soma. In the subsequent story Varuna devadeva opposes Agni and,
armed with his noose, is defeated by the pair he had thus befriended
(i, 225, i f.; cf. 5, 60, 12). In H 10933, ne nas snell an^ bow.
§ 60. All this, however, is no indication of Varuna's real epic position.
He is no longer a heavenly god, no longer a god rivalling Indra, or
having stars as eyes. He is lord of water, Apampati, Salilendra,
Jaladhipa, Jalesvara, ambhasam raja, Varipa, Udakapati, Ambupati,
river-lord, Saritampati, and lord of the monsters of the deep (Yadasam-
pati and -bhartr, 3, 41, 6, as Jalesvara "with rivers male and female"),
hence he is beryl-colored, vaiduryavarna (ib.) as well as white (above)
and also (ib. 27) "cloud-dark" (jaladharasyamo Varuno Yadasam-
patih). The waters are medicinal, curative; hence Varuna is lord of the
"constellation having a hundred medicines", and "the physician who per
forms the rite in honor of his ancestors under the asterism of Varuna
would obtain success" (13, 89, 12, naksatre Varune [= s"atabhisaji;
sraddham] kurvan bhisak siddhim avapnuyat). He is also pracetas,
the "wise" god (water and wisdom are ever united), and perhaps as such
is reckoned the father of the epic poet. Varuna is formally consecrated
by the gods as lord of rivers and waters (9, 45, 22; 46, 105) and told that
his home shall be in ocean, the home of makaras; that Ocean, the Lord
of Rivers, shall be under his will, and that his own decline and growth
shall agree with the waning and waxing of Soma. There seems to be
actually no difference felt here (though expressed) between Ocean and
Varuna. Varuna is Saritampati; Ocean is nadlpati; the home of Varuna
is to be "always (sada) in ocean"; and the final words can refer only to
the tides of ocean, though addressed to Varuna (9, 47, 8). A different
account (5, no, 3) makes Kasyapa appoint Varuna to "rule the monsters
of the deep and guard the waters", and adds that the moon becomes
renewed through drinking the "six flavors of Varuna Gopati" (lord of
cows as waters, perhaps originally stars). Still another passage identifies
Varuna and Ocean (3, 102, i: samudram te [Kaleyah] samasritya
Varunam nidhim ambhasah; ib. 101, 23, Varunasyalayam). The later
epic lets Varuna receive office as natha, refuge, of monsters and owner
of water, Jalesvara, from Visnu (12, 207, 36). "All the gods" give him
this office in 9, 47,6. The Vedic identity of wit and water (SB. 7, 5, 2, 52)
is expressed philosophically by saying that Varuna represents knowledge
as Prakrti, while Mitra represents spirit (12, 319, 39: Mitram purusam,
Varunam prakrtim tatha, jnanarn tu prakrtim prahuh). As Varuna
lives below and Kubera above (on the mountains), the two are often
placed in rhetorical antithesis (e. g. R 5, 21, 34), though joined together as
1 1 8 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(also rhetorical) a fighting pair of gods whom a vainglorious warrior would
defy (e. g. R 6, 63, 43)-
§ 61. As remarked above (§ 43), little is said of Mitra except as
Aditya and form (name) of the Sun-god, and as paired with Varuna, with
whom, however, in one case he appears as a rival. The nymph UrvasT
"belonged to Mitra but loved Varuna". Thus, owing to a family jar (so
to speak), Mitra having cursed Urvasi, Varuna became father of Vasistha
(retah kumbhe hy apasrjat). Yet Mitra claimed to be his father (same
tale of Agastya, 12, 343, 51 and 3, 103, 13 f.), whence Vasistha was called
Maitravaruni (R 7, 56, 4f. ; ib. 21 ; ib. 57, 6f.; 9, 42, 29; 12, 303, 10, etc.).
Maitravaruni (3, 104, 17) designates Agastya, as does Varuni alone, and
Vasistha is indifferently Varuni (i, 99, 7) and Maitravaruni (above and
I, 178, 10). A stereotyped phrase speaks of (giving) "sons like Mitra and
Varuna" (1,105,41; ct. Mitravarunayoh p utr a ti = Agastya, 13,166,40),
meaning heavenly or glorious. Mitra once held Varuna's office (because
he performed the Rajasuya, R 7, 83, 6f.) and is sundered from Varuna as
spectator of battle (R 6, 73, 7, so S, but B has Rudra) and as divinity of
utsarga (12, 314, 2; cf. 12, 318, if.); also in 14, 21, 4, Mitram (sic) along
with Prthvl, Agni, Visnu, appears as one of the agnayo das a of physio
logical metaphysics (cf. 14, 42, 26 and above § 43, perhaps Buddhistic),
where Varuna is not mentioned. Varuna has a special world called the
"abode of king Varuna", to which go those who perform the caturmasya
sacrifices and the "one hundred and ten sacrifices", which ought to be
the eighth upper world (9, 50, 32), but this is distinct from the "worlds
of Mitra and Varuna" (Maitravarunayoh, ib. 39 and 13, 102, 35 f.).
§ 62. The heavenly world of Varuna is another reminiscence of his
origin, but it does not offset the universal epic belief that his home is
under the western waters, or in the waters under the earth, thought of
as reaching westward rather than eastward, in contrast to Ocean whose
wife is the Ganges (3,99, 33 and 187, 19 f.). The Ram. places the home
of Varuna on the very peak of the western mountains (R 4, 42, 43 and 45)
in the general "district guarded by Varuna, who has a noose in hand"
(as Lokapala, § 91). Elsewhere he is represented as living in ocean or as
occupying both ocean and the mountains (3, 163, n). Both epics agree
that his palace was made by Visvakarman, the gods' artificer, and is bright
or sunlike and white. As Lokapala his general province is the West
(2, 14, 14; 5, 102, 9; R 4, 45, 6, etc.); more narrowly, the land of Yavanas
and Barbaras (3, 254, 18). This district is called Varunalaya or Varunavasa,
his home, niketana, bhavana, sabha, etc., being a hall or _palace,
where the white god sits in white glory, surrounded by reverent Adityas.
It is "undecaying", an epithet of ocean (R 3, 54, 8), and has walls, gate
ways, etc., being surrounded by trees bearing jewels, where sing beautiful
birds; it is neither too hot nor too cold. Varuna, dressed in divine gar
ments and gems sits there with Varum (S says she is Gauri) and about
him are garlanded and perfumed Adityas, hosts of Daityas, Danavas, and
Nagas, and the four oceans in person, rivers, lakes, 'tanks', the four per
sonified directions, DiSas, mountains (who converse), aquatic animals, timi,
timingila, makara, jhasa, kurma, graha (these are presented to
Skanda by Varuna with elephants, probably because gaja = naga, 13,86,
25),*), all varunani bhutani (not necessarily fishes, cf. I, 18, 21; 22, 12;
l) For other animals, cf. I, 21, 3f.; 22, 6f. ; 25, 15. The gift to Skanda (9, 46,
52, a Naga) appears in S as a chaga, goat.
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 119
6, 34, 29, etc.), as Varuna is Yadasam amburaj (7, 6, 6). Apsarasas and
Gandharvas also revere Varuna (Jales"vara pasahasta), as does his minister
Sunabha (R 7, 23, 51 calls him Prabhasa), besides "sons and grandsons,
Go(-naman) and Puskara" (his son). This account (2,9, if.) is amplified
in S, which adds a few more courtiers, Artha, Dharma, Kama, Vasu,
Kapila, Ananta, Vasuki, and Garuda. Elsewhere it is said (5, 98, 6f.) that
the home of Varuna (Udakapati, Gopati) contains a lake of fire and an
umbrella-house. From the umbrella (not here a cobra-hood, abhoga),
which is carried by the god's sons, drips cool but invisible water, pure
as Soma yet "enclosed in darkness" (cf. H 6920). Here too appears Varuna's
son Puskara and the abode of Varuni (the intoxicating essence churned
from water), also many arms made of old by the gods and taken from
the demons, and the great bow made to destroy the world, from which
bow that of Arjuna was named (Gandiva). The noose called dharmapasa
is the one carried by Varuna, who resembles Yama also in his samyama
(above) or controlling power, both being gods of punishment, though
Yama controls men, and Varuna the demons (dharmapasadhara Deva
is Varuna, 2, 9, 17). It is perhaps owing to this white color that Varuna
becomes a white goose when Ravana scares the gods (R 7, 18, 5), and
is sacrificially represented by a (white) sheep (12, 78, 6; 263, 41), or this
last is but priestly tradition (VS. 13,50). The Sabha account (above) does
not locate the palace, and one passage even says that Varuna "obtained
happiness by entering the under-world, Patala, in the East" ("this place",
atra, 5, 108, 12). The exact place is defined here as the "gate of day",
where the Sun-god gave forth the Yajurveda and "the hundred paths of
Om" were born, the purva dik (East). But if Varuna started in the East
to go to Patala, he soon turned West, to which quarter are thrown offer
ings made to him (13,97, IJI see also § 91 f-)- The demons seen at his
court were at first his captives. They were bound by his noose as well
as with the "noose of Right" and were kept under guard in ocean. Com
pare 5, 128, 45 and 47: "Varuna the lord of waters, having bound them
with his own nooses as well as with the nooses of Dharma, guards them
ever intently in ocean" (cf. I, 21, 7 where "the home of Varuna and
Nagas", ocean, is called Asuranam bandhanam, v. 1. bandhavam).
Varuni (above) is also daughter of Varuna, equivalent to Sura, personified
intoxicant of the Suras (gods, R 1,45, 23 f.; on the difference between
sura and agryasauviraka, kanjika, see ib. 3, 47, 45). Varum as wife
(4, 9, 16) is the older VarunanT. Susena , son of Varuna and father of
Tara (R 4, 22, 12), leads the host of the West (R 4, 42, 2 f.). R 7, 23 tells
how Ravana invades Rasatala, guarded by Varuna below earth, and full
of serpents and Daityas. After overcoming Vasuki's Naga city of Bhoga-
vatl, he conquers two demon-cities, Jeweltown and Rocktown, and then
reaches Varuna's lofty city, "like Kailasa white with clouds", where is
Surabhi flowing with the Milk-sea juices (ib. 23,21; in Mbh. 5, 102,2, this
milk has the six flavors), and, challenging Varuna, destroys his family of
sons and grandsons led by Go and Puskara. Varuna's minister, Prabhasa,
says that the god himself is not at home, having gone to Brahman's place
to hear a concert, so that Varuna is not defeated in person by Ravana
(as he was by Krsna, 5, 130, 49; cf. H 9145; 10903 f.). A dead or
defeated demon goes to Varunalaya as naturally as a dead man goes to
Yamasadana (cf. R 7, 61, 20, where the Asura Daitya Madhu on dying,
"abandoning this world went to Varuna's home"). The "worlds of Varuna"
I2O III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
known to Sampati (R 4, 58, 13) are interpreted as hells even for men.
Thus Kasyapa is asked what "other worlds" are the punishment for a
recalcitrant or perjured witness and says in reply that such a sinner
fastens upon himself a thousand nooses of Varuna, and it takes a year to
loosen each (though nothing is said of hell). The later Ram. (7, 59, pra.
3, 36) has the same explanation. Varuna is satyasamgara (9, 45, 46),
upholder of truth. So Bana's cows are held by Varuna, H 10970.
§ 63. The descendants of Varuna are indefinitely multiplied through
the practice of calling all descendants of Bhrgu (and Angiras and Kavi1)
Bhargavas or Varunas, Bhrgu having been born of Varuna's sacrifical fire
(*> 5? 7)5 so that Bhrgu is a form of Varuna as Varuna to the later writers
is a form of Rudra-Siva (13, 85, 88 and 125 f.). Agastya and Vasistha also
claim (above) Varuna as their sire. Valmiki is son of "Pracetas", who
"guards the western half of the world" (R 6, 24, 19; 7, in, n; the
Pracetasas are ten sons of Pracmabarhis, I, 196, 15 ; 12, 208, 6 and may
revert to the same origin, though Pracetas is also a Prajapati). R adds
(the apes) Susena, Hemakuta, and the Nagas (in general) to the "sons of
Varuna" (R I, 17, 14; R 6, 7, 12 ; ib. 30, 33). Punjikasthala, the Apsaras
mother of Hanumat (p. 14), was his kanyaka (R 6, 60, n). A passage of
S, cited p. 1 1 8, calls his wife Gauri, as explicitly stated in 5, 117, 9. In
12, 301, 59, she is Devi Siddhi; in 13, 146, 5 and 166, n, she is again
Gauri. The early epic says that Devi, the "eldest wife" of the god is the
daughter of Sukra and she bore him a son Bala (also son of Danayu;
Vala?) and a daughter called Sura and Varuni (in Brahman's palace, 2,
II, 42), through whom the gods got joy (intoxication) and godhead (pun
on sura, I, 66, 52; 5, 98, 14). His son Puskara, who lives in the palace
called Puskaramalini (2, 8,41) and is "lotus-eyed", is called "son of Gopati"
(Varuna 5, 98, n), which calls to mind the connection of "Gopati and
Varuna", enlisted among the inferior Devagandharvas (cf. Varuna as name
of a Naga), as descendants of Muni, the daughter of Daksa (i, 65, 42),
Another son of Varuna was the sage Vandin, who, owing to his paternity,
had no fear of drowning and even raised to life another man who had
been drowned (3, 134, 31). Finally Srutayudha (§4), a valiant hero, was
son of Varuna and of the river ParnaSa. Parnasa, his mother, begged
Varuna to give him immortality, but the god would only make him in
vulnerable, avadhya, by means of a divine weapon, not immortal, since
"there is no immortality for man" and "who is born must die". This weapon
was a "club with a charm said over it", which might not be hurled against
a man unless he was fighting, since otherwise it became a boomerang and
would return and kill the thrower. Srutayudha forgot, threw it at a non-
combatant, and was slain, for it returned and smote him "like badly used
magic" (7, 92, 44 f.). Similarly, Varuna limits the gift of life bestowed upon
Hanumat (as grandson?): "He shall not meet death in a million years
withal, from my noose (or) even from water", where perhaps water (sickness)
is the noose (R 7, 36, 15). Here also may be mentioned the list of Varuna's
seven seers, acting as sacrificial priests: Drdheyu, Rteyu, Parivyadha, Ekata,
Dvita, Trita, and Atri's son Sarasvata, "whose soul was virtue" ^13, 151,
36 f.). They "belong to the West" (the first two are mentioned only here).
§ 64. Varuna's activities, apart from records of fighting and noosing,
are not numerous. He was robbed of his "cows" (he is here Ambupati
*) Kavi is son of Bhrgu (son of Brahman in the pseudo-epic; and father of £ukra
Usanas, I, 66, 42 (13, 85, io6f.).
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 121
as well as Gopati) by Ka£yapa. The cows are Kamadughas, "giving all
desires" (H 3148!". ; KaSyapa's two wives, Aditi and Surabhi, are here born
on earth as Devaki and Rohini). Varuna also (§ 45) steals Soma's daughter,
Bhadra, from Utathya (so Dyaus, § 34, becomes a thief). When Narada
reproves him, he tries to throttle the saint (13, 155, 22). Utathya Aiigiras
then drinks up the god's domain and causes a drought, till Sarasvati loses
herself in the desert and earth is nearly dried up, when the god sees
his error and restores Bhadra. As a generous god he gives arms (above)
and control of water and fresh garlands to Nala (3, 57, 38), and gives to
Rcika, son of Bhrgu, a thousand "white horses" (each with a black ear),
to enable that saint to marry, since such was the dowry demanded (3, 115,
26 f.). The horses came from Asvatlrtha, a place reached "by going
first to the residence of Varuna" (cf. H 2463). Four hundred of
the horses were seized by the Vitasta river while being led across it
(samtare hrtany asan Vitastaya, 5, 119, 8; but S has asann itas
tat ah). Beauty distinguishes all Varuna's children and Varunatmaja is
typical of female loveliness (S I, 241, 17). Varuna himself is typical of
prosperity (2, 35, 16). The white horses may be a literal interpretation
of white billows ("Neptune's chargers") and the noose of the god may
still be interpreted as illness. When a king is addressed, "Let not Varuna
slay thee with his horrible nooses" (for wronging a priest, 3, 192, 48),
it means repent in time, and the implication may be that he will die of
disease if he does not repent. This is practically the only weapon Varuna
uses; with it he marches even in processions (ugrapaSa, 3, 231, 38; 8,
42, 36). A proverb and parody of the holy text seems also to imply
dropsy as the noose: "though bound with Varuna's nooses one thinks
himself immortal; like a puffed out skin", etc. (mahadrtir iva 'dhma-
tah, 12, 95, 20; cf. RV. 7, 89, 2). But for false witnesses the fetters are
not loosed with death (above). Varuna himself appears as a witness for
Sita (3, 291, 29). In H 13138, three-headed snakes draw his car. See
also § 143 f.
§ 65. Ocean, Sagara (Samudra), is personified (above) as subservient
to Varuna. He is husband of Ganges (above), and is called Aiksvaka
Sagara (H2989f. makes him son of Brahman; Santanu is his name when
born as father of Bhlsma). As son of Iksvaku he grants the boon asked by
Rama (3, 283, 35 ; R6, 19, 21 f.), and is described as wearing gems, a lotus-
wreath, and the Kaustubha jewel (§ 19; cf. H 12161 f., date of churning).
He persuades Rama to shoot the Brahmastra at the Dasyus and Abhiras,
who had polluted his streams (R 6, 22, 17 — 31). Agastya, son of Varuna,
drinks up ocean, to discover the Kaleyas (3, 104, 22 f.). King Sagara ex
cavated Ocean's bed (the king's mother is Kalindl, the Jumna river, R i,
70, 31; R 2, no, 18), hence Ocean is called Sagara (R i, 38f.). Sagara
exhorted a mountain to rise and help Hanumat (R 5, i, 89 f.). He injured
his mother and apparently (scholiast) went to hell for this impiety (R 2,
21, 27). Dundubhi challenged him to fight but he was afraid (R 4, n, 9f.).
Kartavirya (q. v.) attacked Ocean (Samudra). Utathya also drank up ocean
(above). He was cursed several times, to have sharks, by Brhaspati, be
cause his water was unfit for rinsing the god's mouth (12, 343, 27); and
by Vadavamukha, the Mare's Mouth, to become salt, because he would
not come to Mt. Meru when bidden to do so. Till the divine Mare's
Mouth drinks him up he will remain salty (but cf. H 8323!), the sweat
of the divine being having given him his salt (12, 343, 60). Hence
122 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(3, 206, 26) it is said that a seer's wrath made ocean salty. Ocean is lord
of rivers (above). His resolution not to pass his bounds is often referred
to (R 2, 12, 44, etc.). He appears in R as four (R 5, 15, 12) or seven
(R 3, 74, 25, etc.); in Mbh., only as four seas, as when he attends the
court of Varuna (2,9, 18; 3, 83, 156, etc.). The legend of Sagara, "born in the
Iksvaku family" (3, 106, 7) implies that there was originally no ocean, nor
place for it. He and his sons hollowed out a basin afterwards filled by
Ganges. In 12, 289, 2f., Sagara discusses philosophy with Aristanemi. Ocean
is "lord of rivers"; Varuna is "king of waters" (also of rivers), according
to 14, 43, 7. Amsumat, son of Asamafijas, son of Sagara, recovered the lost
horse of Sagara. His grandson brought down the Ganges (3, 107, 39 f. ;
cf. R 2, 36, 19; Mbh. 12, 57, 9). KesinI and Sumati are the two wives of
Sagara, the former mother of Asamanjas, the latter sister of Garuda and
mother of the sixty thousand Sagaras born in a gourd and preserved in
oil till adult (R I, 38, 3f.; Iksvaku as gourd). Kes"im is in Mbh. the
mother of Jahnu (1,94,32). H recognises both (797; 1416).
§ 66. Indra. — Indra, the favorite son of Aditi, was originally (a
priestly) "son of Brahman", but became a warrior through his slaughter
of nine nineties of his evil kin, thereby obtaining Indraship (lordship) of
the gods (12, 22, n). He slew them with the bolt made of Dadhica's
bones, whom the god tempted to lose his virtue through sight of Alam-
busa (9, 51, 7). Indra made all kinds of weapons of the sainted monster's
bones; whence it is said that "Dadhica guards Indra as Angiras guards
the sun" (3, 92, 6). Another story makes Brahman the originator of the
plot to get the bones and has only the thunderbolt made from them (12,
343, 36). In 3, 100, 24 f., the bolt is made by Tvastr. Indra heads the gods
in battle (R 3, 59, 15, etc.); hence Indraship as headship (13, 18, 64, etc.).
He has yellow eyes and beard, rides in a yellow car with yellow steeds, wears
golden chains, red clothes, and has two nymphs to fan him when at peace.
A hundred youths surround him, singers chant to him, a white umbrella
is over his head, and his garlands are ever free from dust; he is always
twenty-five years old in appearance (see § 22; 3, 57, 24; R 3, 5, 5). In his
palace, "he sits in beauty indescribable, having a diadem, red bracelets,
white robes, and variegated garlands, lord of all the world" (2, 7, 4f.).
The diadem he gives to his son Arjuna kirltin (3, 168, 74), as he gives
him his conch and car (ib. 85). He is the lord who pierces forts, is" ah
puramdarah (R4, 51, 14). His district is the East (das'as'ataksakakubh,
7, 184,47). His constant epithets are "he of a hundred powers" and "he
of a thousand eyes" (also assumed by Visnu), Vasava (Arjuna is Vasavi),
"lord of the third heaven" ( Tridives"vara ) , "lord of the thirty(- three)
gods" (Tridasesvara, I, 34, 10 and 15). He is called also Devadhipa (5,
10, 7), Trilokanatha (R6, 15, 5), Vrtras"atru (paravirahan, 3, 43, 21 f.), and
by equivalent titles. Sakra and Maghavat are used like names; so is
Pakasasana (passim). The last means "ruler of crops" (vegetables) but is
understood as ruler or slayer of Paka (demon); cf. Sambara-Pakahan,
^ambara-Vrtrahan. As equivalent terms to the above are used Devaraja,
Suresvara, Deves~a, Amares'vara, Amaresa, Mahesvara, Surarihan, Asura-
sudana, Devendra, Prahladahan, Vrtrahantr, Valabhid, -han, Namucihan,
Mahendra, Vajrin, Harihaya, Harivahana (having yellow steeds). A favorite
epithet is Vala-Vrtranisudana or Daitya-Danavasudana, -han. The popular
epithet "thousand- eyed" appears in several forms, Sahasra-drk, -nayana,
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 123
-netra, -caksus, as well as the usual Sahasraksa. This and Hari and
Akhandala, and Suresa are also applied to Visnu, as Amaresa and Sarva-
devesa are shared with 3iva. The epithets Tridas"adhipati, Tribhuvanes'-
vara, Trilokesa, DevadeveSa add nothing to the sense of those above.
Pratapavat is an epithet Indra shares with Agni. In 9, 49, i f., where Indra
is Amararaja, it is explained that ^atakratuh ("of a hundred powers")
means "having sacrificed a hundred times" (ib. 2, ije kratusatena).
Puruhutapuri is the name of Indra's city Amaravatf. Less common epithets
are Devaganesvara, "lord of hosts of gods" (i, 123, 31), Kausika (3, 9, 9
and 135, 20), Nagari "foe of mountains" (4, 39, 10; cf. § 6), Akhandala
(S 2, 47, 3; 12, 337,4), Danavari (RG 2, 111,9). In formal hymns, which
always exaggerate, Indra is extolled as the final destruction -cloud, as
Vayu, Agni, Visnu, Soma, earth, sky, ocean, etc., as well as Sacipati,
Namucighna, Valasudana, and "our salvation, as the ship of safety" (1,25,
7f.; cf. with plavo bhava and tranam the jfianaplava of 12, 238, i).
On hearing these epithets, Indra, as requested, gives rain. He said to the
clouds, "rain pure ambrosia" and the clouds "let loose the water". As
maker or recreator, by thus raining, Indra is known as Bhutabhavana and
Bhutakrt (1,67, 144; 3, 310, 15). He actually "creates" the being Ghatot-
kaca (i, 155, 46), but only by imparting a share of his own energy (as the
other gods did) to BhTma's son. Indra's business is to "bestow strength,
energy, children, and happiness" (3, 229, 8f.). He also frustrates the designs
of the wicked and instructs (anusasti) all men in their duties (ib.). Indra
is Vasava as chief of the Vasus; Marutpati and Marutvat as lord of the
Maruts (R 4, 31,44); Sacipati and SacTsahaya as husband of Sac! (his per
sonified power, 3, 168, 12); but the epics do not yet know him by his
(later) titles, Pulomajit and Pulomari. He kills Puloman in H 1174.
§ 67. Indra as a gramani, leading the gods, is armed with the bolt
and a net; he also uses stones in fighting and his bow is often referred
to, but is not used (the rainbow, Indracapa, Sakradhanuh). The bolt implies
both thunder and lightning, as it roars and kills; when the god is anthropo-
morphised, it becomes a javelin, returning to the hand (3, 310, 24). The
vajra bolt is imagined as a six-sided club (3, 100, nf.; 7, 134, 10); also
as having a hundred joints (R 3, 71, 10, sataparvan, Vedic); it is a
"splitter", sphotana, and maharaudra, "very terrible" (H 13997), and
as already explained, it is made of the bones of the (Sivaite) saint Da-
dhica (12, 285, i if.), whence perhaps it has these ^iva-epithets. It is hard
as a diamond and surpassing swift, and is called (interchangeably) vajra,
as"ani, and vajras"ani (R 6, 59, 103). Indra seizes the as"ani and hurls
(it), the vajram astram (i, 227, 30), in rather a late scene in which he
also hurls stones and rides a white elephant in battle. [As sundry gods
are fighting, their weapons as here described maybe mentioned together:
Yama uses kaladanda; Kubera, a gada club; Skanda, a javelin (boome
rang in 9, 46, 92); the Asvins, "gleaming plants"; Dhatr, a bow; Jaya
(Surya?), a musala club; Tvastr, a mountain (so Indra hurls a peak);
Amsa, a javelin; Death (Mrtyu) an axe; Aryaman, a parigha club; Mitra,
a discus sharp as a razor; Pusan, Bhaga, and Savitr use bows and swords,
and the other gods, "various weapons"]1). Indra teaches Arjuna to use his
conch Devadatta (3, 168, 85) and both his own weapons and those of
other gods; he can use any weapon (3, 37, 14), but prefers the bolt to
J) The other fighting gods are Rudras, Vasus, Maruts, Visve Devas, Sadhyas. Jaya
is not explained; it may be abstract (Victory), but probably as solar epithet (§ 43) is Surya.
124 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
smite, and noose to snare (Bali, etc.). He invented sword and armor
(5> 29> 3°) f°r use against demons. He addressed his bolt, "Go thou and
kill, becoming a tiger", when he would slay a child, and the leopard-bolt
slew the child (tiger = leopard, 12, 31, 27 f.). When the weapon, ayudha,
of Indra is referred to, however, it is usually his bow that is meant (R 3,
42, 18; cf. 8, 24, 47; Mahendracapa, 7, 145, 97); but any weapon, particu
larly arrows, can be converted into the aindram astram by magic. The
amogha s"akti or "unfailing javelin" of Indra, made by Tvastr, is kept
by the Pandus and "worshipped with perfumes, garlands, and a seat,
drink, and food", a real fetish, evidently a javelin inspired by Mantras
into an Indra-astram (9, 17, 44). Another aindram astram is called vis"o-
sana, the "dryer", another is sammoha, "confuser", etc. (all gods give
similar names to magic weapons, agneya, kaubera, varuna, etc.). In
R 6, 91, 68, tad aindram astram is actually "the very arrow with which
^akra slew demons", a reversion to an older view according to which
the Sakracapa was a real bow of offence, not merely the beauty of the
rainbow (as usual). The case differs from the Mantra- endowed arrow
with which, for example, Arjuna shoots down horses galloping a kos
ahead ( 3, 271, 54). A recollection of the battle-bow lies also in the legend
of the three divine bows (Siva's omitted), one made by Brahman and
belonging to Soma (moon's crescent?), but given by him to Varuna (the
Gandiva, made of gandi, 5, 98, 19); one called Vijaya, Indra's dhanuh;
and one of horn belonging to Visnu (Sarrigam vaisnavam, acquired
by Arjuna). Of these it is said that Indra's was not used (5, 158, 5 f.), as
Rukmin who owned it would not fight. Mahendra is the name of Yudhi-
sthira's bow (7,23,91; but here all the Pandus have bows called after
gods). On the other hand, when the Sun-god envelops his son Karna
with his rays during the combat with Arjuna (all the gods "take sides"),
Indra Harihaya looks lovingly at his son Arjuna and, as he does so,
suddenly the Indrayudha (rainbow) appears in the sky (a sign of good
fortune; I, 136, 24 f.; the weapon is here differentiated from "lightning
and thunder" and must as usual be the bow). The "net" of Indra is
deceit, a mere term for magical trickery, used by any warrior (3, 245,
17; 5, 160, 55; though ib. 118 in contrast to maya: na maya hi 'ndra-
jalam va kuhaka va 'pi b his ana, illusion, deception, and jugglery).
The remark in 5, 37, 2 (danavendrasya dhanur anamyam) on fools
who try to bend Indra's bow or smite the air, etc., also shows that the bow
is the rainbow (danava as "clouds", N.; but S has v. 1. tan eve 'ndrasya).
§ 68. The car and charioteer of Indra: the car is called jaitra
rath a, car of victory, and Mahendravaha, and is like lightning or a meteor;
it descends to earth with the noise of thunder; it is decorated with gold,
is sunlike, and is drawn by steeds described as golden and peacock-co
lored, one thousand or ten thousand in number (5, 104, 3; cf. 3, 168, 73;
I7°) 9); ten thousand peacock-like steeds drag his sunlike car (ib. 172,
23). The car is stored with all arms (including Nagas), and above it on a
yellow pole waves a dark-blue standard called "Victorious" (vaijayanta,
3, 42, 8 and 30). Indra and his queen and son Arjuna and the Asvins
ride in it, but very few can do so; even gods and demons cannot in
general, nor can one who is not an adept in asceticism (ib. 17; cf. 7, 84,
1 8, for the As"vins). Vaijayanta or -ti is not an uncommon name and is
applied to elephant-banners (6, 112,27); perhaps (so N.) to Indra's palace
(2, 22, 19, "death in battle is aindro vaijayantah). On this chariot the
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 125
slayer of Namuci slew Bali Vairocana, Sambara, Namuci, Vala and Vrtra
(dual), Prahlada and Naraka (dual), besides the seven hosts of the sons
of Diti (3, 165, 7; ib. 166, 5). Heavenly musicians attend the car, so when
it appears music is heard; and Maruts accompany it. On seeing it the
wives of the demons of darkness flee wailing like ospreys. Nothing in
the epic (but later Sakrasva = Uccaihs"ravas) suggests that the steed of
Indra ("of the yellow steeds") is Uccaihs"ravas (ib. 168, gf. ; ib. 62). On
the contrary, Uccaihsravas (§ 19) is born from the sea with Indra's elephants
but is not taken by Indra, as is the elephant (i, 18 = R i, 45). He is
the divine ever-youthful horse, produced at the churning of ocean, and
famous only as the white roaring charger of the sea. What can that be
save the roaring breakers? (i, 20, if.; cf. i, 17, 3 and 18, 35 f.; as roaring,
7, 196, 30; king of steeds, etc., 5, 102, 12; 6, 34, 27). In 12, 235, 15,
"U. should be given to the good", S has "Prahlada gave U. to KaSyapa".
Even VP. i, 22, 6, merely says that Uccaihsravas is "best of horses". In
dra never uses him in either epic. Only his offspring are in the sky and
are given away by Indra, in H 8220 ; 8924. Matali, the charioteer of Indra,
iSakrasarathi, is recognised as the best charioteer in the world, though
when he starts the car it lurches so that Indra cannot keep his position,
and when the knight occupant fights, the charioteer drops his goad, lets
the horses turn around, and gets confused and blinded (3, 168,41, atiSakram
idam; ib. 171, i5f.)« In R 7, 28, 23 f., Matali first baffles the demons by
his skill in driving and Indra then smites them. Matali is councillor as
well as charioteer (the office is very honorable ; Salya acts for Karna, etc.).
The Suta (charioteer) is a minister of the king and so Matali is "Indra's
friend, minister, and car-driver" (5, 104, 2f.). Matali's wife is Sudharma,
his son Gomukha, his daughter GunakesT, his son-in-law Sumukha, a Naga.
He also acts as adviser of Rama in battle, after serving him (R 6, in,
i f.). On Indra's car he takes Arjuna to heaven and back, guiding the ten
thousand horses easily (3, 165, if.; 170, pf.). He journeys around the
world with Narada, seeking a son-in-law (5, 97, I if.; 104, 22 f.). The car
he drives is "like the sun" (originally the Sun?) when he helps Rama in
battle (3, 290, 12), and so in R 6, 103, 6f., both car and horses are sun-
like (here Matali is wounded and the horses are slain). The combined
efforts of Indra, Matali, and his son Gomukha are sometimes unequal to
the task of subduing the demons of Hiranyapur (5, 100, 8). Jayanta (H 7470 f.),
son of Indra, and Gomukha, son of Matali, attack the son of Ravana, till
Puloman carries off his grandson (R 7, 28, 10). Indra tells Matali of what
sort are the people he likes (S 13, 153, /f.). Matali's son serves Gada,
H 8872.
§ 69. Indra's dhvaja (ketu) is the chief object in the "feast of Indra"
(maha or utsava). Sometimes two are mentioned, weakened by rain and
heat (R 2, 77, 25; ib. 9, and R 6, 45, 17). Earth is beautified with these
poles (9, 9, 21 ; cf. ib. 12, 23), which were instituted as the "Indra-poles"
(festival) by Uparicara, whom Indra persuaded to give up asceticism and
become an aviator, "going through the air like a god" in an aeroplane
(akas"agam vimanam, I, 63, 13), and gave to him a victor's crown,
vaijayantl mala, of lotus-flowers, which protected him in battle and was
called the "Indra-wreath", Uparicara's peculiar sign. Indra gave him a
bamboo pole, protective of its worshippers, wherewith to worship him as
slayer of Vrtra. Indra's day comes when the rains are over and the roads
are fit for war, and is the new moon's day of Saumya mas a (probably
126 III. RELIGION, WELTL, WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
the end of Sept.; amavasya Sakradevata, 5, 142, 18). The pole is pulled
down earlier than this, on the full moon of As"vina (ASvayuksamaye
masi, R 4, 16, 36). But if it is impossible to bring "Indra's day" into
connection with Indra's festival, it is at least clear that the festival oc
curred after the rains had ceased and when New Year's was celebrated,
for in its installation it is especially said that the feast takes place at the
end of the year (gate samvatsare). The banner is only part of the
decoration of the pole, which is scented and bedecked with gold cloth,
garlands, and ornaments (streamers, etc.). Indra, as Tsvara, or lord of
the feast, is worshipped under the form of a goose (hamsarupena). This
festival of Indra Maghavat ("generous one") was afterwards generally
adopted by other kings, who followed the example set by Uparicara and
celebrated the occasion by royal gifts of jewels, land, etc. (i, 63, 27). The
height and gaudiness of the pole are remarked upon in I, 70, I4f., and
elsewhere. Later this feast is shared with Krsna, H 3787 — 4008.
§ 70. Indra's elephant (a cloud) is used as alternative to the vehicle
drawn by fallow steeds or geese (the last is implied in S 5, 15, 23:
Nahusa, to outdo Indra, dismisses the elephants Supratlka and Airavata,
the hamsayukta vimana and the hariyukta ratha, and yokes saints in
stead). The elephant Airavata, which rose at the churning of the ocean,
was seized by Indra (i, 18, 40). The peers of this first and "king" elephant
are Afijana (cf. the anjanaka breed, 7, 112, 17), Vamana, and Mahapadma,
progenitors of Ayodhya's stud (R i, 6, 24). These four guard the cardinal
points, as do the gods who mount them (see § 10 and § 91). Indra's
elephant guards the East, as that is Indra's direction, or the North, as
that is the Airavatapatha (3, 162, 34, perhaps North-East; see Lokapalas).
In many passages Airavata and Airavana (e. g. 2, 9, 8) exchange, each
form being applied to elephant and Naga (serpent). In 4, 2, 17, Dhrtarastra
is best of Nagas and among elephants Airavana is the best, but S has
Airavata (ib. 30). Airavata is imagined as accompanied with two females
(i, 114, 9 f.). He is called Pauramdara (Indra's), as Afijana is the western
elephant ridden by Varuna, Varunopavahya , and Sarvabhauma, that
of the North, by Kubera (R 6, 4, 20); he is Indravahya: "As Jambha in
battle attacked Sakra on Airavana Indravahya" (9, 20, 12; ib. 6, Vajradhara
Airavanastha; S has both forms ib. 4 = 5 and 12). In 7, 112, 35, B and S
both have Airavana. In 6, 64, 54 — 6, Airavana in B; Airavata in S (S 5>
99, 8 has Airavata after Airavana in 7 = 15). Like all the world-elephants,
Airavata has four tusks and three temporal streams ; he is large and white
(i, 227, 29; 7, 105, 26; S 2, 97, 26 and 38; cf. 5, 143, 37; 6, 64, 61).
Indra mounts the king of elephants, gajarajavahana, on back or shoulder
or head, usually on the shoulder (12, 227, lof. ; ib. 117; ib. 223, 12; cf.
R 5, 36,40; ib. 37, 25). The two vaij ay antis, "bells of victory", Indra gave
to Skanda and Vis~akha (3, 231, i8f.). The epic recognises the elephant
as a fighting vehicle, but in the earlier scenes Indra fights from a chariot
and uses the elephant more for a quiet journey, as when he peacefully
ascends to heaven on the elephant after his trouble with the demons is
over (5, 18, i), or takes a trip round the world (3, 193, 9; 12, 227, iof.).
Seated on his elephant he pours down rain (6, 95, 34). The god and his
elephant appear disguised in a magic scene, the latter as a bull (i, 3, 167,
Nagaraj). According to i, 66, 60 and 63, Airavata is Devanaga and son
of Bhadramanas, one of the nine creative powers, and less fighter than
guardian. But in some late scenes, I, 227, 29, etc., and especially in the
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 127
Ram., Airavata acts as battle -steed. In the Uttara, Indra, "aban
doning his car", mounts his elephant to fight (R 7, 29, 27). In H 2453 f.,
he fights on the elephant and travels in his car. The later phrase "like
Airavata in battle" also shows the war-use of the elephants (in 7, 26, 20, a
hero fights on an elephant descended from the one on which Indra fought,
omitted in C) : Airavatasama yudhi (7, 112, 35; R 5, 6, 32; R 6, 4, 19,
etc.). In R 6, 67, 107 (late), Indra fights on the elephant, all the gods
aiding; and R 6, 15, 6, Indrajit hurls Airavata to the ground and tears
out two tusks, frightening Indra; also ib. 61, 17, Kumbhakarna tears out
a tusk and smites Indra with it; and Mahodara, another demon, mounts
the elephant Sudars"ana, "born in the family of Airavata" ; and Angada
(son of Valin) tears out a tusk and fights with it (R 6, 69, 20; ib. 70, 15).
Airavata gouges Ravana and leaves on his body the marks of his tusks
(R 3, 23, 24; ib. 3, 32, 7; ib. 6, 40, 5). Airavana draws up water from
the under-world for Indra to rain (5, 99, 7), evidently from iravat as
the nourishing rain-cloud and its lightning-stroke; whence airavatas
are lightning-clouds, mahaghanah sairavatah sas"anayah (3, 3, 58);
sairavatasatahradah (7, 98, 31); vidyudairavatarcismad dviti-
yendradhanur yatha (R 6, 76, 39; ib. 5, I, 165, personified; not "rain
bow", as in PW.). Cf. H 3894^ "Airavata elephants" (R 2, 70, 22) may mean
from mount Iravata. The four tusks of Airavata are not peculiar to
world-elephants. Lanka's guarding elephants have three or four tusks
and are white (R 5, 9, 5 and R 5, 4, 27) in demoniac imitation of Aira
vata, who stands guard at Indra's city, and also is "white, subhra,
with four tusks, huge as Kailasa, victorious" (3,42, 39f., vijayinam as
in S, not vaijayinam). In H 887of., he is guided by Pravara.
§ 71. Indra as Benefactor and Rain-God. — Indra gives his favorites,
as already shown, gifts of arms and, even to a chance acquaintance (Nala),
imparts the gait of a king and the knowledge how to worship. He is
fond of giving jewels, to his son (3, 165, 10, with arms); to the father of
Slta (the cudamani, R5,66, 5), when pleased by sacrifice, etc. The god
vies with Kubera in wealth, but his gifts go beyond gems and arms; he
makes the dead live (R 6, 123, if.) as a favor to the living, and makes
things grow out of season for Bharadvaja (R 2, 91, 13). His chief gift con
sists in the rain he gives to all. He is Ambudesvara, owning rain. There may
be growth "without the bolt-holder raining" (R 2, 12, 107), but artificial irri
gation, aseka, is not of much use (5, 79, 2f.); the land depends on rain
and Indra rains, first as slayer of Vrtra (but the epic has almost forgotten
this), then to "protect the people" (i, 64, 16). In return men give the
"earthly rain" of soma, which he shares with all the other gods, even
at last with the As"vins (3, 121,9; cf. § no). That he is the regular rain-
giver is attested by the fact that the phrase "when the god rains" is
synonymous with "when Vasava rains" (cf. S I, 238, 9, vrstim varsati
Vasave, repeated ib. 18), though occasionally others usurp his function,
as the Sun (q. v.) and Parjanya (below) also rain and Mamdhatr (cf. Rsya-
s~rnga) once, during a drought, "made rain while Indra was looking on"
(misato vajrapaninah, 3, 126,42; cf. 123, 23). Indra "drives the clouds
together and sends down water" (i, 227, i8f.), or he "rains stones" (hail,
ib. 45). He also rains at any great event (12, 334, 7), and in all blessed
places he rains regularly (4, 47, 26); otherwise (in the unblessed, kingless
land) come famine, plague and the Ttis (distresses) of the farmer (5, 10,
48; ib. 147, 25). "The crop -controller (Pakasasana) did not rain", intro-
128 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
duces the story of such a famine and how Rsyasrriga forced Indra to rain
and become yathartuvarsin, "duly raining". Cessation of this activity
introduces the final destruction (3, 188, 50 and 65), when even grain planted
by a river, sarittirthesu, will not grow (ib. 190, 23). This is the nadi-
mukhaih-grown grain, in antithesis to Indrakrsta (grain raised by Indra,
2, 51, ii ; cf. devamatrka, 2, 5, 77 and R 2, 100, 46). Constantly the
arrows of a hero are shot "like the rain shot by Puramdara" (etc. 3, 16,
12; 9, 16, 33; 14, 77, 27; R 6, 56, 11 ; R 6, 91, 22). Indra "enters the cloud
with a mass of water and fills earth with it" (12, 143, 20). So Indra is
called Vasava bhurivarsa (7, 30, 36) and is thought of as the god who
rains par excellence, whether water or blood be sent (varsati devah,
3,110,4; 12, 73, 15 ; vavarsa rudhiram devah, R 6, 96, 35 and ib. 108,
20); he may "rain dust" and so destroy a realm (R 7, 81, 8), as he, Indra
Maghavat, rains gold upon a favorite king (12, 29, 25). His rain the gods
claim as "our rain" in antithesis to soma: "Our rain goes down and men
rain up" (naras tu 'rdhvapravarsinah 12, 59, 26). If the gods are
pleased with men, they speak in their behalf to Indra, who then sends
rain and so gives food (annam dadati Sakras" ca, 12, 121, 38), for with
this rain he "makes the rice grow in the fields" (R 4, 14, 15), though the same
god's "stone rain" beats down the crops (R 3, 34, 8). Why Indra "unwea-
riedly rains" is explained (i, 124, n f.) on the principle that actuates priests
who keep on studying though they know the Mantras and that actuates
saints to practise ever more austerities, viz., the yearning for glory! Work
gives glory, hence the Sun toils ever, and ever blows the Wind, and ever
Indra rains, to get glory, to become supreme (5, 29, 8f.). As rain-god,
Indra is identified with Parjanya, from whom he is formally differentiated.
Parjanya rains on hill and ploughland (10, 2, 5); Vasava rains upon the
crops in the fields in due time (R 7, 70, 10); Parjanya is vrstimat, "rain-
fur (7,89,4; 9, 12,59; R 2, 1,37; so, significantly, are clouds, R 5, 45,7);
as such, Parjanya too shoots rain-arrows, like Indra (above and R 6, 80, 21).
Parjanya is, in short, the rain-form of Indra, though given a distinct per
sonality ("son of Pusan", 8,20,29, is doubtful; Pusanuja is v. 1. for Pusat-
maja) as worshipper in parades, etc.; and in R I, 17, 14, Parjanya is
regarded as progenitor of the sarabha. Thus Indra rtuvarsin and kala-
varsin (3,190,79) appears as kalavarsin Parjanya (1,68, 10; 3,190,91;
I2> 295 53 and ib. 91, i); kale varsati Vasavati (above) stands beside
kale varsati Parjanyah in the same book (R 7, 99, 13). In 12, 29, 53, P.
makes the crops grow and gives enough to eat, like Indra; and so, like
Indra, under a good king Parjanya is nikamavarsin, "rains as is desir
able" and the farmer's six It is are not known (5,61, 17). The
roar, nada, of Indra on his car (17, 3, if.; R 6, 99, 25) is the roar,
ninada, of thunder or of Parjanya (3, 12, 31; 5, 22, n). Rama is like Par
janya, it is said, his car also is like that of Indra ("noisy in the air",
R2, 16, 31). Parjanya is the best of roarers or rainers (4, 2, 16, varsatam,
v. 1. nardatam) . The same phrases are used of each, gharmante
Maghavan iva (9, 11, 23), Parjanya iva gharmante nadayan vai
dis~o das"a (7, 162, 54) and 12, 37, 22 (idem) where "people long for and
live on Parjanya" (often; cf. 12,97,15). Parjanya is the savior, natha,
of cattle (5, 34, 38). The "people" are especially those mentioned in R 2,
112, 12, "as the ploughmen long for Parjanya" (cf. R 2, 3, 29; ib. 31, 12;
ib. 67, 9). In short, Parjanya is the bucolic Indra, chief god of ploughmen;
but the greater province remains Indra's. "Created beings live on Parjanya;
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 129
on Indra live the gods" (2, 45, 65 f.; 3, 34, 21; 5, 133, 42; 12, 75, 13; 13,
61, 37).1) Parjanya (the cloud) is rain itself, being to the crops what am
brosia is to the gods; he brings the crops to completeness (3, 32,47 and
S i, 77, 3: Parjanya iva sasyanam, devanam amrtam yatha). Indra
also "starts the crops and then ceases to rain" (R 4, 30, 22), but it is only
one of his capacities; whereas Parjanya only rains; yet he rains as the
thunderer, so that the normal position of the two gods is almost reversed
when it is said that "Arjuna shot arrows as Maghavat shoots rain, and as
Parjanya hurls lightning" (as"ani, 7, 10, 15 f.). In the later epic there is
no distinction between Indra qua rain-giver and Parjanya. Thus in 12,
141, 5 and 15, the story begins avarsati Parjanye and continues na
vavarsa Sahasraksafr. So in 3,110, 43 f., "since the thousand-eyed
(Indra) failed to rain . . the king inquired of his priests in regard to Surendra
(Indra) raining as to how Parjanya might (be got to) rain". Parjanya "roars
mightily in windy confusion", hurling hail (7, 21, 33); he is citravarsin
(= akale, H 11145) at tne aeon's end (cf. 12, 69, 96, kvacid varsati
Parjanyah), but when all is well he sends food (6, 27, 14) and (as Indra,
above) "rains gold", "rains all desires", on his favorite (kaman varsati
Parjanyah, 7, 56, 5). See also Adityas (§ 37), where Parjanya is perhaps
Indra, as in H 10257 (as seer» H 431).
§ 72. Indra's Battles. — In 12, 33, 26, the wars between gods and
demons are said to have lasted 32000 years. The one greatest (not re
peated) battle of the war-god was with Vrtra who "because of his conduct
became the foe of Indra" in the South (5, 109, 13), after the demon had
covered the worlds twain (avrtya rodasi 3, 101, i; under protection of
the Kalakeya demons), and enveloped the whole movable world (vyaptam,
5, 10, i). The epic confuses the story of Vrtra with that of Namuci (below)
and has two different accounts of the battle and its origin. Belonging to
the pseudo-epic is the account of Vrtra's conversion to the Visnuites, his
experiences after defeat and attainment of Yoginhood, together with the
gitam or song composed by the "Daitya Vrtra"; it astonished even the
late pietist (12, 282, i). Vrtra is described as five hundred leagues high
and three hundred round (ib. 282, 8; as yogin, ib. 281, 59) and as having
stupified Indra; the battle between the two becomes typical of all remark
able duels, Vrtravasavayor iva (2,23,25; R6, 58, 48; ib. 100, 31, etc.).
Vrtra is one of the four sons of Danayus (Daitya above, and elsewhere,
with the later indifference), Viksara, Vala, Vira, and Vrtra "the great
Asura" (i, 65, 33). The first is incorporated as king Vasumitra (i, 67, 41)
but is not known otherwise (except as a title of Krsna-Visnu), and even
in H merely appears among other Danavas and Asuras. Vala (written Bala)
is the personified fortress or hole which gives Indra his title Valabhid
(-sudana, -hantr). Vfra is known otherwise only as an Asura killed by
lightning. These appear as kings in the war (7, 25, 53), as does Vrtra
himself, as Manimat (ib.), not the Yaksa of that name (see Kubera) but
an earthly king. As Vrtra is of Brahmanic family, his slaughter is regarded
as "priest-murder", and the personification of the crime came out of his
dead body wearing a garland of skulls and stuck to Indra "like a spell"
(krtya, 12, 283, 13), just as fire came from his mouth and his memory
also came out of him in the shape of a jackal (ib. 2). Both Visnu's power
») Fausb011, Indian Mythology, p. 97, takes Parjanyara as neuter (cloud) in the first
passage, but the pada is connected with the following upajivanti, not with the pre
ceding pahi.
Indo-arische Philologie III. ib. 9
1 30 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
and Diva's feverish energy assisted Indra, the former entering the bolt,
the latter making Vrtra yawn (282, 30; 283, 8), so that Indra could cast
the bolt into his open mouth (variant below). Here he is said to have
practised Yoga for 60000 years and to have received boons of Brahman,
making him strong. He was "made by Tvastr" (like TriSiras) and hence
Indra could not overcome him. &va gave permission to Tvastr to fashion
him (7, 94, 49 f.); the Maruts honor Indra on slaying Vrtra (7, 179, 64) as
being the only slayer; the sectarian view is late. Indra is the only foe
of the demons (2,65, 24), but (6, 83, 57, etc.) Visnu is associated with him
at an early stage (Indropendrau) before the power enters the bolt, as
coequal antagonist "rushing the Daitya host", as Agni also assists him.
After Indra had taken off the head of Vrtra (s"iro jahara, 8, 91, 50), he
was disgusted with the demon's foul smells. The later epic says that Indra
struck him several times; after each wound Vrtra retreated into water,
light, and air, successively; taking away their qualities (taste, color,
sound), and finally into Indra himself, who had to be roused with Vasistha's
melody (rathantara) to kill him (14, n, 8f.). The story goes back to
the combat with TriSiras and begins with the Vedic words: Vis"varupo
hi vaiTvastrali purohito devanam asit svasriyo 'suranam, "Vis"-
varupa, the son of Tvastr, was the family-priest of the gods, a sister's
son of the Asuras" (TS. 2, 5, I, i; Mbh. 12, 343, 28 f.), but instead of con
tinuing with the original ("and had three heads"), the epic proceeds to
say that ViSvarupa gave part of the sacrifice in secret to the Asuras, while
in public he served the gods. Then the Asuras, whose chief was Hiranya-
ka£ipu, went to the Asura mother of ViSvarupa and complained that her
son, Vis~varupa TriSiras, was the gods' priest, so that the Asuras grew
weak. His mother found him in Nandana (grove) and persuaded him to
side with HiranyakaSipu, who made him chaplain after discharging Vasistha.
Vasistha cursed Hiranyakas"ipu (who in due time was slain by Visnu as
man-lion). Meantime Indra became alarmed at Tris"iras's ascetic power and
tried to seduce him through a nymph. TriSiras enjoyed the nymph but
kept his power and began to drink the gods' soma with one mouth, eat
the sacrifice with another, and consume the gods' power with the third
mouth. On the advice of Brahman the distracted gods got Dadhica to
give up his bones, wherewith Dhatr made a bolt, which Indra shot at
Tris"iras and decapitated him (the bolt was infused with Vismi- energy).
But out of the mangled remains rose another (form of) TrisMras (Vrtra),
and Indra smote that, making two cases of Brahman-cide, which frightened
Indra so that he fled and hid in a lotus-stalk. Then the gods made Nahusa
their chief and with five hundred lights on his brow Nahusa guarded the
third heaven, but tried to seduce Saci, who, consulting with Brhaspati,
had recourse to "boon-granting Rumor" (Upas"ruti, an evil spirit in Sutras).
On being prayed to, UpaSruti revealed where Indra lay hid (in lake Manasa).
Indra agreed to return, after advising £aci how to ruin Nahusa by getting
him to yoke the saints and so fall under the curse of Agastya, who
changed him into a snake. 'Indra performed a horse-sacrifice in honor of
Visnu and was reinstated as king of gods, dividing his sin of Brahman-
cide between women, vanitas, fire, trees, and cows. But a black ante
lope was really used for the horse; Brhaspati officiated (ib. 48 and 52 f.).
Cf. R 4, 24, 14, Indra's sin taken by earth, water, trees, and women (see
below). That TriSiras was a holy being is implied when it is said that
Indra would not have made sacrifice after slaying "the Muni", if right
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 131
had been the same as wrong (R 6, 83, 29). In 12, 283, 28 f., where also a
sacrifice frees Indra at the end, the sin is cast upon Agni (created to
receive it), who may pass it on to any one that does not make fire-
oblations; upon trees and plants (transferred to one who cuts grass or trees
on holy days); upon Apsarasas (who may turn it over to men lacking in
restraint); and upon water, this last quarter of the sin passing into any
denier of water. In the account in Udyoga, where it is described as a
puravrtta itihasa puratana, "an ancient story of an old event" (5, 9,
2 f.), Tvastr created his son expressly to injure Indra, and the son's mouths
(faces) were like sun, moon and fire (cf. Diva's eyes), with which he respec
tively absorbed soma and Vedas, sura, and space. Indra slew him be
cause he could not be seduced, but was scorched by his radiance, for
TriSiras, "though stricken was glorious, and though dead lay as one
alive". So Indra bade a carpenter cut off the heads of Brahmana TriSiras
(cf- 5) 9, 34, Brahmahatya; and on the carpenter, a Vedic trait, see
WZKM. 26, 123, with Kathaka ref.), telling the man that he should receive
the head of sacrifice thereafter, Indra promising to free himself from sin
by asceticism. From the head thus cut off flew out partridges, quails, spar
rows, and hawks, as out of Vrtra's blood came cocks (unclean for food,
12, 283, 60). Then Tvastr, "sipping water, cursed Indra as an ill-souled
evil-minded" person, and "making an oblation in fire, produced Vrtra",
and bade him grow great as Indra's foe. So Vrtra fought and succeeded
in whirling Indra into his mouth, but the gods created (the yawn) Jrm
bhika, as a great being, to destroy Vrtra, and, Vrtra yawning, out leaped
Indra (but "Jrmbhika thereafter became part of breathing"). Indra and
the gods retreating to Mandara-peak thought of Visnu, "subduer of Bali,
god of gods, who made three strides" (etc.), and Visnu entered the bolt.
Thus reinforced, Indra attacked Vrtra again, after gods and seers had
made a contract with Vrtra, to the effect that he should not be killed
with "dry or wet, stone or wood", etc. But Visnu entered foam and Indra
smote Vrtra with it ("dry and wet" thunderbolts are recognised among
magic arms, R I, 27, 9). So Vrtra was slain by a lie, and Indra, having
committed Brahman-cide and being oppressed by the lie as well, feared
and hid in water. Earth, losing Indra's rain, suffered; Nahusa was made
king of gods (etc., as above; 5, 10, 15 f.; 29 f.). The Southern version
adds that Diva's Bhuts also oppressed Indra, yelling "Brahman-murderer"
at him. Here (5, 13, 19) the sin is divided fivefold, between rivers, trees,
mountains, earth, and women. Brhaspati is more prominent than above
and a real horse-sacrifice takes place. Upas~ruti is introduced after £ac!
proposes to invoke "divine Night" (the passage is marked by verbal equi
valence with R 7, 85, 18 = 5, 13, 12, raksartham sarvabhutanam Vis-
nutvam upajagmivan; cf. too ib. 23 = R ib. 86, 4, etc.). This murder
of Tris"iras appears to be alluded to in I, 76, 52: "Whom, even Indra,
would not Brahman-murder burn?" (TraisTrsa Brahmahatya it is called,
5, 10, 44). Of the new characters in this version, Jrmbhika belongs to a
class of inferior spirits called Jrmbhakas accompanying 3iva_ (3, 231, 34;
cf. Jambhakas). Nahusa was originally a pious king, son of Ayus, son of
Pururavas (i, 75, 26 f.); he kicked Agastya because the latter was hete
rodox! (5, 17, if.). His own sin of killing a cow was divided into 101 parts
and became diseases (12, 263, 48 f.). His evil eye absorbed power from all
he saw (13,99, 17). Gifts to priests gave him power (13, 100, nf.). He
lauds wealth as a means of such piety (12, 8, nf.). His usurpation of
9*
132 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Indra's rank and his fall, with memory of his past, in serpent -form is
often an epic theme (3, 179, I3f.; 3, 103, 14; H 8813, etc). Hiranyakas"ipu
was the only son of Diti (i, 65, 17; but see p. 48); he interchanges with
Vrtra-Namuci in the story of the compact (above) but with Krsna as the
god (H 12622; 82,46,13), as he was the greatest opponent of Visnu
(so as Ravana, R 7, 37, pra. 5, 85 f.). The Ram., in its version of this
greatest deed of Indra, when the "lord of the immortals slew the great
Asura Vrtra" (R 6, 67, 167), also represents smoke and fire as coming
from the dragon's mouth (ib. 93, 19), when struck by the bolt (ib. 111,22).
Sampati says, "long ago, after the slaughter of Vrtra" (R 4, 58, 4), removing
the action to an indefinite past.
§ 73. The account in R 7, 84, 3 f., agrees in general with that of
Udyoga. Vrtra is here so pious that earth thrives under him till he leaves
his son to rule in Madhura and began to torment gods with asceticism.
Visnu, appealed to, refuses to kill him on the score of auld lang syne,
but agrees to enter (inspire) Indra, the bolt, and earth (divides himself
threefold). Indra's sin was removed by a horse-sacrifice, and the sin was
divided among rivers for four rain-months, earth, women during three
days, and fourth among those who kill harmless priests with a lie (R 7,
86, 16). Another late passage makes Indra's evil (mala, filth) and hunger,
after killing Vrtra, give names to the Maladas and Karus"as (R I, 24, 17 f.).
Namuci, son of Danu, also fell beneath Indra (Namucer hanta, 3, 25, 10),
who, "bolt in hand and combining with the Maruts slew Vrtra and Namuci,
hard to attack, and the RaksasT Dirghajihva" (3, 292, 4). Here, as in R 2,
106, 27, the Maruts help ("union is strength" is the expressed moral);
or Indra alone is mentioned (8, 26, 21; R 6, 56, 17, etc.). The compact
of Indra is here made with Namuci and its breaking is said to be
good polity (2, 55, 13 abhimata ripau vrttilj). The head followed the
god crying out at him, but Indra bathed at the confluence of the Aruna
and SarasvatT and became pure; the demoniac head fell into the river
and the demon, who had first escaped into a sunbeam, went to a world
of delight (9, 43, 33 f.), while Indra went to heaven. "Foam used on a
foggy day" evades the agreement not to kill "with wet or dry by day or
night" (ib.). Another version is that Indra was wounded (8, 85, 26 f.) when
Namuci rushed at him *(R 3, 28, 3), and Indra even ran away (6, 83, 40).
A simile in 6, 88, 17 would imply that he was shot nine times, but such
phrases as Vasavo Namucim yatha and Maghavan iva Sambaram
are used by the poets without much regard to details (9, 7, 35 and 38;
ib. 16, 33; ib. 17, 22, etc.). Rama could slay Namuci or Bali (R 3, 59, 18).
Namuci sermonises to Indra in the pseudo-epic, video meliora deteriora
sequor (janami Sreyo na tu tat karomi, 12, 226, 9, with v. 1. of S).
His name is like that of the seer Pramuca or Pramucu, associated (§ $8)
with Unmuca and Vimuca (also 12, 208, 29), but nothing suggests that
it implies "not-freeing" (except the pertinacity of the head). He is son
of Vipracitti and brother of Maya (below). The Ram. distinguishes the
manner of death of Vrtra and Namuci: "As Vrtra (fell smitten) by the
vajra (bolt); as Namuci by foam; as Vala by lightning" (R 3, 30, 28).
§ 74. Indra's other battles can be more briefly narrated. He con
fronted Bali in the great war of gods and Asuras and then worshipped
Visnu who defeated Bali (after helping Indra in the combat, 7, 142, 8 ; 8, 20,
51; ib. 93, 47; Agni assists, 7, 25, 20; cf. R 6, 73, 7). This demon (Maha-
bali, R 4, 65, 14, v. 1.) was only son of Vairocana (hence Vairocana or -ni),
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 133
and grandson of Prahlada, whom Indra slew. Bali himself was father of
Bana (R 5, 50, 3 as Mahakala) ; "like Indra and Vairocana" is a standard
simile of rival fighters (i, 138, 46; R 7, 32, 58, etc., Bali-Vasavayor iva,
3, 17, u). He is best of Danavas, as Indra is best of gods (S 4, 3, 25).
His combat with Indra took place in the second age, Tretayuga (S 2,
47, i). Bali won wealth and bliss through favoring priests and was lost
(for injuring them, 3, 26, 12), since Visnu in dwarf- form bound him
(3, 102,23; 5,10,75 Hi43i2f.) as Balivlryaharo Harili (R 5, i, IQ7)-
The Vedic tale, how Visnu asked for three paces and then cast out and slew
the giver of the world, is known (R i, 29, 5 f.). Indra noosed him (R 2,
14, u); Visnu kept him in a fire in a cave (R 7, 23, pra. I, 6f.); he was
cast out of the three worlds (5, 38, 47). Cited as authoritative (5, 32, 24),
Jie becomes a learned ass in the pseudo-epic (12, 223, 2f.) and instructs
Indra in patience and humility after the latter had found him, who had
(by magic) been Wind, Varuna, Agni, and Water. When Indra insults him,
he replies: "You will see me there again when my time comes" (ib. 27
and 225, 30 f.; 227, 7f.). His grandfather Prahlada also (12, 124, 28 f.)
philosophises (as a saint, ib. 222, 3 f.) in the same way, as "Indra of Daityas"
(3, 28, if.; 6, 34, 30). He was killed by Indra (3, 286, 12; 289, 18; 12,
98, 49 f.), though a devotee of Visnu (R 4, 65, 14). Sakra and Prahlada
were rivals for the three worlds (7, 123, 65; 9, 57, 3). He cannot move
Skanda's spear (12, 328, I7f.). Verses of his are cited on the "cat's way"
(hypocrisy, 5, 160, 13; cf. ib. 33, 103 f.). His sons Kumbha and Nikumbha
(§ 18) are not important (i, 65, 19), though the latter is a "Daitya-chief"
(i, 209, 2f.), father of Sunda and Upasunda and ganesa of Siva's host,
when he slaughtered Saudasa's army at Benares (S 12, 68, 46). The two
in Ram. are fighting fiends, but their father is barely recognised except
for the extraordinary allocution (vocative) when Nikumbha distinguishes
himself (cf. R 6, 9 and 75) Prahlada-Bali-Vrtraghna-Kubera-Varunopama!
(R 6, 76, 73). It may be remarked that Indra kills another member of this
family, Manthara, daughter of Virocana, "because she tried to destroy
earth", an unknightly act (to kill a woman), excused on the score that
"Visnu also slew Kavya's mother, the wife of Bhrgu, because she sought
to deprive the world of sleep" (or of Indra; anindram, v. 1. for anidram
lokam, R i, 25, 2of.). Visnu's victim should be Puloma (i, 5, 13 f.), but
some other druh anindra (RV. 4, 23, 7) may be meant. Amid all these
victories, the poets admit that "even Indra suffered defeat" (7, 139, 107).
Besides the victory of Skanda (3, 226, I7f.), and apart from Siva himself
and Visnu (q. v.), Kumbhakarna defeats him (R 6, 61, gf.) and Indrajit
receives his cognomen as conqueror of Indra (3, 288, 2f. ; R 6, 45, 22,
etc.). Even Atikaya arrests his bolt (R 6, 71, 34), not to speak of the
saints who withstand him. He is a great blustering vainglorious boy, as
Bali says (12, 224, 28, "childish ever is thy mind, to-day as of old"). But
like Bali and the rest, Indra too becomes a preacher, as in 12, 11, 2f.,
where out of pity "for beardless young fools" he takes the form of a
"golden bird" and teaches them how to get to heaven by the "way of the
gods", i. e. by rites, not by renunciation (ib. 12, 6). Whether Indra killed
Maya is doubtful in Mbh., but not in R. The great epic says that "Maya,
Namuci's brother", was guarded by Indra's son from the onslaughts of
Krsna and Agni (i, 228, 41 f.), but that Indra and Maya had a terrible
encounter in which Maya was defeated (6, 100, 20; 101, 22; no, 31; 9,
55, 28); Ram. (4, 51, 14) says that Indra smote the Danava Maya with his
bolt because the demon was fond of the Apsaras Hema.
134 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
§ 75. Indra also slew the demon of a hundred illusions, ^ambara
(Das"aratha aided the god, R 2, 9, 13; R 5, 16, 8); mashed Danu, son of
Sri, leaving him a headless trunk (kabandha, R 3, 71, 10); and broke
Hanumat's jaw, but then gave him "death at will" (R 4, 66, 22 and 27;
cf. § 8 f.), his opposition to Hanumat being based on the fact that the ape-
god was encroaching on Rahu's province (R 7, 35, 47 f.; the enemy of
the gods defended by their king !). He slew the unborn fruit of Diti's womb,
leaving enough alive to make the seven Maruts (R I, 46 and 47; § 48).
Indra is called son ofDiti here (46, 21; and 47,9; see § 37), Indra used
to live at the town of Vis~ala (son of Iksvaku and Alambusa) of the same
name (ib. 47, 10). Jambha, as "disturber of sacrifice", was slain by Indra
(8, 77, 3), later by Krsna-Visnu (3, 102, 24; 5, 48, 77; 5, 49, 15, "Nara
decapitated Jambha about to swallow him"; 7, n, 5). Still later, "Indra
and Visnu together by permission of Bhava (&va) sought to kill Jambha"
(7, 81, 25). In the later Ram. he is associated with Vrtra as typical leader,
and father of Sunda (R I, 25, 7; R 7, 6, 45). But Indra was first mentioned
as the slayer: "In the struggle of gods and Asuras of old Indra slew
Jambha" (7, 102, 17); "like Jambha deprived of prowess by Vrtrahan"
(9, 12, 63); "as Sakra and Jambha fought of old" (7, 96, 20 and 8, 13, 30).
Krsna slew a demon named Jambhaka (or king?, 2, 31, 7); cf. Jrmbhika,
§ 72, and the arms and magic powers called by the same names (R i,
28, 9; RG I, 31, 4 and 10). ^ukra warned the Asuras that Jambha would
prove their destruction (2, 62, 12). According to different passages the
same transference of glory seems to have taken place in the case of the
great demon Vipracitti (reincarnated as Jarasandha I, 67, 4), eldest son
of Danu and Kas"yapa (i, 65, 22) and (H 2i3f.) father by Simhika of Namuci
and Rahu and other great demons. In 6, 94, 39 f., Indra is said to have
wounded Vipracitti; in 9, 31, 12 Vasudeva Krsna says, "I slew Taraka
and Vipracitti by tricky means". S 6, 94, 32, gives still a third account:
"He was conquered by Rudra after being smitten by Mataris"van" (sa
Rudrena jitali purvam nihato Mataris"vana). Vipracitti here is de
scribed as a demon causing the three worlds to quake and very hard to
assail. He is leader of the Vidyadharas (§ 1 16) as well as an occupant of
Varuna's home (2, 9, 12), but a fiend once regarded by the immortals as
if he were Death himself (6, 108, 39). Indra himself states that he slew
most of the demons (as is generally admitted), in explaining that he be
came chief of the gods through prowess: "He who kills the commander-
in-chief of the hostile army does an act equal to the prowess of Visnu;
he is equal to Brhaspati (as "lord of strength"); if he capture the com
mander, he will, on dying, come to my world, for my worlds shall be his
(tasya loka yatha mama). Hence they do not mourn, they do not bathe,
for one slain in battle ; for he is blessed already, and thousands of nymphs
receive him into heaven when he falls. I too, even Indra, slew the sons
of Diti and Danu, my foes (and so was blessed), Jambha, Vrtra, Vala, Paka,
Virocana of the hundred illusions, Namuci, Sambara of many illusions,
Vipracitti, and Prahlada" (12, 98, 43 — 49). S conscientiously omits Jambha
and characterises Virocana not as illusive but as monstrous ("having a
huge body"). Later pious tradition ignores Prahlada's death.
§ 76. Indra's victories are depicted in the later epic not as due to
power of arm but as resting on character. Thus Sambara, disguised as
an ascetic, tells Indra (13, 36, if.) that he owes his position to piety to
ward priests. Similarly, Prahlada gets Indra's power from him by character.
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 135
Indra then consults with Brhaspati, his Guru, and is told that Us"anas knows
more; so he goes to him, but Usanas sends him direct to Prahlada. Then
Indra disguises himself as a pupil and by adroit questions finds that Pra-
hlada's prosperity is based on character. Winning a boon from Prahlada,
he chooses his character, which at once issues from Prahlada's mouth like
a flame, and after his character, sTla, followed his virtue, dharma, his
truth, conduct (acts), power and happiness (12, 124, 19 f.). Namuci (who
repudiates Karman) reminds Indra of his sins (12,226, if.). Bali teaches
him humility.: as Time has bound Bali, so will Time bind Indra (in "the
noose of Time and noose of Varuna", 12, 227, 82 and in). Sri herself
instructs Indra (12, 228, 2f.) that only character insures success; she used
to live with the Danavas because they were virtuous, but she deserted
them when they became immoral. Indra (3, 9, 7f.; R 2, 78, 18) listens
respectfully to Surabhi's lament (plea for kindness to cattle). The god's
sins are many, besides his acts of violence, murder of a Brahman, lying
to Namuci (Vrtra), and theft (R I, 61, 6, Indra steals the sacrificial beast
of Ambarisa, but this is to punish the king, the Sunahs"epa episode). His
adulteries lead to his punishment, especially his violation of Gautama's
wife Ahalya (5, 12, 6f.; ib. 13,9). By Agni's advice, when, discovered by
Gautama, he is unmanned, he is provided with a ram's vrsana (R I, 48,
i6f. ; ib. 49, if.); but according to R 7, 30, 33, he is punished by being
defeated by Indrajit. The curse of Gautama turns Indra's beard yellow
(12, 343, 23). He is called an habitual adulterer, parastrikamacarin.
The story of how he tried to seduce Ruci, wife of Devasarman, exposes
only one of his many amours (13, 40, i8f.). In this case the pupil Vipula
puts Ruci into a hypnotic state, which prevents her from responding to
Indra's advances (under the young priest's influence she speaks Sanskrit,
ib. 41, 15). Vipula reproaches Indra with having been cursed by Gautama
with a thousand sex-marks which became eyes (ib. 41, 21). In 13, 34, 27,
this is cited as proof of priestly power, since KauSika Gautama was a priest;
priests also cured Indra: "Behold, a mark was made on the moon (by a
priest); the sea was made salt (by a priest); and great Indra was marked
by a thousand sex-signs, who yet by the might of Brahmanas became
thousand-eyed" (so that he became sahasranayana, as he is now called).
A different account of the origin of the eyes appears in the tale of Ti-
lottama (§ 100), an Apsaras so beautiful that when Indra looked at her,
"large red-edged eyes, a thousand in number, appeared all over his body,
before, behind, and on his sides, whence he was called sahasranetra"
(i, 211, 27f.; sahasranayana also in R 7, 72, 8). The equivalent (sahas-
raksa) epithet is as old as the Rg-Veda, where it probably refers to
Indra's flaming bolt, which has a thousand flames, while the same epithet
is applied to fire (RV. I, 23, 3; 79, 12; in PW., explained as stars,
Indra's eyes). Indra was paralysed several times, twice at least because
of his sins. Cyavana paralysed him when he struck the saint because of the
As"vins' being permitted to drink soma (3, 121, 22; 124, 17; 12, 343, 24f.).
On another occasion Siva, as a child on Uma's lap, paralysed Indra be
cause of his jealous discontent (13, 161, 33). Siva again paralysed him by
a look so that "he stood like a post", as the greater god scoffed at him
and finally cast him into a cave, to show him that Siva was the real lord
of the world (i, 197, 16). Indra's sin here is pride and his humiliation is
his punishment. His "bolt was stayed", that is, he was practically para
lysed by another saint (§ 79); cf. other cases, H ii94of. ; 12555^
136 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
§ 77. Owing to Indra's sin, Garuda undertook to carry off the so ma,
as Brhaspati says to Indra: "Through thy fault, aparadha, through thy
wantonness" is this thing come upon the gods. For Indra, as a giant god,
had insulted the thumbkin saints called Valakhilyas, who were helping
him collect wood for Prajapati's sacrifice (i, 30, 40 f.). Indra's inability to
hurt Garuda is a late feature of the epic (i, 33, 20). Oddly enough, espe
cially in view of Indra as praiser of &bi (§ 51), no reproach is cast upon
the god for his cowardly abandonment of Taksaka. Although Indra had
been friendly with him, and even promised him immunity from fire if he
should take refuge with Indra, yet when danger threatened and the fright
ened serpent was actually "hiding in Indra's upper clothes", the god,
afraid that the priests' incantations would draw him into the fire, threw off
the suppliant refugee and escaped, leaving Taksaka to perish (i, 56, 10 — 14).
But it is satisfactory to record that it is only the later epic which makes
of Indra a coward and still worse a cad; as when he triumphs brutally
over his fallen foe "with vulgar mind" (prakrtya buddhya, 12, 223, 28 f.),
till the wise ass (Bali) rebukes him: "This is not worthy of thy fame and
family" and reminds him that, as Devaraja, he is only one of a long series
of Indras, who reign but for a thousand years apiece (ib. 224, 55; 227, 70).
In the earlier scene he sees a vision of "other Indras" who have preceded
him and are now helpless (i, 197, 20, ViSvabhuj, Bhutadhaman, Sibi, Santi,
and Tejasvin are the "five earlier Indras", ib. 29). Among Indra's nobler
sins may be counted his heterodoxy as to the glory of cows (13, 83, 15 f.),
an indication of sectarian prejudice in favor of Goloka (Visnu's abode). A
more venerable sin is Indra's objection to the Agnistut, a praise offered
only to Agni. King (r a jar si) Bhangasvana offered it, to get children, and
Indra stupified him and made him enter a lake which changed him into
a woman. Then Indra made the children got by lauding Agni quarrel,
"as the gods and demons of old, children of one Kas~yapa, quarrelled";
so they killed each other. But he restored them tc life, when he was
himself lauded and so pacified (the king preferred to remain a woman, as
a woman has more pleasure in love than a man, 13, 12, 4f.; ib. 20 and 51).
Agni's praise is said to be Indra-dvista (ib. 4). The story is old; or at
least it is as old as the late Sutras. 1) Indra's loud ridicule of the holiness
of Kuruksetra is only for dramatic effect, as he ends by singing a Gatha
in honor of this holy land (9, 53, 7f.; ib. 21; cf. the Indragita Gathafr
lauding Sahadeva's sacrifice, 3, 90, 6). Indra is not an object of much
devotion himself and is naively delighted when the jujube -girl shows
Sakrabhakti by intense devotion to him. She was the daughter of
Bharadvaja and GhrtacI, a nymph, who seduced him. As the girl grew up
and was called something of a scholar Srutavati (by name), she pre
ferred the love of god Indra, as Tridas~adhipati, Tribhuvanes"vara. Indra
came to her in the disguise of Vasistha, first testing her hospitality by
asking for jujubes, which she cooked for him, using her feet as fuel (being
short of wood), and then he made her his wife (bharya, 9, 48, if.; ib. 62).
§ 78. Disguise is commonly assumed when the god visits men. As
above, Indra assumes the form of a saint, but his illusions are manifold
and he can appear in any shape of form. His favorite form is that of a
priest or seer (so Surya disguises himself, 3, 300, 5 f.), in which shape he
seduces Ahalya (as her husband) and Ruci (above). Sometimes (says Ruci's
husband) Indra appears with bolt or bow or as a Candala or ascetic, of
J) Caland, Uber das rituelle Sutra des Baudhayana.
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 137
any shape, of any color or caste, or as a bird or animal or Daitya, even
as a fly or gnat, so that "even the All-maker, who made the universe,
cannot penetrate his disguise, who (Indra) may be quite invisible or may
seem wind" (vayubhutah, below and 13, 40, 28 f.). T«t is as priest that
Indra begs Karna for his armor (3, 310, if.); so he Converses with the
good parrot, who was faithful to his blasted tree (13, 5, I2f.), though both
the bird and Karna recognise him at once. Indra revives the dead tree
with the ambrosia which he seems to have handy at all times, though he
would not give it to Utanka till Govinda bade him do so, when disguised
as a dirty ascetic he offerred it as urine (digvasas, matanga), that
Krsna's devotee might reject it, which he did; but Krsna in lieu of am
brosia gave Utanka the power to call up rain-clouds in the desert, and
these clouds are still called "Utanka clouds" (14, 55, 15 f.) The dirty
naked hunter with his pack of dogs appears to assimilate Indra (here op
posed to Govinda) to £iva, of whom it is said: digvasafr klrtyate ko
'nyo loke (13, 14, 217). In I, 3, 131 f., Indra helps Utanka chase Taksaka
and is hymned by him; the god being here mystically represented as a
man with a horse (ib. 167). With a dog too Indra appears disguised as
a beggar, ^unahsakhasakhi, in the story of the theft of the lotus-stalks
(13, 93, 142; as a dog Dharma tests the hero in 18, 3, 34). Disguised as
a priestly pupil, Indra deceives Prahlada (above, 12, 124, 28 f.); as a priest,
he tries to overthrow the power of ViSvamitra (R i, 65, 5), after first
trying to do so by becoming a cuckoo and conspiring with Rambha and
Kama (ib. 64, I f.). Being tormented by the ascetic torments of Yavakrita,
Indra becomes an old priest and tries to undermine the saint's devotion
(3, 135, i6f.) by showing that one cannot learn Veda by asceticism. In
13, 102, 3f., Indra discusses hells, disguised as a king, with a saint whose
elephant he steals. As wind (vayubhutafr) he mixes up the clothes of
girls who are bathing (i, 78, 4); but as he stopped on his way to war
to do this, it is to be laid not to levity but to polity, since he knows in
advance the ensuing quarrel and its dire result. As a soldier, bhata, Indra
tries to dissuade a saint from becoming too virtuous by enchanting him
with the glitter of arms. When the holy man's intelligence "becomes rude"
from too much contemplation of the sword, he looses his virtue and Indra
has the satisfaction of seeing him go to hell (R 3, 9, i6f.). According to
R i, 39, 7, Indra takes the shape of a Raksasa to drive away the horse
of Sagara. The Mbh. says merely that the Sagaras thought it had been
stolen, not that the frightened gods had aught to do with the theft (3,
107, 13). Other disguises assumed by Indra are that of a goose (his goose-
form is revered at his festival, above), probably the "golden bird" (above);
of a jackal, to inculcate patience and instruct Kas"yapa (12, 180, 4f.); and
of a hawk in the tale of Sibi (omitted in 13, 32, 4f.; see above, § 51).
He also changes the shape of others. When Matanga, at Indra's advice,
renounces the hope of becoming a priest, the god at the request of
the saintly but lowborn man, changes him into a lovely bird honored of
women and called "song (his) god" ; for such seems to be the meaning
of chandodeva (after Matanga has requested that he should become a
"lovely bird", 13, 29, 22 f.); but the "song" is that of the Vedic verses
to the would-be priest.
§ 79. ^The strength of Indra manifests itself in prowess, mentally and
morally; Sakratulyaparakrama, "having Indra-like prowess", is applied
to any strong creature, a stereotyped phrase (R 4, 32, 11, etc.). Indra is
138 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
"the one hero amid gods" (i, 113, 32); to say "even Indra" could not
conquer one, is a tribute to the god (i, 100, 78; 2, 67, 36, etc.), when
not pure braggadocio (4, 49, 12). Indra is power: "To Indra he bows who
bows to a stronger person" (12,67, IJ)- Hence the king is divine power
(Indram eva pravrnute yad rajanam, 12, 67, 4). A great king is
"another Indra" (1,85,5, etc.); so "a weak realm with no Indra" (anindram
abalam, 12,67,2). Hence, too, nrbijam Indradaivatyam and indriyam,
Indra is the divinity of procreative power (12, 214, 23, v. 1. tribljam).
But Indra is strengthened by the Maruts and by the Vasus (6, 96, 16, they
surround him in battle), in fact by all the gods (12, 78, 15). Mental power
is his as a seer. He recognises the future greatness of Kuruksetra (above);
he advises the rebuilding of Benares, with a view to the prosperity of
Divodasa Saudeva, whose son Pratardana (born of a sacrifice performed
by Bharadvaja, and adult as soon as born) defeated Vitahavya, king of
the Haihayas. According to S I, 95, 12, Indra prophesies the greatness
of Cakravartin Dusyanta (cf. B, Kanva, in, I, 73, 30 f.). Though Indra is
weakened by intoxication (his foe is Mada, 14, 9, 33), and delights al
ways in soma (12,71,33; he revels in the seven kinds of Soma-sacri-
fice, 3, 88, 6; 12, 29, 36 f.), yet he is a strict upholder of morality which
appeals to him. This is "warrior morality", aindro dharmalj (12, 141, 64),
and as the king has his physical power, so Indra as a moral power is
incorporate in the king (12, 72, 25). Brhaspati guides his councils (R 4,
54, 4) and the later epic gives him seven "Seers of the East", modelled
after those of the North (13, 150, 29 f.), viz., Yavakrita, Raibhya, Arvavasu,
Paravasu, Aus"ija Kaksivat, Bala the son of Angiras, and Kanva the son
of Medhatithi (Barhisada is added; but the seers are seven in seven
groups). Indra reveres only moral people (a list of them at S 13, 153, 7f.).
With his bolt he splits into a hundred pieces the head of a false or
recalcitrant witness (2, 68, 70) ; he casts his bolt upon him that gives up
a refugee (5, 12, 21). Above all he delights in hospitality; he is himself
the guest, a seat for the guest is a seat for Indra (3, 200, 62 and 68;
also ib. 123, Parjanyo 'nnanusamcaran, in the sense of the scholiast,
"who comes as a guest is Indra himself"). Who dies in battle is Indra's
guest (also the priyatithi of Yama, Varuna, and Kubera, 7, 72, 46, as
Lokapalas). Slain warriors are not called dead, but "guests of Indra"
(7) 19> 36, Sakrasya 'tithitam gatalj) or "dear guests of Vala's slayer"
(7, 27, 8). Those who die facing the foe are his dear guests and enjoy
his world of delight (tesam kamadughan lokan Indrah samkal-
payisyati, n, 2, 15; cf. 3, 54, 18, etc.), for they rejoice with him and
he leads a joyous life (2, 7; 2, 12, 26; R 6, 54, 38). But Indra has his ups
and downs (R 3, 66, 12) and it is part of his sagacity rather than an in
dication of cowardice that he is ever afraid of too much formal virtue.
He recognises that merit stored up by the ascetic may become equal to
or greater than his own, in which case he may be dethroned. Hence he
always seeks to overthrow the asceticism of a too ascetic saint, generally
by seducing him. Thus, according to Ram. and Mbh., respectively, he
sends Rambha or Menaka (I, 71, 20 f.) to seduce ViSvamitra, fearing "lest
this man of sunlike glory shake me from my station". Rarely is this
sagacious fear united with bodily fear, yet Indra sends Janapadi (deva-
kanya) to seduce Saradvat Gautama, because this great seer "mightily
distressed the king of the gods by his skill in archery, dhanurveda,
and asceticism" (i, 130, 5). Two men, one an ascetic and one a king,
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 139
had power to control Indra. The first was RsyasYnga, "through fear of
whom the slayer ofVala and Vrtra did rain" (3, no, 24). The king was
Mamdhatr, of the race of Iksvaku, who, born by cleaving his father's side,
became twelve years old in twelve days, and from being a suckling of
Indra whose thumb he sucked, attained to such power that when he died
"he got half of Indra's throne" (Sakrasya 'rdhasanam, 3, 126, 38,) and
"half his realm" (R 7, 67, 8). He actually "conquered Indra on the Gomati
at a Naga-named town" (12, 356, 3) and was father of Mucukunda, being
himself born of Saudyumni Yuvanas"va without a mother, conquering the
whole earth and possessing Ajagava (Diva's bow) and other special
arms. Indra had to stand and look on while Mamdhatr made rain (3, 126,
42, above, § 71). The Ram. says that when this "lord of the seven Dvipas"
reached heaven and was about to oust Indra from his seat, the wily god
persuaded him that he was not a real world-conqueror and sent him back
to earth to conquer Lavana, the one foe left unconquered ; but Lavana
slew him with Rudra's trident (boomerang, R 7, 67, 5 f. ; ib. 23, pra. 3, 23 f.).
Mamdhatr once slew a sinful ascetic (R 4, 18, 35, here as Rama's ancestor)
and he conquered earth in one night, whereas Janamejaya took three and
Nabhaga even seven nights to perform the same feat (12, 29, 8 if.; ib. 124,
16). Kings are sometimes said to have surpassed Indra, but this is usually
mere panegyric ; it does not mean that the god was actually overcome. It
is said, for example, of Marutta (yalj spardhaya 'jayac Chakram deva-
rajam puramdaram, 12, 29, 20), yet in 14, 10, n, this Marutta says that a
floating cloud shows Indra to be near and escapes as fast as he can. In
Buddhistic narrations, the excellence of a very virtuous person "makes
hot the throne of Indra", so that the god grows uncomfortable as if sitting
upon a hot stove. The epics have no such absurd figure. The saints
disturb Indra and shake his throne, but they heat, i. e. torment, only Indra,
the gods, or the worlds (tapayati is not applied to the throne but to
the sitter, who is heated, disturbed, "all het up").
§ 80. With other gods except Tvastr (above) Indra's relations are in
general those of friendly superiority. As was shown above, he objects
to Agni's exclusive praise, and he takes part against him in the matter
of the serpents' sacrifice (i, 26) and at Khandava, to save Taksaka (i,
223, 7f.); yet the two are grouped as "the two friends, Indragni" (3, 134, 9),
and Agni assists Indra against Bali (7, 25, 20). Indra promises Agni a
share in the sacrifice (5, 16, 32) and Agni acts as Indra's messenger (14,
9, 8f.). Anala (Agni) always conveys the oblation to Indra (R 5, 37, 21).
With the As"vins he was at first in enmity and then makes friends (see
Asvins, § no). With the Sun-god (§ 38 f.) he is at enmity on account of
their respective sons (Arjuna and Karna), but "Wind, Indra, and Sun" are
allies (i, i, 187, v. 1. Sakrasuryau). With Kubera (§ 83 f.) Indra shares
the North(-east) district, so that they have one sadman there (3, 163, 6f.),
and rivals him in wealth (R i, 6, 3). Both gods possess the grove Nandana
(below). With Yama and Varuna, Indra is associated as types of power,
the former rarely (R 2, i, 38, "like Yama or £akra in power"), the latter
in a stereotyped phrase, "like great Indra and Varuna" (e. g. R 6, 41, 6),
a reminiscence of the old fighting power of Varuna (cf. a hero "like Indra
or Varuna", R 6, 64, 18). With Brahman (§ 13 if.) Indra stands 'in the
position of a favored son or is like a younger brother (R 6, 60, 96, by
implication). Indra and Prajapati are both saviors, natha, to the other
gods, though the latter is a father (R 7, 83, ill.). With Brhaspati Indra
140 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
acts as any pupil to a Guru ("takes his feet", etc., R 2, 103, 28 and 30).
With the growth of sectarian gods, Indra grows less. But with Visnu
(§ 143 f.) Indra is still on equal terms in many passages. Visnu "assists"
Indra (6, 59, 80). Arjuna Aindri is "like the younger brother of Indra and
like Mahendra" (in power, 6, 49, 16). SunaliSepa lauds "Indra and his
younger brother" (Visnu, R I, 62, 25 f.). In the rise of Visnu, however,
he as greater god makes Indra the gods' protector (5, 10, 7). Krsna as
Visnu uses Indra as demiurge and is Indrakarman, that is "works through
Indra" (13, 149, 97). But he robs Indra of the Parijata tree and opposes
him by means of Govardhana (see Krsna). Indra and the Maruts say their
prayers on Mt. Mandara and here, for Indra, Visnu slew Naraka, son of
Diti, when Indra was in mortal fear of the demon and begged abjectly for
Visnu's help (3, 142, 7 and 20 f.). On the other hand, Indra begs vainly
for Visnu's aid against the fiends (R 7, 27, 14 f.), for the great god has
other plans and Indra is made captive by the fiend Meghanada (Indrajit,
ib. ch. 29). Before Siva too, Indra (as above) is powerless (i, 197), and
Indra seeks advice and takes refuge here with Brahman, as usual, when
in doubt. For Indra's blazing Siva with the bolt, see Siva. With saints
and heroes of the epics, Indra is on familiar terms, a humanised god. He
visits Sarabhanga (R 3, 30, 30) to get Rama to slay Khara, "as he himself
slew Vala", and so he visits other asylums (R 3, 5 and 7) near Nagpur
(Ramagiri). Indra stands beside the lad DaSaratha kills, as the youth goes
to heaven in heavenly form (the boy himself goes to heaven but his soul
remains in his body for a while, R 2, 64, 19, 48). He takes Laksmana
to heaven (R 7, 106, 17); gives special trees to the semi-divine monkeys
(ib. 4, 33, 15), one of whom is Indrajanu (ib. 39, 32); and grants a boon
to Hanumat after breaking his jaw (R 4, 66, 27). Worth noting is Indra's
inferiority to the Raksasas in Ram., on a par with the despite of the later
epic (as noticed above). This is due not so much to a new cult of special
Raksasas as to the lowered position of Indra, which permits the poet to
play with the idea of fiends capable of defeating the king of the gods but
defeated by Rama, an indication of later age or of a place where Indra's
cult was much reduced. In general the Ram. Devas are not so authoritative
or important as the early Mbh. Devas.
§ 81. The home of Indra as a palace or hall is described at length
in the "account of the palaces of the world-protectors". Indra won his
as "lord of the universe". It is adorned with lotuses, PuskaramalinT, a
movable structure "going at will" (of Indra), five leagues high and one
hundred and fifty by one hundred leagues in extent; fitted out with divine
trees and thrones, where sit Indra and Sad and Sri and Laksmi with the
Maruts as grhamedh in ah (house-keepers), waiting on him. He is waited
upon also by nymphs and other fair women. In 2, 49, 26, the "immortal
women" appear (to the scholiast) as plants (Soma, giving Indra to drink).
Siddhas, seers, saints, ascetics, sacrifices, heroes, Faith, Fluency (Saras-
vati), Duty, Gain, Pleasure, etc., clouds, winds, the twenty-seven sacrificial
fires, Adityas, planets, stars, Apsarasas, Gandharvas, royal seers, HariScandra,
Marutta (et al.) -- all these persons or personifications are to be found
perpetually or temporarily in Indra's palace, as also Valmiki, and (S text)
Ekata, Dvita, and Trita (2, 7). Though only one "royal seer" is especially
named, yet all kings who perform the Rajasuya live with Indra (2, 12, 6f.).
Indra's city is typical of any marvellous city, IndrapuraprakaSa (R 2,
71, 45, etc.). It is called AmaravatI and contains a hundred palaces (3,
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 141
43, 7). The "residence", bhavana, 3, 15, 18, etc., is either the pura of
Mahendra (i, 82, i) or the city, situated in the third heaven (18, I, 3).
Arjuna visits it and it is described (3, 42, 42 f.) as full of lovely flowers,
trees, perfumes, saints, and singers; there is the grove Nandana (i, 85,
9> 3> 79j 3)> where gods and saints dwell; but the city (like his car) is
invisible to the sinful. The list of occupants is longer than that of the
palace and includes many kings (in 7, 54, 53 of S text the grove Nandana
is ascribed to Narada). The road to Amaravati is the "path of stars"
(Milky Way?), naksatramarga, suravTthi (3, 43, 12). Indra's son is
received by Indra with a kiss and great love (premna, ib. 19 f.), as the
god sits under a white umbrella with a gold handle. To "enter Amaravati"
is euphemistic for dying (7, 77, 19). The later epic speaks more of Indra's
world(s) as goal of ascetics: one who dies by fasting, for example, might
come to Vasava-loka after a million years, going there on a car with
"Indra's fair girls" ; and such an one "might see even the sports of the
gods' king" (13, 107, 21 f.). Each god has his own world or place, sthana,
so that Indra's is distinct from that of the Maruts, as it is from that of
Varuna, etc. (ib. 79 f.). Indrakfla (6, 59, 122?) is a northern mountain sacred
to Indra, perhaps Mt. Mandara, Indra's peculiar mountain (3, 37, 42). A
"city fair as Indrakfla" (R 2, 80, 18; cf. ib. 20) treats it as if it were
Amaravati; but Indra's home has various names, ^akralaya, Vajralaya, etc.
(R 6, 74, 59), Mahendradhaman (R 2, 14, 29, etc.). Indra was consecrated
on Mt. Meghavat in the West (R 4, 42, 33). Indra also loves to visit Ma
hendra mountain (R 4, 37, 2). His palace has too the name SudarSana
(S 4, 43, i). In 3, 54, 18, Kamadhuk may be the wish-cow Nandini, daughter
of Surabhi and Kasyapa, or Indra's wojrld called by the same general name.
Indraprastha (Indrapat), also called Sakraprastha (cf. for the formation, 3,
84, 99, Dharmaprastha, "where the god Dharma abides ever"), is the Plain
of Indra, as city of the Pandus, especially of Arjuna = Indra('s son).
§ 82. Indra's wife is called Saci, sometimes Paulomi, also Indrani
(Mahendranya, C 3, 1677, is in B and S sahe 'ndranya). Indrasena (S i,
241, 17) as elsewhere (4, 21, n, etc.) is probably Mudgala's wife. As type of
conjugal felicity stands "Indrani with Harihaya" (i, 199, 5). Nahusa's at
tempt to seduce her (Indrani, 3aci, 12, 343, 46 — 50) has already been
referred to (§ 72); it is the only story about her except for her escape
from the demons prior to her marriage, as "Puloman's daughter" (10,
n, 26; R 3, 40, 22). She is not Sri (R 6, 50, 25), though LaksmI = 3rf
appears seated with Indra (12, 228, 89). But 3rl says she is LaksmI only
(12, 225, 8, LaksmI 'ti mam ahulj), and as she is divided (ib. 19) and
"deserts Bali for Indra" (12, 225, if.; ib. 90, 23), she is best regarded
as personified Happiness (not as Sad). "Like Indra (Mahendra, Maghavat)
with Paulomi" is a stereotyped phrase (i, 112, 10; 3, 291, 40; type of
loveliness, S i, 242, 39). Saci bore Jayanta (i, 114, 4), a son barely men
tioned in the epic itself but known later (H 7481, etc.; R 7, 28, n;
JayantI Indraputrl is a still later growth,^ not epic). Jayanta as Rudra (q. v.)
is known in £anti. The wifehood of SrutavatI (§ 77) is not mentioned
again. Indra's son Arjuna fills the great epic ; the Ram. makes Indra the
father of Valin, so grandfather of Angada, Indra's naptr (R i, 17, etc.).
Angada is Vajrahastatmajatmaja, "son of the son of Indra" (R 6, 67, 43).
Both Arjuna and Valin are called Vasavi (5, 50, 46, etc.).1)
*) Compare for Indra in the Great Epic, the treatise of Adolf Holtzmann, Indra
nach den Vorstellungen des Mahabharata, ZDMG. 32, p. 29of. For the Maruts,
see § in. For Indra and mountains, see p. 9; for Sudharma, p. 58.
142 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
§ 83. Kubera. — Kubera is called VaiSravana, as son of Vis~ravas,
a Muni, and of Devavarnini, daughter of Bharadvaja (§ 17). He was so
austere that Brahman granted him boons. Kubera chose the guardianship
of the North and lordship over all treasure (vittaraksana, nidhfs~atva),
to which Brahman added the boon of an aerial car called Puspaka and
also "equality with gods" (R 7, 3, I f.). By another wife ViSravas was
father of the fiends, Ravana, etc., all of whom except Vibhisana were
enemies of the gods. They took from Kubera the car given by Brahman
and destroyed Caitraratha, NalinI, and Nandana. Caitraratha is the grove
of Kubera, made for him by Citraratha (according to R 2, 91, 19, it should
be in the land of the Northern Kurus). The leaves of this grove are
jewels and the fruit are girls of heaven, some twenty thousand of whom
Kubera sent to grace his grandfather's magic feast (ib. 43 f.). Kubera
lived first at Lanka, afterwards in the North; his riches are proverbial,
as is his happiness (R 5, 2, 24; ib. 20, 33). He had a gatekeeper Sur-
yabhanu (slain by Ravana, R 7, 14, 25 f.). He is represented in the later
Ram. as deformed in one eye (ekapinga, RG 4, 44, 4, is not in Bomb, or S),
which became yellow when he indiscreetly looked at Siva and Uma (R 7,
13, 31), so that he was called Ekaksipingala (ib. 36, 17). He is also called
(R 3, 32, 14) Naravahana, "drawn by spirits" (naras, cf. Kimnaras;1) or,
as interpreted by native authority, "drawn by men") and explained by the
fact that when Kubera fares anywhere, he is carried by spirits called
Guhyakas (also Gandharvas), described as half horse and half bird, though
he also, as World-protector, rides an elephant called Sarvabhauma (R 4,
43, 36). Kubera, like Siva, is called BhuteSa (R 6, 4, 20). One of his usual
titles is "king of kings" (which he shares with his half-brother Ravana)
or "king of the whole world" (R 5, 34, 28), as lord of wealth; his city
being Alaka = Vitapa, type of luxury (ib. 2, 15, 36; ib. 16, 8, etc.).2)
Among his councillors are Padma and Sankha, personified treasures (R 7,
15, 17).
§ 84. In Mbh., Kubera is called Ailavila (9, 47, 25 f.), Dhanadhipati,
and he is represented as gaining his lordship over treasure at the Kaubera
Tirtha. He is Yaksarajan and in this version obtains several boons of
Brahman, lordship over wealth, friendship with Siva (Rudra), godship,
suratvam, the post of world-protector, a son Nalakubara (ib. 29), the
Pu§paka car (yoked with geese, swift as thought), and finally lordship
over the Nairrta demons. When Indra and Kubera are associated, they
"guard the East" (3, 163, 5f.), but Kubera alone belongs to the North
(see §§ 91—92). His residence is Kailasa (12, 44, 13), where Caitraratha
(§ 83) is usually said to be and where he was consecrated as Dhanada,
giver of wealth (5, in, n; 3, 80,6). Nandana and the fair retreat called
Vasvaukasara (R 2, 94, 26) belong to both these gods of the North and
East. Like Indra too he has as constant resorts Mandara and Gandha-
madana, as well as Kailasa (3, 139, 5 f.), and his udyanani, or parks, are
on Himavat (i, 120, n), as is his "charming lotus-lake" (NalinI ramya
Kuberakanta, 3, 177, 9), guarded by Rak§asas and Yaksas, Kimnaras
(etc., when assaulted by Bhima). It is the playground of the gods or
particurlarly of the Rajaraja (Kubera, 3, 153, if.). Even men may see
1) See JAOS. 33, p.6of.
2) Vitapa or Vitapavati seems to stand for Alaka in R 5> 3> 4 and R 6, 77, 8. There
is no distinction between Kubera and VaiSravana. The kauberam paramasanam is a
car made by VisVakarman for VaiSravana, etc. (R 6, 124, lof.).
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 143
VaiSravana sitting on Kailasa on holy days; he is golden, like a sun (3,
159, 26 f.), and united with prosperity (Rddhi), which (who) then becomes
his wife (cf. 3, 139, 8); as Prabha to the Sun, Vedl to Brahman (§ 24),
so is Rddhi to Kubera (5, 117, 9; 13, 146, 4; 166, n). Kubera is also
"united to Laksmi" (3, 168, 13), but she is not yet (as later) his wife.
In i, 199, 6, Vais"ravana's consort is Bhadra (Laksmi with Nalakubara is
in Kubera's court, 2, 10, 19). As already stated, and as said in 3, 274, 15,
Pitamaha gave godship, suratvam, amaratvam, to Vais~ravana, because
he deserted his father and clove to his grandfather. Pulastya, son of
Brahman, had a son born of a (the) cow (not unique, cf. I, 50, 2, rsefr
putro gavi jatali), called Vais~ravana, who deserted his father; whereat
to revenge himself the father begot of himself another son, Vis"ravas, "half
of himself, born as a priest. Pulastya's son Vis~ravas (a Muni) disliked
Vais"ravana Kubera, lord of Raksasas, who was then king of kings in
Lanka. The latter, to win his favor, sent Vis~ravas three women, who (§ 17)
became mothers of the brother fiends, Ravana, born of Puspotkata (also
mother of Kumbhakarna) ; Vibhisana, born of Malini ; Khara and Surpa-
nakha, born of Raka. They all lived on Gandhamadana till, jealous of
Kubera, they defeated him and took away his car ; but Ravana was cursed
never to ride in it because he had assaulted his Guru (uncle). Vibhisana,
pious like Kubera, took sides with Kubera and was made general of his
Yaksa and Raksasa armies; but "the cannibalistic Raksasas" and Pis"acas
sided with Ravana (3, 275, 35 f.). In 2, 10, 31, Kubera is half-brother of
the fiends (as in Ram.), instead of being the uncle. The metronymic
Ailavila makes Ilavila the mother of Kubera (5, 139, 14), a later view,
scarcely found represented before the Puranas. Nalakubara (above) appears
in the later parts of the epic and in Harivams~a. The description of Kubera's
hall mentions him and he is said to have cursed Ravana because the fiend
outraged his wife Rambha (3, 280, 59; 291, 33). The story is dramatised
at H 8695 f. In R 7, 26, 32 and 53, Rambha is represented as wife of
Nalakubara and "daughter-in-law" of Ravana. Both epics know Rambha
as wife of Viradha or Tumburu (5, 117, 16) or as loved by him and cursed
by Kubera (R 3, 4, 16) or as cursed by Vis~vamitra (R I, 64, 12; though
in R 4, 35, 8 it is GhrtacI whom he curses) and so in 13, 3, II (cf. R 6,
60, ii ; ib. 7, 26, 14). The allusion to the "son of DhaneSvara" (7, 46, 12)
probably refers to Nalakubara. Kubera becomes a lizard (as a hiding
spirit), when frightened by Ravana (R 7, 18, 5).
§ 85. Kubera's attendants are chiefly "horrible Yaksas" (3, 161, 49 f.),
though he is overlord of Yaksas, Raksasas, and Gandharvas (5, in, ii).
His floating palace is carried by Guhyakas (2, 10, 3), where he sits clothed
in jewels and surrounded by many women. He wears bright ear-rings, is
very wealthy, has a heavenly seat and footstool and is refreshed by breezes
from Nandana and from (here a lotus-lake) Alaka NalinI (2, 10, 8). In R 2,
98, 12, Nandana belongs to Kubera (otherwise Indra's grove, or belongs
to both). With Kubera at his court are £iva and Uma, the Vidyadharas
with their chief (Cakradharman), Kimnaras and Druma, chief of Kimpurusas,
Mahendra, Gandhamadana (Kubera's simian son, R I, 17, ii), Vibhisana,
and other Raksasas and PiSacas ; also NandlSvara and the "roaring white
bull" of £iva whom Paulastya (Kubera) adored of old and who "became
the friend of the wealth-giver". 3ankha and Padma, the "lords of wealth",
are also there (cf. H 2467, as persons ; there are eight of these Nidhis,
ib. 6004). Kubera leads Yaksas to battle; he is the refuge of Raksasas
144 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(5, 156, 12; 13, 61, 38). Manibhadra or Manivara, a Yaksaraj (Yaksendra)
like Kubera (5, 192, 44 f.), is Kubera's chief attendant. He is called lord
of wealth and of treasure (Yaksapati, -adhipa, NidhiSa, Dhanapati, Dra-
vinadhipati, Dhanada ; his name also appears as Manicara) and is invoked
as patron of merchants with Kubera. The Yaksa attendants of Kubera
(2, 10, 14 f. names some of them) are armed with clubs and this is Kubera's
weapon (6, 48,93); but Diva's former "sleep-making" weapon he gave to
Arjuna (3, 41, 35f.). As generous giver he is proverbial (8, 39, 2). He
(jambunada ib.j has a body made of gold. Like all world -protectors,
Kubera has seven seers (5, in, 14; 13, 151, 38 f.); those of the North are
his rtvijs or Gurus, Atri, Vasistha, KaSyapa, Gautama, Bharadvaja, Vis"-
vamitra (Kaus"ika), and Jamadagni. His other attendants are noticeable only
in part, from the fact that their names are his own or convey his attri
butes, Dhanada, Hemanetra, Piugala (all as Guhyaka- Yaksas, 2, 10, I5f.).
Bibhlsana here is distinguished from Vibhisana (S). Amogha, one of them,
is a name of Skanda (3, 232, 5) and the Yaksa Pingala is friend of Rudra
fib. 231, 51). The demoniac trees, Yamala and Arjuna, mentioned in R 7,
6, 35, destroyed by Krsna, when later identified with Nalakubara and
Manibhadra, are called Guhyakas (Bhag. P. 10, 10, 23 f.), but of this legend
the epic has no trace till H 14741. In H, Kubera is fully god, he fights
with KesMn (13189) but especially with Anuhrada (13192 and 13808 f.).
He is here Pingalaksa, DhaneSvara, VaiSravana (scene copied from R6, 58).
§ 86. Bhima's invasion of the North and slaughter of Manimat with
the consequent defeat of Kubera in battle are regarded as expiation for
an insult offered Agastya by Manimat, who spat on the head of the saint
when he was once accompanying Kubera to a convention of gods at
Kusasthali with a great host of Yaksas. The home of Kubera described
in this account represents it (sadana, alaya, avasa, pura) as a high-
walled town with towers, flags, garlands, girls, sweet breezes, fair trees,
gold and crystal houses, inhabited by Kimnaras, Nagas, Munis, Gandharvas,
and Raksasas; the name Alaka appears to be that of Kubera's city as
well as of his lake (3, 160, 36 f.). Another visit to the North implies the
explanation of the title "king of kings". Dharmaraja Yudhisthira visited
Ailavila, "under whose command stand all kings as servants" (5, 139, 14)
and "received many jewels". Yaksas and Raksasas in the account of the
battle (above) are exchangeable terms and the attendants of Kubera are
chiefly Yaksas and Guhyakas rather than the fiercer Raksasas of Ravana's
host. He is, however, called indifferently Yaksadhipati, Raksasadhipati,
Yaksaraksodhipati, RaksaseSvara, and Guhyadhipa, the last epithet recalling
the fact that he is himself a god of hiding (AV. 8, 10, 28) as well as lord
of Raksasas (SB. 13, 4, 3, 10). Hisvinost intimate associates are the Guhyakas,
with whom he lives on Kailasa (6, 6, 41), these being here his only com
rades. From Kailasa he sends by a Guhyaka a magic eye-wash to Rama,
which enables him to see what is hidden (3, 289, pf.). Even when he is
said to consort on Gandhamadana with Raksasas and Gandharvas he is
still called Guhyakadhipa (6, 6, 34). Among his "dear friends" he numbers
the Raksasa Manimat and the Gandharva Aiigaraparna (formerly Citraratha),
who boasts that he is the very particular friend of Kubera and reproves
Arjuna for attacking one who is the "turban" (crown) upon the head of
Kubera (i, 170, 13!".; S 186, 15, v. 1.). It is probable that Guhyaka was
a general name for all the spirits of concealment, though sometimes made
a special class. Thus when Kubera gives advice to Yudhisthira, he is called
V. THE RIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 145
Guhyakadhipa, though accompanied only by Yaksas and Raksasas (in "cars
full of cushions", 3, 162, 32 f.). Kubera's own car is the swiftest known,
swifter than that of the Sun or of Rudra (7, 99, n), and is drawn by
bird-like steeds which gold-wreathed Gandharvas yoke. They "alight like
birds" and "neigh at each other". This is the vimana made by Vis"va-
karman for Yaksadhipati VaiSravana (called Puspaka, 3, 161, I5f.; cf. 159,
26 and vajinali in 162, 35). The steeds, which fly, are expressly "horses"
(ib. 161, 24 hayottamafr; also vimalaksah, which N. says means "having
the ten whorls"!), but are also birds (hamsayukta, "goose-yoked", de
scribes his car in 9, 47, 31). It is just when he rides on this car that (3,
161, 42, etc.) he is described as Naravahana, and as he is never described
as being carried by men, it is clear that naras are spirits. Thus Arjuna
tells how the world-protectors came to him and gave him gifts and says
that he saw Indra and the others on cars, among them Naravahana Kubera
(3, 168, 13) and the scene thus described from memory, when actually
presented (3, 41, 7), also describes Kubera as on a car. On another oc
casion a Yaksa has exchanged his sex and become a female, so that he
is ashamed to meet Kubera, who flies over earth above him in a car and is
called Naravahana even as he calls out to "stop the car" (5, 192, 42; the
Yaksa is Sthuna or Sthunakarna; K is called in this passage almost ex
clusively lord of Yaksas, Yaksadhipati, Yaksapati, Yaksendra, Deva Yaksaraja,
Kubera Naravahana, VaiSravana, Bhagavat, as alsoDhanada, Dhanadhigorjtr).
In 3, 231, 33, Bhagavat Dhanesa with his Guhyakas leads the host of Siva
and is called Naravahana even as he is stepping into his car, Puspaka,
which is never dragged by men but always by the bird-horses described
above. The Naras are called a special kind of Gandharvas, nara nama
(2, 10, 14), and so in VP. I, 5, 57, Nara-Kimnara-Raksamsi (cf. Naraka as
"place of spirits"; Narayana, the place of water or spirits). The word then
means a water-spirit particularly (water and vigor uniting in the idea of
activity and strength). So the "lord of Gandharvas" is properly Varuna,
the lord of water. There is no trace in the epic of the belief that Kubera
was carried by aught save birds on Yaksas or his thousand horses
(H 13130). Another explanation is possible but not plausible, namely that
a "king of kings" ought to be carried in a palanquin, and is therefore
given this epithet of "man-carried". The strongest point in favor of this is
that the epithet is rare in Ram. but common in Mbh., especially in the
later passages (Nalakubara may belong to the same later period, cf. where
he is thus described, in 3, 274, 16, the late word rajadhanl for royal
residence), as in later literature (H 2468 has Naravahana climbing into
his battle-car to fight).
§ 87. Kubera's (northern) district is called the "wealthiest" (5, 109,
16). Kubera possesses one quarter of the wealth of the golden mountain
Meru and of that quarter gives one sixteenth to men (6, 6, 23). Even his
two ministers are called dhaneSvarau (the two jewels). He, his followers,
as well as one of Skanda's, are called dhanada (5, in, 11 ; 9, 46, 13, etc.).
There is a close connection between these followers of Kubera and Skanda.
Another of Skanda's is called Vasuda (wealth-giver), another even has
Kubera's name, Pingaksi (ib. 5 and 18; cf. Vasudha, R 7, 5, 41 = S 42 ;
H 4362, Vasuda = Kubera). The Mothers in general are in part Kauberyah
and one is called Vittada (9, 46, 28 and 36), as Kubera, possessed of
vaittapalya, is called Vittapala and VitteSa (6, 34, 23; R 7, 11, 23 and
26; Manu 5,96; ib. 7, 4 and 42) or Vittapati (7, 185,25). These epithets
Indo-arische Philologie III. i b. 10
146 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
meaning guardian of wealth fit in with his title as king, so that he is
described as "best of kings" in antithesis to Indra, "best of gods" (8, 8,
24 f.). This leads to the later belief that Kubera was a man. In H 259,
"Varuna lord of water, VaiSravana lord of kings" (was made), suggests
the manusyaprakrti gods accepted as part of the pantheon (cf. GDH.,
16, 34 and Ap. I, 3, n, 3, with scholiast, Kubera and NandTSvara as
human). The Grhya-Sutras reckon him a god (Hiran. GS. 2, 8, 19, i). As
lord of wealth Kubera shares the role of Indra (Dhanada, Dhanapati, RV.
I, 33, 2f. ; AV. 5, 23, 2), with whom he shares the northern district. In
14, 65, n, the explorer before digging for treasure in the northern hills
"reveres Dhanadhyaksa and all the Nidhipalas and £ankha and other
treasures" as well as the Yaksendra Kubera and Manibhadra, to whom and
to the other Yaksas and "lords of Bhuts" are made offerings (cf. 3GS. I,
n, 6) of meat and sesamum seeds, also flowers (partly to Kubera and
partly to Rudra-£iva and their attendants). The treasure is guarded by
savage Kimnaras (ib. 63, 15). Nidhipa and -pad are titles of Kubera
(cf. H 6277, 6922, 12495; and 12, 207, 35, asrjat Sarvabhutatma
nidhipam ca DhaneSvaram). Indra still rains gold in the epic (12, 29,
25 f.) and his wealth is proverbial; he is sometimes especially grouped
with Kubera DhaneSvara as contrasted with other divinities (3, 19, 21).
Kubera has s"rl, which is material prosperity (a man is said to "become
Sreyan" or "reach sreyas" not morally but materially, "gets richer");
his son is "brought up in superlative ease" (atyantasukhasamvrddha,
7, 46, 12); "as rich as Croesus" is expressed by s~riya Vais"ravano-
pamah (2, 17, 15). Wealth (Sri) even greater than that of Guhyakadhipati
(2, 49, 35) is the last of a series of inferior fortunes belonging to Indra,
Yama, and Varuna. In short, though others rival him, Kubera has become
the norm of exhaustless wealth (2, 58, 3; 12, 124, 13, etc.), as his town
gives the standing phrase (e. g. R I, 77, 15) Kuberabhavanopamam,
"like Kubera's residence", in wealth. This wealth is gold, for gold is wealth.
It is dug out of the ground with the help of Wind (purified by Vayu) and
Fire (£ukra) and it is given to men when the Fire-god is revered under
the double constellation Prosthapadau, for gold in earth is guarded by
the regents of this constellation, namely, Ajaikapad and the Serpent of
the Depth, Ahi Budhnya (5, 114, if.; Ajaikapad is also a name of Siva,
13, 17, 103). The scholiast takes the handing over of the gold to Fire
to mean "on Friday" (^ukre), but allows Agni to give the gold to Kubera.
But in either case, gold (the son of Fire, 3, 200, 128 and passim) is here
guarded by the Serpent of the Depth and is dug out and purified and
handed over to man through the medium of fire, wind, and Kubera, sug
gesting a forge, bellows, and guhera (smith), which was very likely a
function of the guhya (Kubera). All the gold comes from the North. The
gods take that of the Jambu-tree (6, 7, 26) and men get that of the upper
Ganges and of the mountains, either by digging, or through the medium
of the mountaineers, who bring it down from the hills, after getting it
from the ants. There is also a lake at UsTrabija (in the North which
produces gold and there too are (Jimuta's) gold-mines of the Himalayas
(2, 52, 4; 5, in, 23; cf. 5, 34, 32). The serpents who steal gold are
familiar, as are those who carry off jewels (i, 3, 128; cf. 7, 93, 34). It
is the Guhyakas who guard Hataka, north of Druma's land of Kimpurusas,
the source of hataka gold (2, 28, I f.). When Soma is the world-protector
instead of Kubera, he too guards gold, so that Soma and Agni are reckoned
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEYAS. 147
as joint fathers of gold (Agnisomatmakam idam suvarnam, 13, 84,
46), probably because of the difference between red gold and the whitish
gold called maharajatam (6, 7, 29; jambunada gold is reddish, indra-
gopakasamkas'a, ib. 26). This gold may be the "beloved thing of Ku
bera", which "gives immortality to mortals, makes the blind see, and
restores youth to the old" (5, 64, 18). It is kept in a jar, guarded by
dragons, like the Golden Fleece, or like the soma stolen by Garuda, and
it is found in a cave, so hard to reach that those who attempt the climb
usually lose life (ib. 22). The application of the famous proverb "he sees
the honey but ignores the fall" (5, 51, 26; II, I, 37; 12, 310, 7; cf. 7,
51, ii and ib. 133, 10), is in this case probably to gold, as it is mystically
interpreted by Jambhasadhakas. It is "loved by Kubera", and described
as madhu pTtakamaksikam.
§ 88. The epic has moral tales about Kubera. Vais"ravana Alakadhipa
holds converse with Mucukunda and offers him the earth (5, 132, 8f.).
Mucukunda fights with Kubera and is defeated by Nairrtas "made by
Kubera", after which he teaches Kubera that priest and warrior ought
to unite, proving his point by having his priest Vasistha demolish Kubera's
Raksas (12, 74, 3f.). In the last passage, Kubera creates Raksasas and is
"lord of good and ill"; but only as a subordinate, for Kubera says that
he disposes of kingdoms only as he is instructed to do so by a superior
power. Kubera is also overpowered by the priest of the demons (12, 290,
8f.). USanas here through Yoga-power enters Kubera and steals his wealth,
whereupon Kubera runs to &va for help, who tries to pierce Us"anas with
his javelin; but USanas sits on its point and then jumps down Siva's
throat. Kubera is here king and god and "master of treasure" (N. as
"treasurer of Indra", not necessary). Another late story tells how Kubera
had a visit from Astavakra, received him well, and entertained him with
music and dance, a performance carried out by his Gandharvas and Ap-
sarasas for a "divine year", without the guest noticing the lapse of time
(I3> J9> 33 f-)- Kubera admits that "music is captivating", and lets him go.
Then the guest departs, saying vrddhiman rddhiman bhava (53), which
looks as if Kubera's wife were not yet Rddhi. Other late traits of the
god are not known to either epic, such as Mlnaksi as his daughter, his
three legs, and deformities of teeth, etc. Negative evidence is strong here,
as in the case of other gods. Even in Hariv., he is not three-headed
three-legged, or four-armed, as now. There is quite a gap between the
epics and Puranas, though here and there the Purana may conserve
earlier traits than those of the epics.
§ 89. The Guhyakas are generally on earth or in the hills (i, 146, 12
and above). Like the gods and other spirits they did not exist in the
first age (3, 149, 13 f.). They appear as luminous forms in heaven (3,42,
36) and as demoniac forms in battle (3, 173, 50), but such aerial flights
do not represent their normal condition, which is that of earth-gnomes,
though they are sent on messages or visit battle-fields as spectators (R 6,
67, 163, etc.), being grouped with Suparnas and other supernatural beings
(ib. 71, 66). They "disappear like fata morgana" (i, 126, 34). They are
associated with Pitrs (3, 3, 43) as Sun-worshippers (cf. AV. 8, 8, 15) and
may be ghosts but seem rather to be the half-gods such as fairies, gnomes,
etc., for which reason, as not being Devas, though of divine origin, the
As"vins and plants and animals are grouped as Guhyakas (i, 66, 40). The
character of the chief Guhyaka, Kubera, in being one of productivity, is
10*
148 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
similar to that of &va, whose phallic tendency may be paralleled in the
invocation of Kubera "for the man" at the time 3iva Is"ana is invoked at
weddings; the latter's son too is Guha and described as sarvaguhya-
maya (i, 137, 13), of unknown Origin or hidden. Like Kubera Guhya,
this Guha lives on the mountains (R 6, 69, 30, etc.). The world of Guhyakas
is for those who die by the sword, not ignobly but not bravely, and is
next to the lowest earth-world of Yama (n, 26, 12 f. ; 13, 102, 14!".). This
accords with the fact that Vasudhara is both "earth" and the name of
Kubera (Jambhala)'s wife and city in Buddhistic lore1). His later title
Kames"vara has to do with his role as marriage -divinity (hence three-
legged, as Priapos). Hence too his close connection with the amorous
Gandharvas ; perhaps also with the (androgynous r 2) Kimpurusas (Ailavila
may be connected with the androgynous Ila). Kubera's hams as are fitting
messengers for lovers (3, 53, ipf.).
§ 90. A few words in conclusion regarding Kubera's attendants. The
Yaksas assume any shape (3, 139, 7) and the female, Yaks! and Yaksim,
may appear as a beautiful woman, so that an unknown beauty is asked
if she be goddess of the district or a Yaksi, and a handsome man is said
to look like a Yaksa or Gandharva (3, 53, 13; 55, 17; 64, 120) or a
Guhyaka (3, 147, 24). These females are usually invisible; they sit beside
their lords unseen and peep at Bhlma longingly (3, 146, 30). They descend
from Pulastya and Pulaha (i, 66, 7f.) or come from the world-egg (i, i,
35, a later view). Individuals are seldom named (i, 63, 125, Sthuna, and
above the names of a few at Kubera's court); the nine spirits slain by
Garuda (i, 32, 19) may be Yaksas; they are "like clouds". The pretended
Yaksa who asks riddles is really Dharma (3, 314, if.). The individual may
be kindly (5, 191, 23), but as guardians with Raksasas they can fight (7,
94, 36). They are grouped with Nagas (i. I, 255), but more often form
part of a general group of gods, Gandharvas, Nagas, etc., as in i, 212, 2
(robbed by Asuras). They are known as "good people", Punyajana, whose
peculiar attribute is "disappearance", their mystic "milker" being Kubera,
and their "calf" Siva (7, 69, 24 = H 385, with v. 1.), or "Kuberaka" is
the calf and their milk is received from mother earth (Viraj). Punyajana
is also applied to the former sons of Pracetas, who burned away the
mighty jungle before man's ancestor was born (i, 75, 4). A Yaksim at
Rajagrha has a daily service and cult (3, 84, 105). Another Yaksim shrine
is mentioned in 3, 83, 23 as "world-renowned". The number of Yaksas
guarding the northern mountains is three hundred and fifty-two thousand
(3, I39> 6), unless the expression caturguna Yaksah means the four
classes mentioned as Gandharvas, Kimpurusas, Yatudhanas, and Raksasas
"savage and mild". Rajatanabha is the father of Manivara (H 382 f.; cf.
AV. 8, 10, 28). A comparison of the AV. and epic passages shows that
the "other people" are identical with the "good people", that is, spirits,
perhaps including ghosts; but there is no other indication that epic Yaksas
are (as later) ghosts. Manibhadra is apparently meant when Manimat is
mentioned (i, 2, 179 f.), but this is not certain and the name is also applied
to a Naga and a Raksasa (2, 9, 9, and above). The connection with the
*) Compare A. Foucher, Etude sur 1'Iconographie bouddhique de 1'Inde.
2) Compare the note below on p. 159. Kubera is chthonic in character and home
(cf. Mahavai]isa, 10, 89, "the banyan-tree of Vessavana" Kubera), and this may be indicated
by his especial imps, the Nairrtas, as gnomes or sons of the underground power Nirrti
(Hell as place or power of destruction).
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 149
Nagas as treasure-hiders appears in the description of the gate-keepers
of the Naga-Tfrtha at Kuruksetra, viz., Arantuka and Tarantuka on one
side and Macakruka (v. 1. Macakraka and Mankanaka) on the other; these
are Yaksa gate-keepers, as well as places bounding the holy land (3, 83,
9 and 52 and 208; S 81, 9).
§ 91. The World-Protectors. The eight gods discussed above
(§38 — § 90) are grouped in later literature as guardians of the four chief
and four subsidiary directions, the Sun-god of the South-West, the Moon-
god of the North-East, the Wind-god of the North- West, the Fire-god of
the South-East, and for cardinal points, Yama of the South, Varuna of
the West, Kubera of the North, and Indra of the East. The exact district
assigned to each is not specified so early as are the names. Thus the
eight are found as Lokapalas in Manu 5, 96 (with ib. 7, 4 cf. 12, 68, 41), but
without indication of the localities assigned to the individuals. On the
other hand some late authorities make Nirrti the guardian of the South-
West, instead of the Sun; and Prthivi or &va Is"ana the guardian of the
North-East, instead of the Moon-god. In the epic, which knows no such
group of eight, the world-protectors are counted as four and only the
cardinal points are represented. Sometimes the four appear as a group
without express mention of the fact that they are regarded as Lokapalas,
as in 7, 72, 45, where Vaivasvata, Varuna, ^atakratu, and Dhanesa are
represented as welcoming a dead hero. The fixed positions in the epics
are those of Yama and Varuna, in the South and West, respectively. The
four, however, are not always the same. In 3, 55, 6f., they appear as
Indra (Sakra), Agni, Varuna, Yama. In 3, 41, 9f., Yama, Indra, Kubera,
and Varuna, as Lokapalas, give gifts to Arjuna, and Yama stands in the
South. Yama, as a form of Fate, is the only one who survives the ages
(3» 3r3> J and 27), for here four stricken brothers look "like Lokapalas
at the end of the Yuga" and the survivor exclaims: ko 'nyah (iman)
pratisamaseta Kalantakayamad rte. The gifts made to Arjuna are
alluded to in 3, 91, 13 and 168, 14 f., where Yama is in the South and
has of course the same coadjutors (Kubera, Varuna, and Indra) in their
own quarters; only the intervening 3, 161, 8, hints that they belong in
heaven as Devavaras, but this is not in the same connection and is only
by way of a simile. The fact that Ravana calls himself the "fifth of world-
protectors" shows that four was the regular number (3, 281, 14). They
are said to be not only best of gods but swift as thought (3,41,48), and
they are all war-gods. When they are said to be unable to kill a hero, it
is a boast modified by an accompanying "even" into a compliment (9, 61,
65), much as when it is said that "even Yama and Soma" fear ViSvamitra
(J» 71? 39), who conquers all gods, even the strongest. In 8, 45, 31 f. it
is said: "The gods living in the East have Agni as their leader; Yama of
noble deeds guards the Pitrs living in the South ; the West is guarded
by Varuna, who also guards other gods ; the North is guarded by Bhagavat
Soma and the priests". Here, though not expressly called Lokapalas, the
protecting gods are evidently thought of as such (diSam daksinam
guptam Yamena . . pratfcim Varunalj. pati palayanali suran ball;
udlclm bhagavan Somo brahmanaih saha raksati). The grouping
of Agni, Yama, Varuna, and Indra seems older than when Kubera is sub
stituted for Agni (as above). This substitution occurs, and Mahendra (though
this is not very significant) stands for Indra, in the list of Lokapalas to
whose homes ^akuntala says she can go if she will (i, 74, 85). Of these
1 50 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Lokapalas, though Yama is a constant member, only Varuna has his nu
merical position defined as "fourth of the Lokapalas" (i, 225, 3), as if
the list began in the North. They are also called Lokapas, as when Yayati
says that the Lokapa Brahmanalj urge him to fall (i, 92, 7). The fact that
Kubera is one of the four whose Sabhas are described (besides Brahman's)
rather ranges that section in time with the period indicated by the pas
sages cited above to the same effect. The four Lokapalas who "live on
Himavat" (12, 328, 7), like the DiSampalas of the North, who cry out
morning and evening, "What can we do for anybody?" (kasya karyaip
kim, 5, in, 26), may be the later Puranic four saints as Lokapalas (VP.
1, 22, gf. ; ib. 2, 8, 82 f.); or, as they are grouped with Garuda, may be,
like him, temporary visitors. Though each Lokapala has his Sabha, they
all are found in that of Brahman (2, n, 28). Inferentially Yama appears
in the North as well as in the South (as sacrificing at Bindusaras, etc.
2, 3, 15). But in 13, 159, 31, there are only three Lokapalas. Now as
there are three worlds (lokalj, ib.), one would expect three Lokapalas,
if the protectors bore any relation to the worlds. Despite their title, how
ever, the "world-protectors" are, in reality, DiSampalas, guarding the earth
and perhaps the regions above and below to East, South, West, and North.
Conspicuously so are the two fixtures, Yama in the South but underground
rather than above, and Varuna in the West and under water (gopati,
salilaraja; cf. 5, no, 3). It may be supposed, however, that originally
there were three real world-protectors, in the sense that they protected
not the dis~alj, directions, but the worlds, earth and the worlds below
and above. The sophisticated later age, which no longer traces the relation,
may think of the four world-protectors and at the same time of the three
worlds (R 6, 93, 10 and 42 f.). Valmiki recognises four Lokapalas by in
ference (R i, 72, 25) or expressly, as when (R 2, 16, 24) Indra, Yama,
Varuna, and Kubera guard East, South, West, and North, and these four
respectively impart greatness, restraint, beauty, and wealth to the ideal
first king (R 7, 76, 41, the king exercises his Yamya bhaga as punisher,
s~asti; cf. Manu 7, 4 f.). Four world-protectors appear also in R 6, 131, 64.
But in R 2,91, 13, ahvaye lokapalams trln devan Sakramukhams
tatha, the natural meaning is ''I invoke the three world-protecting gods
with Indra at their head", not, as the scholiast says, the three and Indra
besides. The variability of the fourth member especially may point to the
same conclusion. In the great epic there is a confused account telling
how Indra was conversing with Brhaspati in regard to getting rid of
Nahusa, whose evil eye they feared, when there came along "the world-
protector Kubera, and Yama Vaivasvata, the ancient, and god Soma, and
Varuna". Then "great Indra addressed these world-protectors", saying
that Varuna, Yama, and Kubera should be rewarded for their help, and
"Indra gave Agni a share in the sacrifice, and Bhagavat made Kubera
overlord of Yaksas, and of wealth ; Yama, overlord of Pitrs ; and Varuna,
overlord of waters". Here Soma comes in first, and is then displaced by
Agni, when the time for rewards comes, and Indra is certainly outside of
the group he addresses as "world-protectors" (5, 16, 27 f.). In the same
way Indra is not in the group when it is suggested that it would be a
good thing for Arjuna to receive divine gifts from "Indra, Rudra, and also
from the world-protectors", after the same idea has been expressed in
the words "Indra, Rudra, Varuna, Kubera, Yama" (will give; 3, 36, 32 and
34). In Nala, the group Indra, Agni, Varuna, Yama (3, 55, 6) excludes
V. THE EIGHT GREAT DEVAS. 151
Kubera; and lokapalas" ca sagnikafc (ib. 54, 24) should logically ex
clude Indra, since here "the world-protectors with Agni came to Indra's
presence". But one may not be too logical, and the conclusion of this
tale shows that Indra is at once recognised as Lokapala. In 12, 1 66, 67,
however, "Indra gave Asi to the Lokapalas", . he is apart from them.
There remains the explicit correlation of three protectors of worlds with
three worlds, to point to an earlier group of guardians of the three. Soma
still lingers in the epic as one of these; later he rules "above". Yama
and Varuna may have been the other two. What remains also, however, is
the later addition of Kubera, who was not a world-protector or even a god
at first, so that when the four were established as guardians of directions
rather than of worlds, the first grouping was probably Agni, Yama,
Varuna, and Soma, the first and last then yielding to Indra and Kubera.
Finally, the ejected ones (Soma and Agni, cf. 4, 30, 25) came back as
guards of the intermediate points, North-East and South-East, respect
ively, Indra settling into the East (7, 184, 47), after Kubera had got
the North. As a matter of fact, Indra belongs in the North-East, at least
according to epic ideas, and epic tradition still recognises that Kubera
was raised late to the position of world-protector and added to the group
of Yama, Indra, and Varuna (R 7, 3, I7f.). In 3, 163, 3 f., Dhaumya "takes
Yudhisthira by the right hand, looks at the East", and says: "Here is to
be seen Mt. Mandara which covers earth to the ocean. It is the district
which Indra and VaiSravana (Kubera) together guard and the seers call
it the seat of Mahendra and Vai£ravana; it is where the sunrises. Yama
the Dharmajfia Rajan, lord of all breathing creatures, occupies the southern
district, where dead beings go (pretasattvagati, Samyamana; above).
Varuna protects the Asta (sunset) mountain and the sea. This northern
district great Meru illuminates, the auspicious, where go those who know
Brahman (Brahmavidam gati); on it is the seat, sadman, of Brahman,
and there abides the soul of beings (bhutatman), Prajapati, creator of
all that moves and is immovable". The northern Lokapala is not named
here; on the contrary, only three "protected" districts are named as such,
and Indra and Kubera together are assigned distinctly to the East, where
the sun rises. But there is a good reason for this. The interview takes
place in the North, so that what is here described as East is North-East
from the plains, and that is really the position of Mt. Mandara. Thus
Kubera and Indra are strictly guardians of the North and East together,
meeting in the North-East. The interview with Kubera, just before this
conversation, makes it plain that he is especially in the North (Gandha-
madana mountain), where his minions (ib. 162, 12) "protect" the guest,
as they have previously protected the country from the foe. Prajapati is
probably not thought of as the guardian of the North here, though Brahman,
in the "Sabhakhyana of Lokapalas", follows Indra, Yama, Varuna, and
Kubera (2, n) as if he were Lokapala. The Vana passage really amounts
to describing the Lokapalas in the way they are mentioned in other passages,
with Yama and Varuna to South and West, respectively, and Kubera
and Indra in the North and East, respectively ; but it points out that the
districts of the two merge in the North-East.
§ 92. In the Harivams'a there is a chapter beginning 12487 (= 3, 37,
i), which describes how the Creator distributed power among the gods.
He first made Indra the king of the three worlds and then appointed
kings over different departments, who were promptly "consecrated by
152 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Indra": Viratha(?) in the East; Yama Dharmaraja in the South; the son
of KaSyapa, the god in the waters, salilantargata, called amburaja
(water-king, Varuna), in the West; Pulastya's son, the glorious lord equal to
Indra, the one-eyed one, called Pingala (Kubera), in the North (saumyayam
dis"i). Here the absence of Indra from the group is necessary, as he is
already king of the three worlds and consecrates the others to their office.
The king of the East in 12509 may be Aruna (Langlois), but he is called
Viratha: putro 'sya Viratho nama KaSyapasya Prajapatefr, raja
pracyam dis"i tatha Vasavena 'bhisecitaji.
There are then the following groups of epic Lokapalas:
East, Agni Kubera Agni Kubera Indra
South, Yama Yama Yama Yama Yama
West, Varuna Varuna Varuna Varuna Varuna
North, Indra Indra Soma Soma Kubera.
The representatives of South and West are constant. Agni and Kubera
and Indra are assigned to the East ; Indra, Kubera, and Soma to the North.
The last column to the right represents the Ram. view; in content
(not distribution) it is one with the Mbh. view of the second column and
period. Neither epic knows of the Puranic saints (above) as world-pro
tectors. Both epics recognise elephants ridden by four world-protectors
(see § 10). While neither epic has yet settled upon the four gods, both
recognise only the group of four; but H 6042, Manu, later law-books, and
the Puranas have a group of eight Lokapala gods whose members are
fixed.1) H 14337 adds ^e§a below and Soma above to the four.
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS.
§ 93. Gandharvas. — Under Kubera it has been shown that he is
lord of Gandharvas and that Gandharvas include Naras and Kimnaras. The
name is derived from g and ha, vapor. The poets take this in the sense
of exhalation, or scent; Gandharvas and Apsarasas share the "scent" of
the earth-mother in AV. 12, I, 23. It has been shown also that AV. 8,
10, 27 is copied in the epic and again in the Hariv., and in the first of
these passages the epic writer says that Gandharvas and Apsarasas got,
in the milking of earth, punyagandha as their milk (7, 69, 25). It is
probably from association with this idea of being possessed of pure
odor that they are derived from the Creator's nose (H 11787), though
Kagyapa is also said to be their sire (ib. 11850). Their mothers are
daughters of Daksa, Muni, Pradha, Kapila, and Arista (i, 65, 42 f., H 234
and 11553). They have several chiefs or kings. Thus ViSvavasu is a
Gandharvaraja (i, 8, 6), both ascetic and skilled in the dance and instru
mental music and song; he has a Tirtha on the SarasvatI (9, 37, iof.).
The Gita authoritatively makes Citraratha foremost of the Gandharvas (6,
*) It may be added that the four Maharajas of the Buddhists combine the Lokapala
gods and the elephants of the directions (Vessavana and Dhatarattha) with other un-Brah-
manic features (Virulhaka and Virupakkha). The late passage above in the Hariv., which
speaks of the guardians as Rajans may reflect this view. Compare Visnu's epithet, catur-
maharajika (§ 155). The idea of space-protectors gives rise even to a theory of holy cows
as guardians of the four quarters, but this does not appear to have become popular; it
is probably a theoretical extension of the notion of a wonder-cow, one of the four being,
in fact, called Sarvakamadugha, "granter of every desire" (cf. § 139). On the sublimated
forms of Lokapalas known as Nara, Narayarjia, Hari, and Krsna, see § 152.
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 153
34, 26) but refers to Narada as a devarsi (not a Gandharva as below).
All Gandharvas have sweet voices, valguvadinafr, and are radiant as
the sun, suryavarcasafr; they sing on Meru, Mandara, Gandhamadana,
or other mountains (i, 17, 6; 5, 109, 9; 7, 6p, 7), though they are heard
in the sky and frequent the woods (below). The lists of the Gandharvas
do not give prominence to their various "kings"; probably out of the
countless hosts of these beings (in Gandhamadana alone there are three
millions of fighting Gandharvas under the kings Haha-Huhu, RB 6, 82, 50),
only kings are mentioned, though many of the names are of unimportant
members apparently, some of them being of uncertain form (due to varied
readings of the same list and metrical change). Suryavarcas (above)
is both epithet of all and name of one (in AV., as son of Citraratha).
Deva-Gandharvas and Gandharvas are not as spirits differentiated ; but as
gandharvas are also human minstrels (1,219, 7 f.; 7, 82, 28), the distinction
may be merely between the minstrels of gods and of men. Gandharva
is music (2, 5,9, yuddhagandharvam "music of battle" ; cf. R 1,4, 10;
R 6, 52, 24), and a gandharvaSastram, studied by kings, is known (13,
104, 149; cf. Gandharva- Veda, 3,91, 15: the word for musician is either
gandharva or gandharva, 2, 5, I ; 7, 57,4; R 7, 94, 6). This is already
indicated in the earlier distinction between "divine" and "human" Gandhar
vas (TUp. 2, 8, i). Though lists of Gandharvas are obviously not meant to
be complete, several formal lists are found (i, 65, 42 f. ; ib. 123, 55 f.; 2,
10, 25; H 14156; R 2,91, i<5; ib. 45; R 4, 22, 27 f.; R 4, 41, 43), which,
combined with occasional references (below), furnish the following cata
logue (those found only in H are so marked): (Angaraparna), Atibahu,
Anagha, Arkaparna, Alambusa, Ugrasena, Umbara (H, or D-), Urnayu, Rtvan
(or Satvan), Karala, Kali, Karsni, Gopa, Gopati, Golabha, Gomayu (H),
GramanI, Citrangada, Citraratha, CitraSiras (H), Citrasena, Dumbara, Tam-
buru or Turn-, Trnapa, Dhrtarastra, Nandi, Narada, Parjanya, Parvata,
Purna, Purnayu, Prayuta, Babhru, Barhi, Bahuguna, Brhaka, Brhatvan,
Brahmacarin, Bharanya (?), Bhanu, Bhlma, Bhlmasena, Bhumanyu (Su-),
MahaSruti (H), Yugapa, Ratiguna (Ra-), Varuna, Vis*vavasu, 3aru, 3alis~iras,
&ksa (or 3ighru or Sindhu), £uka (or 3ubhra or Sthana), ^ailusa, Satyavac,
Satvan (or Rtvan), Siddha, Sucandra, Sutanu, Suparna, Sumanyu (Bhu-),
Suvarna, Suryavarcas, Somavarcas (H), Hanisa (H), Haha (Haha), Huhu
(Huhu). Of these, Citraratha (originally called Angaraparna), ViSvavasu,
and Suryavarcas are the most important in legend and prestige as Gandhar
vas, though Narada becomes more important as the later epic treats him
as a god-seer. Probably ViSvaruci, the lord in the earth-milking, should be
added (7, 69, 25); cf. Suruci, in H 388. Somavarcas is both Gandharva
(H 14157) and a member of the Vis"ve Devas (13, 91, 33); Hamsa is also
a Danava (H 9141) and a son of Arista (i, 67, 83), who is mother of
Gandharvas (H 234). Gopati is doubtless Gopa; he also is a Danava (H ib.),
a fact not unimportant, since the Gandharvas warred with gods (compare
Asura as name of an Apsaras). Alambusa and Ugrasena in 4, 56, 12 are
probably Gandharvas (so Nil.). Urnayu is the husband of Menaka and
perhaps father of Somada (cf. 5, 117, 16 and below). There are several
Gandharvls (below) ; the chief of these is the abstract Gandharvf or an
cestress of all horses, which marks the centaur character of these spirits:
"Rohini produced cows; and Gandharvl, horses" (vajinaft, i, 66, 68; R 3,
14, 28). Under Kubera it was shown that his steeds were Gandharvas or
Guhyakas of half bird-like half horse-like appearance. As the number of
1 54 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Gandharvas in Vedic times was reckoned as twenty-seven, so a verse in
the epic, 2, 4, 37, "Twenty-seven sit about him, Tumburu and Citrasena
with his ministers, Gandharvas and Apsarasas", seems to reflect this, but
as if the author spoke with conscious uncertainty as to the real explanation
of the twenty-seven; as how could he help doing when the epic mind
held the doctrine that Gandharvas were everywhere and reckoned by
millions ? (S keeps the number twenty-seven ; C omits it). Tumburu is here
the special friend of the king and leads the Gandharvas in music and
singing, which is performed by Gandharvas and Kimnaras, "skilled in song
and in instrumental music, and in keeping time" (samyatalavis'aradalj,
pramane 'tha laye sthane, etc., ib. 38f.). At Kubera's court the "lords
of the Gandharvas" (2, 10, 25 f.) are Vis~vavasu, Haha-Huhu, Tumburu, Par-
vata, £ailusa, Citrasena (gitajna) and Citraratha. Such groups of kings
are often found. In 15, 29, 9, for example, Vis~vavasu, Tumburu, and Ci
trasena come with Narada, Parvata, and Devala (the last three also in
15, 20, i) to visit the exiled king; but here the later view has prevailed
which regards them only as Munis. They are not spoken of as Gandharvas,
and in the later epic Narada and Parvata appear almost entirely as Munis
rather than as Gandharvas, as they do often in the early epic (Devala is
never a Gandharva). The chief Gandharvas are ViSvavasu, Narada, and
Parvata in I, 187, 7 (cf. 5, n, 15, where the first two are mentioned as
heading the music-makers at Nahusa's court). Tumburu and Citrasena are
mentioned as being in Indra's court (2, 7, 14; 3, 45, 2), and Citraratha
is called "Indra's follower", Vasavanuga (2, 52, 23). The grove he made,
called Caitraratha, is Indra's special pleasaunce (R 6, 128, 28; but see
below). The Gandharvas as Deva-Gandharvas playing at the court of the
Northern king seem to be mythologically connected with the fact that the
Buddhistic Gandharvas are chiefly at the court of Dhrtarastra (the Northern
Maharaja). Bhari of H 7220 may be the Barhi above.
§ 94. ViSvavasu, whose name is also an epithet of Visnu (6, 65, 47),
is the most venerable of the Gandharvas (RV. 10, 139, 4f.). He worships
Brahman (5, 49, 3) and plays the lute so delicately that each who hears
thinks he is playing for him alone (12, 29, 76). He sits as he plays in
the midst of seven times six thousand dancing Gandharvas (cf. ib. with
12, 223, 22, where the same formula designates the number of dancing
Deva-Gandharvas, in addition to the same number of dancing Devayositas,
ib. 19); the same phrase occurs at 7, 61,7. Nil. wrongly connects saptadha
with the lute-strings : he plays on seven strings while six thousand dance.
Noteworthy is it that here and often the Gandharvas dance as well as
sing. The Apsarasas are unnecessary as complement. Vi£vavasu, Citrasena,
Narada, Tumburu "and others" are gltakovidalj among Gandharvas, all
of whom, however, are gltakuSala nrtyesu ca viSaradafr, "good at
singing and skilled in dancing" (14, 88, 40). Usually the Gandharvas sing
and play the lute (3, 46, 27) and the nymphs dance (R 2, 91, 26; R 6,
131, 68). On Mt. Mandara eighty-eight thousand Gandharvas serve Kubera
and Manivara (3, 139,6); they.are called "swift-going". Vis"vavasu as the
elderly friend of Arjuna and father of Citrasena (3, 168, 57) is old enough
to preach a sermon on the duties of husbands and sing a religious s"loka
(3, 90, 18; H 11248; ib. 12474, he is son of Muni with "Bharanya", perhaps
another Gandharva, but v. 1. a r any aft). Yet he is cursed to become a
Raksasa (3, 279, 42, slain by Rama), and his daughter is a Raksasi (q. v.).
He lias another daughter by Menaka, viz. Pramadvara (i, 8,6). He teaches
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 155
Aiigaraparna, who changed his name to Citraratha and whose wife Kum-
bhinasl pleaded for his life (i, 170, 34 f. and 43). Gandharvas are grouped
in this passage with Raksas and Yaksas as beings that injure men at the
•evening gloaming (ib. 9). This power increases at night (i, 170, 69), but
in the case of the Gandharva with his wife it may be questioned whether
the power is not peculiarly due to his dislike to being disturbed in con
jugal amity at that time. However, the Gandharvas are warriors, armed
with bows. Citraratha imparts to Arjuna, after he has changed his name
and become his friend, the "science of seeing", caksusi vidya (i, 170,
43 ; repeated S 1 , 199, 5) , which he had himself got from ViSvavasu
(through penance), who again had been taught it by the Moon-god, the
only connection between Gandharvas and the Moon (cf. SB. 9, 4, I, 9,
the Moon as Gandharva); but here the Moon is only a link, for the Moon
learned it of Manu. Citraratha then promises Arjuna one hundred horses
of the Gandharva breed (Gandharvajafc, I, 170, 54), which assume any
form, fulfill all wishes, and go at will (cf. a reference to these "wind-
swift" steeds in 5, 56, 13). Citraratha also tells the history of TapatI and
Samvarana and his desire for a Gandharva-wedding, the birth of Kuru,
etc. (i, 171 — 182). ViSvavasu in Ram. is invoked with Haha-Huhu and
Tumburu to make magic gardens for Bharadvaja (R 2, 91, i6f.). In the
Uttara he is father by Anala of Kumbhinasi (mother of Lavana and wife
of Lola's son Madhu, R 7, 61, 17). He shares the "path of the air" (R 5,
i, 169). Citraratha gives a name to Rama's suta (R 2, 32, 17). His park,
which (above) is Indra's, is usually Kubera's ; it is a typical spot of beauty
(R 2,71,4; ib. 91, 47, etc., etc.). The Mbh. assigns it to Kubera only
(3, 80, 6), which is proper, as it is on Kailasa "where Kubera was made
overlord" (5, in, n). Pilgrims visit it (i, 119, 48) and in this epic also
it serves as the non plus ultra of beauty in landscape (i, 63, 45; 70, 30;
75,48, etc.). Citraratha is all-wise and self-controlled (as son of Muni, I,
65, 43). Besides the steeds mentioned above, Citraratha gives as tribute
speckled (tittirikalmasa) Gandharva horses (2, 61, 22, here aSvan Gan-
dharvan). Citrasena is called Gandharvaraja by Indra, to whose court he
belongs (3, 45, 2). He teaches Arjuna in Amaravati "song, instrumental
music, and dancing" (ib. 44, 6f. ; 168, 56 f.). He is called son of Vis"vavasu
(3, 91, 14; 168, 57) and appears with his family along with Narada, Parvata,
ViSvavasu and the Haha-Huhus (parivaraganah, 12, 200, 12). His en
counter with the Kurus is an imitation of that of Citraratha with Arjuna
(3, 240 and 241, i8f.). Arjuna defeats him and then converses amicably
with his "friend" (ib. 245, 28; 246, i). The slaughtered Gandharvas are
revived by Indra, who sprinkles ambrosia over them (ib. 246, 1 8). The
combat is alluded to again in 4, 49, 9. Another "Citra" Gandharva is known
only from I, 101, 6f., where Citraiigada challenges and slays a mortal
king of the same name, after calling upon him (so S) either to "take
another name" or fight. The fight lasts three years at Kuruksetra on the
SarasvatI (S Hiranvati), and "being stronger in magic", the Gandharva kills
the man; who, however, is afterwards better known than his celestial
conqueror (5, 172, 18, etc.). An Apsaras has the same name.
§ 95. Besides this group, the most popular Gandharva is Tumburu
or Tumbaru, or Tamburu (as if he were the tambour personified). He leads
the Gandharvas to watch men's battles (4, 56, 12, etc.). He gives Arjuna
his Gandharva weapon (7, 45, 22). 3ikhandin's war-steeds are his gift (7,
23, 20, not in C; the horses are divyalj, heavenly, B and S). He goes
1 56 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
to Meru with Narada and other Gandharvas but only to worship (6, 6, 20).
He is the "friend of Arjuna" and with Citrasena and others stays at
Yudhisthira's court (above, 2, 4, 36). He leads the band that makes music
when Arjuna is born (i, 123, 54). As "best of Gandharvas" he sings "with
lovely song" in Amaravati and before Nahusa (3, 43, 28; 5, n, 15). He
plays to Kubera (q. v.), brings tribute to Dhrtarastra (2, 52, 24), and is
reckoned one of the best four (i, 65, 51, the Haha-Huhu and Atibahu
also), but perhaps only as sons of Pradha. He is set beside Narada and
Gopa as kings of song (R 2, 91, 45). A follower of Kubera has a similar
plant (cf. Umbara) name, Kustumbaru (2, 10, 16). Tumburu was cursed
to be born as a Raksasa, being too fond of Rambha (see under Kubera).
He is the martial hero of the group, yet one of the few yielding to love.
In 5, 117, 16, he is described as wedded to Rambha. Perhaps owing to
their proclivity (as lovers of the Apsarasas) to this passion they are re
presented as having especially power over any love-lorn wight, kamavrtta,
"though even a man in love can conquer a Gandharva if he is holy and
guarded by a priest" (perhaps a pious afterthought, i, 170, 73). The Gan
dharvas are tiksnakamalj, "sharp in love" (as snakes are "sharp" in
anger and vultures are "sharp" in hunger, R 4, 59, 9), which sufficiently
indicates their specialty. The list of active Gandharvas is thus short. Only
one more is of note. This was Golabha, who according to Ram. (R 4, 22,
27 f.) was slain after fighting fifteen years with Valin. The same epic
names as chiefs of the Gandharvas called Rohitas, £ailusa, GramaijI, &ghru
(v. 1. Sindhu and &ksa), 3ubhra (or Sthana or 3uka) and Babhru (R 4,
41, 43). The Rohitas guard the extreme South and are "awful fighters"
(other awful fighters guard the Western Vindhya, R 4, 42, 19). Such earthly
Gandharvas seem 'to be permanent residents of the earth (cf. Nagas as
people). It is curious that the noteworthy Buddhistic Gandharva Paficas~ikha
is not known as such in the epics. He has perhaps been naradised, as the
name is pseudo-epic only, as that of a scholar-saint, Kapileyo mahamunilj
(12, 218, 6). Tumburu (Timburu), however, is well-known in both circles.
Narada keeps enough of his unsaintly nature to be the "delighter in
strife" (see § 130). He is a Devagandharva (H 9633) "beloved of Indra",
apparently because he is samgramakalahapriya "fond of strife and
quarrel" (ib.) He acts as messenger (H 7231, meghaduta?).
§ 96. The females of this group are worthy of notice. Manthara is a
sister of Bali and daughter of Virocana and was killed by Indra for seeking
to destroy earth (R i, 25, 20); but again she is a former Gandharvl by
the name of Dundubhi (the "drum"), incarnated as fomenter of hate at
Brahman's behest (3, 276, 16). Kumbhinasf (above) seems to be demoniac
as well as Gandharvan. The females as types of beauty are often named
(e. g. i, 171, 8) as distinct from Apsarasas and Yaksfs; they are known
as kantas of kaminas, that is, as "the beloved of lovers" (cf. 3, 158, 96
with 159, 17), i. e. the Gandharvas, who are the lovers par excellence. All
are graceful and tuneful; they dress in silk and wear garlands. All
Gandharvas, male or female, are graceful, yaSasvinah (R 6, 114, 4).
Somada is daughter of Urmila (v. 1. Urnayu), the servant of Culin the
ascetic, who granted her the boon of a son, Brahmadatta, founder of
Kampilya (city); his touch healed the deformed daughters of KuSanabha
(R i, 33, i if.; see Vayu), who were born of Ghrtaci (Urmila is also the
name of Laksmana's wife). See also Devavati, Narmada, and Vasudha, as
Gandharva women-names (daughter of Gramam, etc., R 7, 5, 2f.). Compare
also R 7, 12, 24 (above pp. 41 — 42).
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 157
§ 97. Although the Gandharvas may be found in forests and caves
(guhas, where live beasts and Kimnaras, R 3, 67, 5f.; R 4, 38, 30 f.),
yet their natural abode is in the air (i, 63, 34), the realm of fog and rain
(R 3, 65, 14; R 5, i, 165 and 169 f.), and such is the meaning of the fact that
fata morgana are called "Gandharva cities", with which evanescent pheno
mena are (passim) compared. The sceptic says that virtue is like Gandharva-
nagara and disappears on examination, that is, has no substantial basis
(12, 261, 13). Guhyakas disappear in air like Gandharvanagara, or a fiend
suddenly disappears and the same simile is employed (i, 126, 35; 7, 175,
103). Sometimes the bright color is the tertium. Thus cars light as air
are like Gandharvanagaras (vatayamanalj, 6, 103, 20), or cars are bright
as the cities of Gandharvas (8, 81, 18; R 6, 108, i); or the bright deer
that tempted Sita is "bright as the sun and Gandharvapurasamnibhalj
(R 3, 43, 6). The appearance of such a mirage is ominous of ill (5, 143,
22). The epic distinction between gods and Gandharvas shows that the
latter are now more specialised (Agni and Vayu were once Gandharvas),
but though this distinction is constantly maintained (i, 88, 2; 9, 42, 40,
etc.), yet the tradition that the three fires stolen by Pururavas were taken
from the Gandharva-world (i, 75, 23) shows that they are still thought
of as heavenly bodies. Again, they have a tendency to become earthly
seers and act like saints. Citraratha (above) boasts of his asceticism;
Yayati instances them as renowned for the same trait (i, 88, 2); Narada
is a Muni. On the other hand, the "Gandharva king" is a model of beauty
(R 2, 3, 27; ib. 37, 11); and as a class they give their name to the free-
love union called the "fifth form" of marriage (i, 172, 19; Si, 242, 5); their
weapons are also famous (Gandharvastra, R 3, 25, 36, etc.), and though
incarnated in human forms at Brahman's command (i, 64, 41), they are
grouped with Danavas and Raksasas as old foes of the gods (i, 65, 5).
Their world is distinct from that of Brahman and the gods (3, 24, 7), but,
as shown above, they live at the courts of the gods, and Indra is followed
by their troop on sunlike cars (3, 166", 4). In I, 225, 9, where Varuna
gives Arjuna a bow which gods revere and also Danavas and Gandharvas,
the steeds of the hero are Gandharvah (ib. 10), which may point to a con
fusion between Gandharas and Gandharvas. In R 7, 100, 10, Gandharva-
land is definitely located on both sides of the Indus, a fair district, rich
in fruits and roots, guarded by Gandharvas skilled in fighting, the sons
of Sailusa. The Gandharvanagara is here a real town, which Rama is
exhorted to destroy. He sends Taksa and Puskala (Bharata's sons) with
Bharata, who besiege the city and overcome it. Then Bharata fonnds two
cities and settles his sons over them, Taksa over TaksaSila and Puskala
over Puskalavata, in Gandharva-des"a and Gandhara-deSa, respectively (ib.
101, ii). In RG 6, 83, 13, Gandharvas admit the service of Haha-Huhu
alone as compatible with their dignity as free mountaineers, acknowledging
no master. Some texts (as above) have iambic Haha-Huhu, for metre.
§ 98. Whatever be the etymological discrepancy between Centaur
and Gandharva, the likeness is close. Centaurs are nubigenae ; Gandharvas
are cloud-forms ; the town of Gandharvas is cloud-land. Both are sensual
(kaminah; paiderastai) ; both have equine forms; both are musical. The
Visnu-Purana (i, 5, 44) even derives Gandharva from gam-dhara, "song-
maker", obviously forcing the etymology to give the sense felt to be
necessary. Both become teachers. Narada means the "water-giver" (cloud)
and is at first a Gandharva and then becomes an expositor (Parvata, his
158 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
companion, is cloud). Compare further Varuna as a Gandharva and the
"sky-going horses", recognised as "mind-born sons" of Laksmi, sister of
Dhatr and Vidhatr (i, 66, 51). Native authorities give gandh as "injure",
perhaps as seizing (habeo) ; Gandharvas as grahas or robbers. The Vedic
Gandharva thus seizes the bridle (rays) of the Sun and the bride of men.
Gandhakali (-ika, as mother of Vyasa) was an Apsaras who became a
Grahi, or seizing monster; "she took the lives of all she seized and even
devoured gods and Gandharvas", till the sight of Hanumat put an end
to the curse of the Muni Yaksa (RG 6, 82, 74 and i6of.). The connection
with gandh a as vapor seems more natural. Perhaps £iva as gandhadha-
rin and gandhapalin is so to be interpreted. The Vedic (and Avestan)
myths rather imply an origin from one "Gandarewa"; but the same view
might be taken of the Apsarasas. More probably both groups are water-
phenomena (clouds or stars), sometimes regarded as a unit phenomenon.
§ 99. Kimnaras and Kimpurusas. — These spirits are net formally
distinguished in the epics, though named separately and ascribed to dif
ferent progenitors, Kimnaras being decended from Pulastya and Kimpurusas
from Pulaha (i, 66, 7). The Kimnaras are a kind of Gandharvas, distin
guished from Naras (2, 10, 14), at Kubera's court; in the worship of
Narayana (i, 228, 21); and as subjects of &va, "lord of Naras, Kimnaras,
and Yaksas" (14, 44, 15). They are raudradars"inalj, rude of appea
rance (14, 63, 1$; as separate spirits, ib. 88, 37). Kimpurusas accompany
gods, seers, serpents, Gandharvas and Yaksas, to see the ocean drunk up
(3, 104, 21). Their lord is Druma (2, 10, 29), acarya in an assembly of
kings (2, 37, 13), a teacher, also renowned for prowess (2, 44, 16); as if
he were king of a northern people (Gangadvara is the home of Kimnaras,
3, 90, 20; cf. H 5014, Kimpurusa Druma Parvatiya). Drumaputra is a fighting
lord of the Kimpurusas in the northern White Mountain (2, 28, i). Gandha-
madana is the abode of Druma, the "lion of the Kimpurusas" (5, 158, 3
and 7); from him Rukmin got his bow and knowledge of arms. Like
Gandharvas, the Kimpurusas are "wise in song", gltakovidalj (S has
Kapurusas for Kimpurusas here, v. 1. to 12, 169, 5; cf. S 2, 71, 39). Kimpu
rusas wander in the forests with friendly Yaksas, making it as charming
as Nandana (with song, 12, 169, 7; with vanaras, i, 70,15). They fight
(7, in, 31) and Ravana says they cannot be around a hermitage (but he
errs, R 3, 43, n; cf. ib. 46, 28 and 67, 6); and they group themselves
with frightened gods on fearful occasions (5, 12, 2; R 5, 56, 31). In 7,
199, 2, as"vakimpurusa, the battle-field is likened to a mountain "having
horses as its Kimpurusas", possibly in reference to the horse-form of the
spirits, who live chiefly in the mountains (3, 136, 2; 139, 6, etc.), where
they go "in pairs", male and female (R 2, 54, 39; R ib. 93, n ; ib. 94, n),
wearing swords and fine garments (ib.). Royal praisers are likened to
"skilled Kimnaras with lovely voices" (R 7, 37, 3). The females serve as
type of loveliness (R 3, 46, 22; R 5, 33, 5 f.), and often as type of desertion
on the part of fickle lovers (R 2, 12, 74). This is the meaning of the
"fallen Kimnari" simile (R 2, 9, 65 ; ib. 10, 24, etc.). A woman with a
sweet voice is addressed Kimnarodgltabhasini (i, 172, 10). They dance
as well as sing but are not individualised like the Apsarasas (R 7, 23, pra.
3, 12). There is not the slightest allusion in either epic to the distinction
(now become classic) made by the scholiast to VP. I, 5, 57: "Naras have
a human body except for an equine rump and Kimnaras have an equine
head on a human body". There is little to indicate that any of the three
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 159
classes was of equine form at all and only the mention of Kimnaras and
Kimpurusas to support the (late) difference genealogically. Kiinnaras here
go with Raksasas, Yaksas and monkeys to make one group, as opposed
to Kimpurusas and fierce wild animals (s"arabhas, lions, tigers, bears,
and wolves; S has rksa for Yaksa fhamrgak in I, 66, 8). Savagery
can scarcely be the cause of differentiation, for in 3, 153, 9, Kimnaras
go with Raksasas and Kiinpurusas with the milder Yaksas. According to
the late genesis of H 11794, Naras and Kimnaras were born from the
feet of Brahman (VP I, 5, 47, confines this origin to animals). In R 7,
88, 22, Kimpurusis are equivalent to Kimnaris and they were created by
Budha, who changed Ila's companions into these mountain spirits (perhaps
androgynous). *)
§ 100. The Apsarasas. -- According to a late tradition, sundry Ap-
sarasas were born of Brahman's fancy (samkalpa, H 12476); others, of
Daksa's daughters. The first make a group of ten plus one, beginning with
Menaka, and are called Vaidikfs, sacrosanct, recognised by revelation, and
as such distinguished from those born from Daksa's daughters. This group
may be considered, therefore, as that of the most revered nymphs : Menaka,
Sahajanya, Parnini, Punjikasthala, Ghrtasthala, GhrtacT, ViSvacI, Urvas"i,
Anumloca, Pramloca, and Manovati. Eighteen are ascribed to Muni (sired
by Kas"yapa), of whom the best known are Tilottama, Rambha, and Mis"ra-
kesT. Six (names of) nymphs are ascribed to Pradha (apparently should
be eight); but II H554 makes Pradha mother of Apsarasas in general,
as Muni is mother of Gandharvas ; though, ib. 274, all Apsarasas come
from Muni (so VP. i, 21, 24). In the list below are included the group
ascribed, in I, 65, 45 f., to Kapila and Pradha (it takes in some of "Muni's
daughters" in H), since Anavadya and Subhaga appear in that group, who
in H are apparently Apsarasas. Bhasi in this group is different from the
BhasI who is "mother of birds" (daughter of Tamra, I, 66, 56 = R 3, 14,
17). Seven ganas of Apsarasas are mentioned (H 6798). Ten unnamed
Apsarasas of the North are called Vidyutprabhas (5, in, 21) "by name"
("lightning-glorious"). A group of eleven appears in the list of I, 123, 6if.,
where there are two well-defined divisions of twenty-eight and of ten plus
one (compare above the twenty-seven Gandharvas). The Adi group is only
in part coincident with that of Hariv., but the half-agreement shows that
the chief nymphs were thus grouped. The ten plus one may cast a light
on the way the group of ten gods was made eleven and then trebled
(the Three-tens were then reckoned as Thirty-three). Several names appear
to be variants of the same word (e. g. Karnika = Parnika = Parnim), but
as it is doubtful how far this is applicable, all have been enlisted. In 4,
9, I5f., the S text does not have Indram immediately after Malini, who
may, therefore, be a nymph (otherwise Durga or even DraupadI, ib. 21).
UrvasT is the extra eleventh in Adi (later she is taken out of the Vaidikis
*) According to Hertel, WZKM. 25, 160, Ila is herself typical of these androgynous
Kiinpurusas, whose name ("what a man") indicates their double-sexed nature. Yaksas
change their sex, however; as easily as did Ila's companions, and the epic itself gives no
further hint on the subject. The Kimpurusas are usually not differentiated individually.
They and the Kimnaras go with Vidyadharas (§ 116) and are found on Mandara, Citrakuta,
etc., and in forests (Pampa, etc.; cf. R 5, 56, 31 and R 4, I, 61 ; ib. 4, 40, 44; Mbh. I, 18,
2; 3, 108, lof. ; ib. 158, 39 and 96; ib. 159, 17). For criticism of Hertel's view see Keith
in JR AS. April, 1913. Perhaps nara and purusa both refer to water rather than "man";
as Gandharva species they may be poor water-givers (clouds or stars), but the epic con
sistently regards them as spirits.
160 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
altogether). One Apsaras in particular is "dear to Kubera", viz. Varga
(i, 216, 16). Menaka is the very best of the "best six Apsarasas" (i, 74,
68 f.), and it is said in the same (late) passage that she is "born of
Brahman". In epic tales the most prominent Apsarasas are Menaka, UrvasT,
GhrtacI, Mis"rakes~I, and Rambha. Several names coincide with those of
their brother-lovers (i, 65, 48), the Gandharvas, GopalT, Citrangada, Ci-
trasena; cf. Sugandha. UrvasT and Purvacitti (one of the "best six") live
regularly on the Malaya mountains (12, 333, 19), though with them, as they
watch the flight of Suka, is Pancacuda. All the northern mountains contain
them. Other special localities mentioned as resorts of the nymphs are
Mahendra, Subhumika, on the SarasvatT, the Kaverf, Yamuna and Ganga,
Nandana, Mandara, Munjavat, etc., that is, they live chiefly on earth around
rivers or on mountains, as in the courts of all the gods. The word Ap
saras is explained as apsu rasa, the essence of the ocean-water produced
at the churning, when Apsarasas and the physician god Dhanvantari first
rose from it. There were sixty crores of them, not to speak of their
"countless attendants" (R I, 45, 20). In Mbh. this origin is attributed to
Dhanvantari but not to the nymphs, and Narayana himself in may a form
plays the part of the seductive woman (i, 18, 38 and 45), who induced
the Asuras to give up the ambrosia. Seven times six thousand (S, thir
teen thousand) Apsarasas dance on the point of Dillpa's sacrificial post to
the music ofVis"vavasu (7,61,7). The list of epic Apsarasas is as follows:
Adrika, Adrikrtasthall, Anavadya, Anuga (H), Anuka, Anucana, Anuna (H),
Anumloca (H), Ambika, Aruna, Arunapriya (H), Arupa, Alambusa, Asita,
Asura, Ira, Umloca, Urvara, Urvas"!, Rtusthala, Karnika, Kamya, Kumbhayoni,
Kes"inf , Ksema, Gandhakalf, Gunamukhya, Gunavara, Gopall, Ghrtasthala (H),
Ghrtaci, Carunetra, Carumadhya (H), Citra or Mitra, Citrangada, Citralekha,
Citrasena, Janapadi, Jam! (see Yami), Tilottama, Dandagauri, Danta, Devi,
Nagadanta (or -datta), Pancacuda, Parnika (H), ParninI, Punjikasthala,
Pundarika, Purvacitti, Prajagara, Prabha, Pramathini, Pramloca, Pra^ami,
Priyamukhya (H), Budbuda (or Vudvuda), Bhasf, Bhlma, Madhurasvara (-na),
Manu, Manorama, Manovati, Manohara, Manci, Margaijapriya, Malavl,
MalinT (?), Mitra, Mi^rake^I, Menaka, Yami, Raksita, Rati, Rambha, Ruci,
Laksana, Laksmana (H), Lata, VamSa, Vapus, Varanana (H), Varuthini, Var
ga, Vamana, Vidyuta, Vidyutparna, Vidyota, Vipracitti, Vi^vaci, (Vu. see Bu.),
§aradvati, ^ucika, Sucismita, ^ravistha (H), Samlcl, Sahajanya, Saha, Suke^I,
Sugandha, Sugrivi (H), Supriya, Subahu, Subhaga, Sumadhya (H), Sumukhi,
Suraja, Surata, Suratha (H), Surama (H), Surasa, Surupa (H), Sulocana (H),
Suvrtta (H), Soma, Saurabheyi (-seyi), Svayamprabha, Hasini, Hima (R;
v. 1. Soma), Hemadanta (H), Hema (R and H). Ram. alone has Adrikrtasthall,
Nagadatta (or -danta), Vamana, and Hima (or Soma). Nanda, v. 1. H 14165.
All come from Brahman's eye, ib. 1 1 787. *)
§ 101. These nymphs dance and sing. They are called "gods' girls"
(i, 130, 6). Their female companions are the Devapatnis, proper wives
of the gods. Like all Hindu celestials they are depicted as overloaded
with gems and garlands (3, 43, 31 ; R 3, 35, i6f.). They also wear necklaces,
golden girdles, and anklets, which tinkle as they welcome saints to heaven.
Saints or warriors ride to heaven on musical cars drawn by geese, lions,
or tigers (13, 106, 49 and 56 f.) and are greeted by the music of vfna,
vallaki, muraja and bells, while the nupura of the waiting nymphs
l) Compare on the Mbh. Apsarasas, Adolf Holtzmann, ZDMG. 33, p. 631 f. (a few
names omitted). Ira is properly wife of KaSyapa ; Paficacuda may be Rambha (ib. p. 632).
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 161
delight their ears as well (ib. 49 and 63). The nymphs wear their locks
in five braids (pancacudapsaras; also as proper name, 3, 134, 12, etc.).
Their fine clothes they lay aside when they bathe in the heavenly Man-
dakini, but are much ashamed when seen naked by Vyasa; only Suka
they do not mind, because he is all soul and no body (12, 334, 18 and
28 f.). Ordinarily they are not so shy. The best of them is described as
lewd and pitiless (i, 8, 8). Ravana denies that they have husbands (R 7,
26, 41), and says they are free to all; but he makes this remark to Rambha,
a domestic Apsaras, wife of Kubera's son, and snusa(!) of her ravisher
(see Kubera). Yet the nymphs are free in love (3, 46, 42) and ordinarily
care only for love and play. When a hero dies in battle, thousands of
them hover above him, each one seeking his soul and saying to herself:
"May he be my lord" (12, 98, 46 f.). They also dance at human weddings
(R i, 73, 35), while Gandharvas sing finely, kalam; but the Apsarasas
themselves sing sweetly with "song beautified by elocution" (the sounds
made in three places; R 5, 4, 10, tristhanasvarabhusitam). At the
magic entertainment prepared for Bharadvaja, the Gandharvas sang and
the Apsarasas danced, who had come from the courts of Indra and Kubera
and Brahman, Kubera sending twenty thousand of them (R 2, 91, i6f. ;
ib. 26 and 44); though the names may be confused here with those of
the Gandharvis, who also come to the feast (Hima here interchanges with
Soma, cf. 3, 43, 29). As personification of sexual pleasure one Apsaras
is called Rati and all of them are the deities of love-lorn women: ratlnam
vasumatyas tu strlnam Apsarasas (sc. janidhvam, 14, 43, 16; in
15, Uma is the mistress of all bhagadevanuyatas, i. e. a Venus). Su-
bhumika is a Tirtha of the Sarasvati, which is the playground of the
Apsarasas, where gods, Apsarasas, Gandharvas, and seers go regularly
once a month to enjoy themselves with divine sports (9, 37, 3). In no
early passage do the Apsarasas do more than seduce saints or please gods
by jingling their ornaments, revealing their beauties, singing and dancing.
The kind of song or dance, still less the dramatic entertainments, with
which they are credited in the Hariv., are unknown in the epics proper.
The chief dance of this sort goes by the name of Halllsaka and the song
is called Chalikya (H 8449 f.; cf. 9900). On the Rambha-drama see Kubera
(§ 84). Sibi "was danced and besung by gods, Gandharvas, and Apsa
rasas" (nrttaS cai 'vo 'pagitas" ca (13, 32, 32). In 3, 148, 20, the Apsa
rasas sing the carita of Rama, perhaps the beginning of a change in
their conception, though to sing a hero and sing his deeds may be the
same thing.
§ 102. Menaka was wife of Ornayu (5, 117, i6j and mother of Pra-
madvara by the Gandharva ViSvavasu. Being pitiless, she abandoned the
child at birth, who grew up and married the son of the Apsaras GhrtacT
by Pramati, son of Cyavana, whose son was ^unaka (i, 5, 9f. ; ib. 8, 8).
Menaka also deserted her child 3akuntala in the same way, except that
here she was sent by Indra to seduce the father ViSvamitra, which she
does aided by Maruta and Manmatha, Wind and Love. She is "most
distinguished in the divine qualities of the Apsarasas" and is "born of
Brahman", best of Apsarasas, lewd and pitiless (i, 74, 69 f.). Her daughter
says that Menaka is "among the Thirty- three gods and superior to them"
(ib. 74, 83). Indra also sends JanapadT (devakanya) to tempt the saint
Saradvata Gautama, and she easily succeeds in doing so, though she is
not one of the Vaidikis, who are usually entrusted with such missions
Indo-arische Philologie III. ib. H
1 62 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(i, 130, 6). Indra too sends Alambusa to tempt Dadhica (9, 51, 7f.), and
the result is the birth of Sarasvata (celebration of SarasvatI by nymphs,
ib. 17). Ghrtaci prthulocana, "wide-eyed", shows herself accidentally
to Bharadvaja and the saint is so moved as to beget ^rutavati (9, 48, 65).
On another occasion, she meets the same saint with a like result and
Drona is born (i, 130, 35; ib. 166, i). The nymph in these cases only
excites the saint, the child being born not of her but in an incubator.
RsyasYnga, the "horned" saint, was born of a doe by Vibhandaka when
Urvas"! excited his passions by showing herself to him (3, no, 35). This
UrvasT once "kicked Pururavas aud repented of it" (R 3, 48, 18). She
was cursed to become his wife by Brahman (H 1375) or Mitra (q. v. R. 7,
56, 20 f.) ; and she accompanied Pururavas when he fetched_ fire from the
home of the Gandharvas (q. v.). She had by him six sons, Ayus, Vanayus,
£atayus, Drdhayus, Dhimat, and Amavasu (i, 75, 2of.; H 1363 f. v. 1.).
Pururavas loses his wits and, though intelligent, is cursed for his contempt
of the priestly power in this story. Compare H 1363 f. for the whole history.
He lived near Ganges' Gate on Mt. Puru beside the golden-sanded Urvas"!
= Ganges (2, 78, 17; 3, 90, 22 f,; 12, 29,68; in H ib. at Prayaga). With
the Wind-god and Kas"yapa he holds learned conversations (12, 72, 2f.;
i°- 73> /f-)- The son of Ayus, Nahusa, also, as Indra, enjoys the Apsarasas
in Nandana (5, u, 13), here distinguished from Devakanyas. Urvasl is
also the name of a Tlrtha (3, 84, 157; 13, 25, 46, Lauhitye). She is known
as "mother of the race of Pauravas" (3, 46, 40). Despite her affection for
Pururavas (i, 44, 10; son of Budha, king of Kas"I, and son of Ila, R 7, 19,
5; ib. 87, 3 f.), she is in love with her descendant Arjuna, whom Indra
commanded her to teach good behavior. To seduce him (for she loved
him) she drank a little rum and when partially intoxicated, after bathing
herself and smearing sandal-paste on her bosom, decorated with gold
ornaments, she put flowers in her long curly hair and came to him "in
the face of night" (evening) by moonlight, her body as slender as the
digit of the moon and her countenance like the full moon. As she came
swift as thought, she excited her imagination with sensual thoughts and
arched her eyebrows as she walked, bending slightly forward with the
weight of her deep breasts. Three folds showed in her waist; her hips
were round and high; her feet were arched like a tortoise's back; her
soles were flat ; her toes were straight and copper-colored ; on her ankles
were little bells ; her only garment was an upper cloth as thin and white
as a cloud. This description lays weight on the vilasana of the Apsaras,
her beguiling and not too modest gestures. Arjuna said he would look
on her as a mother and was promptly cursed by the slighted nymph (3,
46, 47). Tilottama (daughter of Pradha in the genealogy of I, 65, 49) is
loaded with gems as she seeks to seduce the demons; her beauty causing
Indra and &va (q. v.) to become respectively thousand-eyed and four-
faced. She is said to have been made of all loveliness by Vis"vakarman
or by Brahman expressly to tempt the demons Sunda and Upasunda (i,
211, 28; in 13, 141, if. she tries to tempt &va but fails). She is made
of jewels or loaded with them, according to the poet's fancy. It is Indra
who usually, afraid and trembling for his throne, sends a nymph to seduce
a too pious saint. In 5, 9, nf., he thus summons several of them (Deva-
striyah) to seduce Tris"iras but their names are not given. They employ
hava and bhava, decent and indecent inducements (srngaravesa,
jewelled attire), here in vain; but not so in 12, 343, 32. Coquettish looks
and laughter are also theirs (2, 7, 24; 3, 43, 32).
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 163
§ 103. The mass of these nymphs appear only as dancing-girls,
pranrttapsarasas, and are innocently enough employed to amuse a
guest of the gods (13, 19, 44 f.), or to dance before the gods. Troops of
them are in Indra's train (i, 56, 9, etc.; at 2, 7, 24, S inserts the names
of the best known as being at Indra's court). As the entourage of Vasu-
deva, at Indra's command, sixteen thousand of them were born on earth
(parigraha, as his wives, I, 67, 155; but Rukmini was a part of Laksmi
herself). The Apsarasas are not infrequently cursed to be thus born on
earth, often in low forms. Adrika became a fish in the Yamuna river
through Brahman's curse, and thus became mother of Matsya and Satya-
vatl by king Vasu (i, 63, 58f.); after which, released from the curse, she
reassumed her heavenly form. The son of this nymph-mothered Satyavatf,
viz. Vyasa, on seeing GhrtacT, although she took a parrot-form (cf. ka-
marupini, H 10002), was excited to beget ^uka, the pure soul alluded
to above (12, 325, 2); at whose birth "Gandharvas sang and hosts of
Apsarasas danced" (Apsaroganali), while the drums of the gods sounded
and Visvavasu and the (two pairs) Tumbaru-Naradau and Haha-Huhu (sic)
sang praises (16). Such salutations greet Yayati, especially favored by
Vis~vaci (i, 75, 48 and 85, 9), when he returns to heaven under a shower
of flowers, sung and bedanced by groups of Gandharvas and Apsarasas
(upagito 'panrtta^ ca Gandharvapsarasam ganailj) and praised by
gods and Caranas (5, 122, 2; 123, 4). At the birth of heroes, e. g. Dusyanta
(S i, 95j ii), the. same drums and songs and dances appear. The flowers are
dropped by the Apsarasas, as at Bhisma's vow of celibacy, a curious time
for them- to show joy (i, 100, 98). A woman "like an Apsaras" is of
course like in beauty, sometimes added (i, 102, 3; 106, 24; 3, 96, 29,
rupena 'psaraso 'py ati). The Apsarasas do not wait to be sent on
seductive errands. Five of them (Varga, Saurabheyi, Samfci, Budbuda,
Lata) try to seduce a saint of their own accord and are cursed to
become crocodiles for a hundred years (i, 216, i6f. ; 217, 8), that is for an
indefinitely long period, until they are redeemed by Arjuna. A similar
story (or the same) is told of the "tank of the five Apsarasas" (R 3, n,
I2f.), who were ordered to seduce the aged Mandakarni, and succeeded
so well that he built a house and kept them all. They rejuvenated him,
and the sound one hears of running water there is the music of their
instruments (ib. 20), one of the rare instances where the Apsarasas' music
is explained physically. A late passage describes the Apsarasas swarming
by thousands around a divine car (R 7, 77, 13): "Some sing heavenly songs,
others play on instruments, vadayanti, others hum, ksvedayanti, others
dance, and others fan the face of the god". They shout sadhu (bravo)
to heroes in battle or when a hero dies, and they place dead heroes on
divine cars with loud sounds of song and instruments, played in the sky
"but heard on earth", thus encouraging others (8, 49, 76 f.; 57, 13 f.; 9,
5, 35 f.)- They are thus peculiarly "Indra's girls", Indrakanyas (13, 107, 21),
though they are found at home with all the fighting gods, Kubera (passim),
Varuna (2, 9, 26; 13, 155, 15), and Yama (2, 8, 38); as they also adorn
the courts of the highest (see under Brahman, etc.). The later priestly
epic sees in their beauty, as in that of their brother Gandharvas, the
reward for former merit (asceticism, etc.) and promises the possession of
them, with all their sensual joys, as the reward of asceticism to-day (5,
44, 21 ; 13, 107, 18, etc.). It also regards them (not women in general) as
inheritors of Indra's sin (12, 283, 43; cf. above, p. 131).
ll*
164 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
§ 104. Other Apsarasas than those mentioned have little activity.
Some accounts confuse the same story. Visvamitra is seduced by Menaka
(i, 71, 22; R i, 63, 5) or by GhrtacI (R 4, 35, 7). He also curses Rambha,
to become a stone, for attempting to seduce him (R i, 64, 12; 13, 3, n).
GhrtacI is the mother of Raudras"va's ten sons, descendants of Puru, in
H 1658; but their mother is Misrakes"! in I, 94, 8. GhrtacI is also the
mother of Kusanabha's daughters (R i, 32, 10). Of Hema is related that
she got a magic cave guarded by her friend Svayamprabha, who was the
daughter of Merusavarni. Maya, Hema's lover, was slain by Indra, and
she meets Ravana after being thus "abandoned by Maya" (R 4, 50, 39;
ib. 51, iof.; ib. 16; ib. 7, 12, 6f.). Svayamprabha is called dharmacarini,
and only the fact that she was the "dear friend" of Hema indicates here
that she is an Apsaras. Yet her name appears as that of an Apsaras in
3, 43, 29, and the later epic, as indicated even by some of the names
above (Anucana is "learned"; Suvrtta is "well-behaved") regards the Ap
sarasas as not altogether sinful, though it is apt to stigmatise them col
lectively and individually as wantons. Another Apsaras, who plays a part
in Ram., is Punjikasthala, cursed to be born on earth as Anjana, daughter
of Kunjara and wife of Kesarin, monkey-chieftains, and mother, by Maruta,
of Hanumat (R 4, 66, 8f.). She is a Varunakanyaka and curses Ravana
(R 6, 13, ii ; ib. 60, n), apparently at first an Apsaras (not daughter) in
Varuna's realm. The ancient idea that an Apsaras was a harmful creature,
injuring man otherwise than by shattering his mind by love, is retained
in the tradition that the (unnamed) "mother of Apsarasas" is an infant-
stealing fiend (3, 230, 39). The Hariv. has a few late touches: Apsarasas
here are born from Brahman's eyes (H 11787). UrvasT "rends the thigh"
of (is born direct from) Narayana (Visnu, H 4601). The old story of
Pururavas and UrvasT is found in H 1363^ Menaka here becomes mother
of Divodasa and of Ahalya; and Gopali, mother of Kalayavana (H 1783
and 1960). Citralekha, the "painter", who is described as kamarupini,
"assuming any form at will", is represented as painting the portraits of
all the celestials for Usa, till Usa recognises her beloved among them
(Aniruddha as lover of Usa, H 9994). Indra as lover of Rambha appears
in H 1 1 250 f.
§ 105. Kama. — Kama, Love (desire), belongs properly with the ganas
of Gandharvas and Apsarasas, of whom the Hariv. (270 and 12499) recognises
him as the "lord" (Kamadeva as prabhufr). Kama is the word by which
philosophers designate Kandarpa, who is also called Anariga because &va
consumed him, when Kama dared to attack him (R i, 23, iof.). Yet also
as Kandarpa he appears as cause of creation (6, 34, 28 and 31, n). Kama
is general "desire", and as such, apart from mythology, appears in the
triad, kama, artha, dharma, though better than the other two elements
(virtue and gain), because it is the sustaining power (12, 167, 33 f.); unless
indeed another view prevails, to the effect that all desire is evil (kama ft
samsarahetuh, 3, 313, 98). Philosophy and mythology mingle in the
identification of Pradyumna with Kama (i, 67, 152, Sanatkumara), and in
making Aniruddha, son of Pradyumna, "son of Rati" (H 10064). With
Krodha, Wrath, Kama enters into the composition of As"vatthaman (i, 67,
72), but is not otherwise incarnate. The son of Krsna and Rukmim "exists
in the nature of all and enters both demons and gods" (13, 148, 20). He
himself says in his Kamaglta Gathas (14, 13, 12 f.): "None can destroy
me . . I am the one immortal and indestructible"; though Yoga power
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 165
may overcome this pervasive power. It is this philosophically conceived
Kama Jagatpati that is "older than Rudra" and is regarded (cf. AV. 3, 21,
4; TS. 2, 2, 3, i, etc.) as a fire, lord of the world, the eternal energising
power, interpreted mythologically as a fire-form of Rudra (samkalpabhi-
rucih Kamah sanatanatamali . . sanatano hi samkalpah Kama
ity abhidhiyate . . sarvabhavanah hrcchayati, 13, 85, n, 16 and
17). With this tenuous mythological character the usual Love-god has
little to do; only it is important to know that he is thus philosophically
identified with the hrcchaya "heart-love".
§ 106. Kama has many names as Love-god, but they do not indicate
separate personalities, only different ways of regarding the same being,
as "longing", Smara, as "mind-disturber", Manmatha, as "intoxicator",
Madana, as "insolent" (PKandarpa), as "limbless", Anariga. Darpa, Insolence,
is himself personified as son of Sin and Bliss, "through whom many gods
and Asuras have been led to destruction" (12, 90, 26); Ravana i£ called
Devadanavadarpahan (RG 6, 79, 2), with the personification in abeyance.
In VP. I, 7, 25, however, Darpa is son of Dharma, not of Adharma, as
Kama is son of Dharma and Faith (i, 66, 33). Kama's wife is Rati (ib.),
probably the Apsaras of that name (13, 19, 45). His two sons are Harsa
and Yas"as, Joy and Grace (H 12482), by Rati; and Kama himself in this
passage is son of Dharma and (Sri) Laksmi (in VP. I, 7, 29, Rati as Nandi
bears to Kama only one son, Harsa). The identity of the different forms
(names) of Kama is made clear by the fact that Rati is wife of Manmatha
(3, 68, 12 = RG 3, 4, 9), and of Madana (S i, 203, 34, "£aci chose for
her lover Indra, Svaha chose Agnideva, Laksmi chose Mukunda, Usa chose
Surya, Rati (sic) chose Madana, and Parvatarajaputn chose Mahes"vara"). Rati
appears as an abstract deity without reference to Kama in 2, n, 43, and
as a common noun in kamarati, a man stultified by desire (R 4, 33, 54 f.).
It is recognised that Kama stultifies as well as burns, but it is not always
certain whether personification is intended (kamamohita, i, 172, i; ka-
mena 'lodyate manali, i, 219, 16). Ratiguna is son of Pradha (i, 65,47),
a Gandharva, otherwise Ratiguna (Rata is mother of one of the Vasus,
who include Agni). In 4, 14, 24, the peculiar word Agnimadana, "fire-
madness" (of love), is identical with Madanagni in R 6, 5, 8 (perhaps per
sonified here).
§ 107. Love is armed with arrows, Kamabana (i, 171, 34; 3, 46, 49;
R 3, 55) 2); Manmathas"ara (R 2, n, i); Kandarpabana (i, 187, 5 and
12); so Puspaketus"arahata; Kamabanarta almost passim, but Sma-
rasarasanapurnasamaprabhah (7, 184, 48) is unique. Love's sign is
a flower; so his arrow. The effect of the shot stupifies, Kandarpenabhi-
murcchita, Anangaglapita (of Urvas"!, 1,214, 19 f.); or maddens, Ap-
sarasalj Kandarpena darpitah (ib. 217, 2); Kamabhihatacetas,
Kamopahatacetana (i, 172, 3; R 3, 62, i). The effect on the man is
like that on a woman when "penetrated by Love" (or Love's dart, Man-
mathavista, i, 173, 28; R 4, 66, 15; Manmathas"aravista, R 3, 46, 13
and ib. 48, 17); cf. Rama as Kamavas'amgata, nityam dhyanaparo
Ramo nityam s"okaparayanafr, etc., R 5, 36, 41 f., just like DamayantI
in this sentimental epic (vas"a is will and power, cf. kamavasya, ka-
mabanavas"amgata = Kamasya vas"am lyivan, 3, 46, 49). Only once
(in S) is the hook used for the arrow; this is the hook employed to
direct the elephant, S i, 241, 19, Kamaiikus'anivaritah. As arrows
are poetically serpents, the victim of Kama complains that he has been
1 66 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
"bitten by the great serpent of Kama" in I, 172, 9 (Kamamahahi; he
is also "burned with Love's fire"). In 13, 107, 26, the arrows of Kama
are first reckoned as five in number (s"aragni = paficatrimsat). In
H 4607 (cf. v. 1. 10882) the arrows are also five.
§ 108. Kama is a form of fire, whence Kamabanaprapidita, 4, 14,
5, is followed by Kamagni and in vs. 25 by Manmathanala. Here too
the disease induced by Love, Kamavyadhi, is spoken of (vs. 23), which
suggests the fate of the lustful "son of Death" (Mrtyu), called Vena
(connected with Venus?), a king who destroyed himself by passion and
hate (ragadvesavaSamgata), son of the "sensual" Atibala, the son of
Ananga, though Ananga is here son of the Prajapati Kardama (son of
KIrtimat, son of Virajas, son of Visnu). From Vena's thigh came all the
Nisadas and Mlecchas, but from his arm the virtuous Prthu, a form of
Visnu (whence kings are a form of Visnu), whose chaplain was £ukra
and councillors theValakhilyas and the "Sarasvatyo ganah" (12, 59, 91 f.).
According to I, 75, 15, Vena was son of Manu. Hariv. makes his father
Anga and says that Vena deified himself (294 f.), his pride and not his
lust causing his fall. Manu, 9, 66, ascribes to him the origin of Niyoga
(levirate marriage), but (ib. 7, 41) ascribes his fall to pride (the seers cut
him up with kus" a- grass). Love as Death, mar a, is a late identification
(Buddhistic) of Hariv. I49i2f. (mara = smara = Pradyumna). As words
meaning Love are constantly used for love, desire (jatamanmathah,
3, 45, 16; Arjunasya kandarpah, I, 219, 15, etc.), it is possible that
another word, manobhava, may be a name of Love, as in I, 191, 13,
sampramathye 'ndriyagramam pradur asln manobhavalj (cf. S. I,
241, 15, idem). The destruction of the members of Love by Siva (R I,
23, 12 f.; R 3, 56, 10 in Bomb, yatha Rudrena is not in S or G) does
not prevent the "limbless god" from possessing limbs, perhaps only as a
poetical phrase, AnangangaviharinI (4, 14, 17), and Ananga has power
and arrows (Anangavasam agata, 3, 46, 35; Anangas" arapidjta,
5, 175, 10 ; R 7, 80, 5, of Danda). Kama is located with Uma and Saila
(Himavat) in the North, but this is in conjunction with Rosa (Wrath) at
the birth of Skanda (5, in, 10). Love as Manmatha (i, 71, 41) or Kan-
darpa (R I, 64, 6 and 16) helps Menaka (Rambha) seduce Vis"vamitra. His
name (mam mathnatl 'va Manmathah, I, 171, 35 and 40) is explained
as disturbing by burning "with sharp fire" (ib. 172, 7f. and 16, "wounds
me with sharp arrows", cf. R 3, 34, 21); cf. the metaphor, I, 172, 17,
"extinguish with the water of thy affection, priti, the conflagration pro
duced by the fire of Manmatha, whose weapon is of flowers, whose arrows
are terrible" (puspayudha, pracandaSarakarmuka). So in 4, 14, 25 f.,
the lover begs his mistress to "extinguish the fire of his love with the
rain of self-surrender" (her breasts are Kamapratodau, "two goads of
Love"). The state of Urvas~i is thus described as "inflamed by Manmatha",
her mind being "wounded by his arrows" (3, 46, 2 f.). Manmathavat is a
lover (R 4, 28, 13, manmathavatam hitah . . diSalj; cf. kamavat,
ib. G 29, 2). Rati as wife of Manmatha (R 5, 15, 29) is the expression of
physical desire (cf. R 7, 23, pra. 5, 18, manmathalj s"is"nam asthitafr).
Both as Kandarpa and Manmatha, Love is beautiful (3, 54, 28; ib. 53, 15
and 28). Rama, like Nala, is Kandarpa iva murtiman (R 3, 17, 9; ib.
34, 5, -sadrs~aprabha, -samarupa); cf. R 5, 18, 23, samaksam iva
Kandarpam apaviddhas~arasanam; ib. 5, 34, 29.
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 167
§ 109. The ensign of Love is the makara (3,281,27); as an auspicious
sign it appears on the hand of ^ri, mata makaradhvajasya (13, II, 3).
It is also the ensign of Pradyumna as Kama (3, 17, 2 and 7, in, 25, Karsni).
Between love and fish there is perhaps an aphrodisiacal connection (cf.
Adrika the Apsaras as fish), but Mmaksi is not recognised in the epic
(she is afterwards daughter of Kubera and to-day she is "wife" of &va),
and Mmaksa is only a Daitya (H 12933, v. 1. = 3, 49, 4, vyaghraksa).
Possibly it is the disturbing element in the makara, a huge beast (3, 270,
19) frightening other fishes (3, 17, 7) and always leaping into or splashing
in the sea. No early passage recognises the makara as sign of Kama
(makaraketu H 10882 and -ketumat ib. 10639 and 3, 18, n refer to
Pradyumna). Another emblem of love is the peacock, but it is found as
such only in an allusion in the later Ram. 4, I, 37, where Rama says that
the dancing peacocks rouse in him the thought of love, mama man-
mathavardhanah. In Mbh. even this allusion is absent. In 3, 158, 65,
plants, sindhuvara and kurubaka, are (described as) like the darts,
tomara, ofManmatha, and arrows of Kama which "cause desire in those
overcome by love" (ib. 67, kamavas~yautsukyakaran kamasye 'va s~a-
rotkaran), and buds of mangoes with bees are like Ananga's arrows
(ib. 68) ; but the peacocks dancing appear only as a beauty of the land
scape (ib. 62), though the amorous nature of the dance is clearly depicted.
Among the mass of Kama's later names (unknown in the epics), Dlpaka
in the epic is son of Garuda (5, 101, n). Offerings to Kama (as in Apast.
DhS. 2, 2, 4, i) are not mentioned, nor is his armor; but this is put on
by the cosmic power of AV. 9, 2, 16 and appears to be only a spell. The
KamaSastram of I, 2, 383 is merely part of the triad, artha-, dharma-,
and kamas'astram, which Vyasa declared as the great epic. Only Kama
and Smara seem to be pre-epical names for Love; who in AV. 6, 130
is associated with the Apsarasas; as Kama himself, "sweet yearning love",
is a Gandharva as early as TS. 3, 4, 7, 3.1)
§ no. The Asvins. — Logically this pair of gods belongs to the
Ganas because, though there are but two of them, they have the Gana
characteristic of being treated as one, till in H 13591 one alone, ekas
tu . . as" vi, attacks Vrtra. They are a Vedic survival. Almost nothing
is said of them which has not already been said in the sacred tradition,
their names, office, restoration of youth, and unity of existence are Vedic-
epic traits, simply handed down without important alteration. In both epics
they are incorporated in part as sons of heroes, and as such they are
severed from their Vedic unity. But even then they are presented in such
a way that they form a sort of unit over against other heroes. They lack
the individuality of other humanised gods in these hero-forms. At most
the difference between Sahadeva and Nakula, the incarnations of the Mbh.
as "sons of the As"vins", is like that popularly established between Seraphim
and Cherubim ("one love more and one know more"). Sahadeva is always
good, and Nakula is always clever; but Nakula is never bad, and Saha
deva is never stupid. Yet one feels that "good" Sahadeva is the appropriate
epithet, as it is the one usually given to him. Only when fighting is done
in different places are the two inseparables parted, to perform their allotted
tasks and then coalesce again, as the blameless pair of heroes who reflect
the blameless pair of gods. The parents are not differentiated (i, 124, 16,
J) On Kama see IS. 5, 225; 17, 290; Muir, OST. 5, 402. Brunnhofer, Arische Urzeit,
p. 183, regards kandarpa = gandharva.
1 68 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
tav agamya sutau tasyam janayamasatur yamau), but Nakula was
older than Sahadeva (ib. 21), apparently by a year, for anusamvatsaram
jatah (ib. 22) includes the twins.1)
In Ram., the Asvins are reborn as Mainda and Dvivida (conquered in
Mbh. by Sahadeva!). They are "fair and rich" and are grouped with
Adityas, Vasus, and Rudras as sons of Aditi (R I, 17, 13; ib. 3, 14,
14; ib. 4, 39, 25); R i, 22, 7; ib. 48, 3; ib. 50, 18 refer to them as
beautiful followers of Pitamaha; R 2, 58, 10, as coming to Indra's home
in Mandara; and R 4, 12, 19 speaks of them as resembling each other
and as hero gods, virau devau. As already shown (§ 40), they are the
"fair pair, strong and beautiful", sons of SarasvatI and of the Sun (H n 550),
or Marutvati and Dharma (v. 1.). Mbh. has more to say about their names
and history and cult, points completely ignored in the Ram. Individually
the Asvins are called Nasatya and Dasra. They are fathers of (reborn as)
the twins Nakula and Sahadeva (i, 3, 58, Nasatya-Dasrau sunasau: 12,
208, 17, "Nasatya and Dasra are called the two As"vins, sons ofMartanda,
the eighth Aditya"; H 602, idem but "eighth Prajapati"). Allusions to their
beauty are found constantly (e. g. I, 102, 69; 3, 53, 27). They are born
on earth as sons of the (western) Madrf, "unequalled in beauty", that is
the earthly heroes are parts of the gods, who were in one account born
with the Adityas of the mundane egg, but according to the usual tradition
were "Guhyakas" born in mid-air of Savitr and the mare-form of Tvastr's
daughter (i, i, 34; 32, 17; 66, 35 and 40; 67, in; 124, 16; cf. i, i, 114).
They live in bliss and glory in the sky (nakaprsthe, i, 222, 30) and are
generally called devau, though as Rudras, physicians of the gods, deva-
bhisajau, they had (at first) no social rank. Their right to drink Soma
was contested by Indra, till Cyavana secured it for them by throwing
water on Indra and frightening him with Mada, the demon of intoxication,
who had a thousand teeth. Indra says devair na sammitav etau, "they
are not the equals of gods" ; to which Cyavana replies that they are gods
qua Suryaputrau, as sons of the Sun (13, 157, I7f.)- The status of
gods is usually accorded without question; "like the two gods, the Asvins"
appear Arjuna and Krsna, and more, "like these two gods receiving
offerings at a sacrifice" (8, 56, 94). As physicians (and dentists) they receive
the laudation of the blind Upamanyu, who in imitative verses calls them
"primeval gods, eternal, two fair-nosed beings, birds divine, weavers of
light, creating the wheel of time (which has seven hundred and twenty
spokes ; or nave of six seasons with twelve spokes ; also the year as calf
of three hundred and sixty cows), supreme Brahman, powers creating
space (the ten directions) and sky, who set sun and moon in the sky;
makers of three- colored light, parents of all, and child of each". On
hearing this ridiculous laudation "in Vedic verses", vagbhir rgbhilj,
the divine physicians cured him with a cake, a pup a, and gave him
gold teeth (i, 3, 56; abridged translation). This hymn is not only a poor
*) The text gives the time of birth only in the case of Yudhisthira, son of Dharma
by yogamurti, who was born at the eighth muhurta (Abhijit), when the star of Indra
(Aindra = Jyestha) was ascendant, on the (fifth) day of the moon, at noon (diva
madhyagate sdrye tithau purne 'tipujite; N. ayain yogah prayena 'svina-
suklapancamyain bhavati (i, 123, 6). In 2, 31, 10, ASvineya is Sahadeva (conquers
Orissa, Mainda, Dvivida, and the South; Nakula, the West, ib. 32). In 2, 65, I2f. Nakula
is staked before Sahadeva, as if the younger (so Arjuna before Bhlma), but probably in the
order of merit, as Nakula is physically mighty but Sahadeva is a teacher and wise. Yu
dhisthira prefers Bhlma to Arjuna, and so reserves the former to be the last.
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 169
imitation of Vedic verse but it answers to no epic conception of the
Asvins, who are not so great as here depicted in the late Book of Begin
nings, though the text shows well how little weight can be laid on any
fulsome hymn as index of a divinity's real worth. A late pseudo-epic
passage explains the meaning of the name Nasatya (connected with "nose").
One frees oneself from fever, roga, by praising the Asvins, sons of
Martanda, born by exodus through the nostrils of his spouse Samjna and
hence called Nasatya and Dasra (13, 150, 17; H 601). The sunasau above
("with good noses") states also their claim to belong to a good caste, as
a good nose indicates good family. In 13, 85, 109, they are born of tears
of Agni (late fancy; cf. also § 145). They are associated with Bhrgu,
Vasistha, and Raghu as helpers and curers of praisers according to the
"epic Savitri" (above, 13, 150, 81, syad As"vinau ca parikirtayato na
rogah). One As"vin is mentioned in a simile: "he was lofty as Yayati, lovely
to see as Soma, in beauty (as) one of the As~vins" (rupena 'nyatamo
'Svibhyam, 3, 294, 18). The two "best physicians, who have all desirable
attributes" send a khecara, aerial messenger, to Indra to ask about the
theory of the ^raddha (above, p. 32) in 13, 125, i8f. They "drew out of his
father's womb" the embryo Mamdhatr, conceived through the drinking of
some (magical) sacrificial butter (here devau, As"vinau, 7, 62, 2f.). Indra
above is represented as no friend of the As~vins, but in 7, 84, 18 two
heroes are "like the two As~vins mounting the car after Indra, as he goes
to ^aryati's sacrifice", and this accords with the traditional friendship of
Indra for the twin gods. In 4, 56, 3, Indra mounts to Sudars"ana with the
All-gods, As~vins, and Maruts, to see a battle (Sudars~ana is here the palace,
S 4, 53, i, not "the car of Indra" nor the Dvfpa). In 8, 65, i8f., the
Asvins are delighted at the sight of Vasava (Indra), and the king felici
tates Arjuna and Krsna, "as Vivasvat felicitated the As"vins and the Guru
(Brhaspati) felicitated Indra and Visnu on the death of the great Asura
Jambha". The last clause is not explained; it probably refers to the father's
joy in the heroic ability of his sons. As for the trip to ^aryati's sacrifice,
Agni elsewhere reproaches Indra (14, 9, 31) for interfering "when Cyavana
took the Soma alone as he was going to sacrifice for ^aryati along with
the As"vins". The full account of the event is given in 3, 122, 24 f., where
Nasatyau is applied to both As"vins, who restored Cyavana's youth after
they had tried to seduce his young wife Sukanya. As a reward they were
made sharers in the benefits of Soma -drinking. Indra, objecting, calls
them "menial physicians" and "earth-wanderers" (3, 124, 12). In memory
of this event the Asvins have a sacred watering-place (near Kuruksetra),
where "one becomes beautiful" by bathing in the pool, as did Cyavana
(3> 83, 17). The name Nasatyau (dual) is their earliest common designation,
probably meaning "healers" (Dasra is "wonder-maker"). On the "nasatya
birth" (12, 348, 42), see Brahman (§ 137). See also § 68 (Indra and Asvins).
For the Asvins' birth from Visnu's ears, see § 145.
§ in. The Maruts. — The Gana-gods really begin with the Maruts,
though the Asvins are sometimes grouped with other Ganas. But one can
scarcely call a pair a group and it is admitted that "the Maruts are kings
of the Ganas" (14,43,6), though they usually stand (3, 62, 24; R 5, 13, 56)
in close conjunction with the Asvins at the end of the list ("Adityas, Vasus,
Rudras and Asvins with Marut-host", in mangalas), or are even omitted
altogether as being adjuncts of Indra. All the Ganas or groups of gods
of this class are individually developed later. This can be seen even in
170 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
the case of those groups which properly speaking are not Ganas. Thus
the Adityas, though composed of clearly defined individuals, are not always
made up of the same individuals (§ 37), and it has just been shown that
the Lokapalas (§ 91) are also somewhat ill-defined. These are the only
groups of which the constituents were recognised as individuals, till a
later age (post-epic) evolved individuality for the different members, since
the Trimurti can scarcely be called an epic group at all. The Maruts as
a Gana are known from remotest antiquity (RV. 10, 137, 5, etc.). They
make a group of seven (13, 107, in). In 6, 34, 21, Marici is named as
best of Maruts, clearly because of the radical similarity of names and the
inclusion of Maruts as Prajapatis. They are always attendants of Indra,
as fighting youths or winds (see §66, § 8of.). As seven Ganas instead of
seven individuals, they should number forty-nine (as perhaps 9, 38, 37), but
even Hariv. knows by name only twenty-three or -four: Agni, Caksus, Havis,
Jyotis, Savitra, Mitra, Amara, Saravrsti (or -drsti), Samksaya, Viraja, ^ukra, Vis"-
vavasu, Vibhavasu, As"manta, Citraras"mi, (nrpa) Niskusita (or -karsin), Na-
husa, Ahuti, Caritra, Brahma- (or Bahu-)pannaga, Brhat, Brhadrupa, Para-
tapana, and Mahabahu (r H ii544f.)- The mother of this late Marutam
ganali is Marutvati (Marutvanto devan [Marutam ganamj ajanayat);
the father is apparently Dharma. Savitra is known as a Marut fighter (ib.
13174) and as a Vasu (below, § 112); Caritra and the rest are new inven
tions or old characters in a new role. For the birth of the "sons of Diti"
(5, no, 8) and etymology (ma rudas), and for their number, see under
Vayu (§ 48). The real epic knows no individual Marut.
§ 112. The Vasus. — The Vasus, Rudras, and As"vins, as constituent
parts of the Thirty-three gods, never vary in number. There are eight
Vasus, though also many other beings, such as earthly kings, are so named,
and the masculine and feminine forms designate Visnu and the Ganges,
respectively (13, 149, 87; 13, 80, 5; Visnu, as Rama, as Prajapati of Vasus,
R 6, 1 20, 8). Their father is Dharma (12, 207, 23), as he is father here
of Rudras, Maruts, Vis"ve Devas, and Sadhyas ; but another account makes
their father a Prajapati son of Manu or of Muni (i, 66, i8f.), or Manu
Prajapati (12, 208, 21); another ajccount derives them from the mundane
egg (i, I, 34). The passage in Adi gives the names of each Vasu and
that of each mother (in H 145, 12449, 12479, the daughter of Daksa and
wife of Dharma or of Manu is mother of Vasus and is called Vasu: Vasos
tu V as aval?) as follows: Dhara and Dhruva, sons of Dhumra; Soma
(Candramas) and £vasana (Anila), sons of Svasa ; Ahar, son of Rata ; Anala
(Hutasana), son of £andili; Pratyusa and Prabhasa, sons of Prabhata.
H 11538 gives (with v. 1.) the eight Vasus (sons of Sadhya and Dharma)
as Dhara or Maru, Dhruva, Visvavasu or Vivasvat, Soma, Parvata, Yogen-
dra, Vayu and Nikrti or Nirrti (it names here also as Sadhyas Cyavana,
Is~ana, Vis~vavasu, etc.). The descendants of the Vasus in the former list
are also given. Sons of Dhara are Dravina and Hutahavyavaha ; Kala is
son of Dhruva; Varcas is son of Soma, and £is~ira, Prana, and Ramana
are sons of this Varcas. Ahar's sons are Jyotis, ^ama (though also son
of Dharma), £anta, and Muni. Anala's son is Kumara Karttikeya (§ 161).
The wife of the Vasu Anila (son of £vasa) is £iva, who bore him Mano-
java and Avijfiatagati. Pratyusa was father of Devala, and Prabhasa was
father of ViSvakarman by the sister of Brhaspati. In 13, 150, i6f., the list
of Vasus is: Dhara, Dhruva, Soma, Savitra, Anila, Anala, Pratyusa, and
Prabhasa. In H 152: Apa, Dhruva, Soma, Dhara, Anila, Anala, Pratyusa,
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 171
Prabhasa. In the last passage the sons are given as above with minor
differences (Apasya putro Vaitandyalj Sramah ^anto Munis tatha),
which reflect the Puranic genealogy (VP. I, 15, 112 has the same sons of
Apa except Dhvani for Muni). R 3, 14, 14 makes Aditi mother of Vasus
{as of all the Thirty-three gods). Both epics regard Indra as the lord of
eight Vasus, though Agni is chief among them (6, 34, 23). Vasava as name
of Indra implies that Indra was lord or first of Vasus, and the standing
phrase (e. g. 5, 146, 12) "as Vasus revere Vasava", retains the idea that
Indra was their lord, though none of the texts has his name, which, con
sidering that Fire, Moon, and Wind are enrolled as Vasus, shows that
Indra was already fixed in the Aditya group. The phrase above is common
to both epics (R 4, 26, 35, "they consecrated him with water as the Vasus
did Vasava of a thousand eyes"). Indra, however, sanctions the curse put
upon them (below) and shows no especial intimacy with them, though
they always follow him as "mighty" fighters (12, 284, 7). Like the Maruts
and ViSve, they worship the sun at evening on Meru (R 4, 42, 39) as
Divaukasas, "celestials". They are invoked with Rudras, Adityas, As~vins,
and Maruts (R 5, 13, 56). They are always the bright gods; whose cars
are light, whose forms are "like gleaming fire", jvalitagnikalpalj, as
they wait in air to convey the incorporate eighth Vasu (Bhlsma) to the
worlds "whence the wise return not" (12, 51, I4f.). Their number (eight)
never varies (i, 123, 70; 3, 134, 15, etc.). They were cursed by Vasistha
to be born in human form. The Vasus, "Prthu and rest", came to the
seer's hermitage and the wife of one of them, called Dyaus, desired
NandinI, the cow whose milk gives youth for ten thousand years. So
Dyaus, Prthu, and the other Vasus stole the cow. Vasistha cursed them
all except Dyaus to be born on earth as men for only a year, but the
guilty Dyaus had to remain longer in human form and childless. Ganges,
also in human form, bore them to ^antanu, but drowned seven at birth,
the eighth being preserved (BhTsma, Gangeya, Devavrata) to be the "eighth
Vasu" (i, 99, i f.). Another story says that the Vasus flew above Vasistha
as he was "seated at twilight" (in prayer), wherefore he cursed them,
"for a little fault", alpe 'paradhe, so that they lost their beauty and were
born of Ganges, to whom each imparted one eighth of his power to be
incarnate as BhTsma (i, 96, 21). This is a different interpretation as well
as a different legend. Not one Vasu but one eighth of each Vasu becomes
Bhlsma. It is this curse which Indra sanctions (i, 67, 74 f.), niyogad
Vasavasya. Of the names given above, besides those of gods of light
(Moon and Fire and Wind) and the star Dhruva and abstractions or forms
of fire, the name Savitra attracts attention as it is that of a Rudra (12,
208, 20), though the vague text regards both classes here as Pitrs. In
R 7> 27j 34? the eighth Vasu is Savitra and, distinguished from the others,
fights as a hero with Sumalin. As a son of Nrga is a Vasu and also a
son of Kus~a (R i, 32, 7; R 7, 54, 8), and the Mbh. recognises Uparicara
as Vasu (i, 62, 29 f., etc.), and sons of Manus (H 415 and 465) are Vasus
(cf. i, 94, 1 8 and 2, 33, 35, Vasu as brother of Dusyanta and as father
of Paila), it is clear that the word still retained its vague value of "good"
without specific application to the celestials. The Vasus curse Arjuna,
Indra's son, for killing BhTsma, but mitigate the curse to his defeat at the
hands of his son (14, 81, 15 and 18). The death-scene of Bhlsma records
that he "enters his own body and gets to the Vasus, so that eight Vasus
are visible" (18, 5, n), which shows that the "eighth Vasu" was imagined
172 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
as one complete Vasu. In 13, 169, 31, Bhlsma is thus recognised as one
Vasu who has now gone to heaven. He is called "one of the Vasus, a
Vasu of great beauty" (5, 185, 18); though, according to i, 96, 12, when
cursed they were all nastarupah, as when born again they were all
"like immortals (i, 98, 12). The Vasus anyway are typical of beauty (i,
55, 15). Bhlsma is even called the ninth Vasu, as one outside of the eight
(12, 50, 26, Vasunam Vasavopamali . . navamo 'navamo gunaih).
Vasuvega as epithet of &va the scholiast interprets as if Vasu were Wind
(13, 17,68; cf. €205 &va Vasurupa) ; but Vasuretas ofAgni (etc.) shows
that vasu often has the sense of bright = good = goods, i. e. wealth.
Compare Vasumanas, who was vasupradah and Vasubhyo vasumat-
tarah, "wealth-giver" and "wealthier than the Vasus" (5, 116, 17). A
review of the places cited above shows that till the time represented by
Uttara and Adi and the pseudo-epic and Hariv., there are no individual
Vasus, but that the number is unchangeable and that the Vasus retain
their old association with Agni (Vasu) in the real epic, even while re
garded as followers of Vasava (Indra), who is treated as their chief. The
"ten Vasus with Indra as the eleventh" (discussed IS._5, 241) are of no
more significance than are the ten Rudras and ten Adityas, each with
Indra as eleventh, in the same Vedic passage (Kath. 28, 3); nor do the
three hundred and thirty-three Vasus (TS. 5, 5, 2, 5) appear to have epic
imitation. On the other hand, the definition of Vasus in ^B. n, 6, 3, 6,
as the eight gods causing the world to abide (vas), however foolish the
etymology, is retained, at least in part; for the Vedic eight are Fire,
Earth, Wind, Air, Sun, Sky, Moon, and Stars, and the pseudo-epical (and
Puranic) list is Fire, Earth, Wind, Day or Water or Savitra (see above),
Dawn-light, Glory (brightness), Moon, and Pole-star, a list which shows
that in a vague way the Vasus were thought of as the bright gods, even
cutting across the Aditya-list with which it had to combine in making the
Thirty-three. But the Vasus belong more to earth, the Adityas more to
heaven, and Dyaus is not in the regular lists of Vasus, though he appears
with Prthu (above), as if he were_a recognised leader of the group. The
VP. also (i, 15, no) calls them Apa, Dhruva, Soma, Dhara, Anila, Anala,
Pratyusa, and Prabhasa, and says that they are jyotilipurogamak, "light-
led" as well as "powerful gods". No doubt the priests who composed
Adi and Anus"asana simply copied roughly what they had got from ^B.,
for this Brahmana is the Brahmana to the epic priests (who seem to be
Yajurvedins). This would explain why such a list comes up again in the
later epic, Hariv., etc., while unknown in the real epic. In R 6, 120, 8,
Rtadhaman may be a Vasu-name (or epithet of Prajapati? late passage).
§ 113. The Rudras. — A characteristic Gana is that of the Rudras,
originally forms of Rudra, who in the Rg-Veda is father of the Maruts.
They are closely associated both early and late with Vasus, Vis"ve, and
Adityas, and, as already said, make eleven of the Thirty-three gods. The
epic makes them subject to Sthanu, who in i, 211, 24f., is &va (the passage
explains how four-faced Sthanu Mahadeva and thousand-eyed Indra re
ceived these characteristics). Sthanu is son of Brahman in i, 66, i, which
mentions the "eleven sons of Sthanu" and gives their names. Sthanu is
son of Brahman here only by inference, but this is correct (N. "seventh
son of Brahman"), as it is confirmed by 12, 166, 16. Though Sthanu as
&va appears not infrequently (3, 38, 3 ; 125, 14, Sthanor mantrani, etc.),
it is not to be assumed that Sthanu (the immovable post, sthanubhuta,
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 173
ascetic) always means &va (S has more passages, e. g. 7, 9, 41, where
such is the meaning). Sthanu and Marici are ordinary Prajapatis (R 3,
14, 8) and Sthanu is a Rudra, as the list of the eleven is given in I, 66,
if. and I, 123, 68 f. : Mrgavyadha, Sarpa, Nirrti, Ajaikapad, Ahi Budhnya,
Pinakin, Dahana, Is'vara, Kapalin, Sthanu, and Bhaga. In philosophy, Ru
dra makes "ten others", as vikaras of himself: Rudro rosatmako jato
das"a 'nyan so 'srjat svayam, ekadas~ai 'te Rudras tu vikarapu-
rusalj. smrtah (12, 341, 37). The native explanation of the word (H 11530;
cf. rudrapradhanan aparan viddhi yogan, 12, 317, 5) has a respect
able antiquity (Chand. Up. 3, 16, 3); it makes the Rudras howlers (and
runners) rather than ruddy gods (rudra is used for "breath"), but the
application is perhaps not so much to the howling of wind -gods as to
the shrieking of the bolt (hradini, lightning, is the "shrieker", 9, n, 25).
Kapalin (sic) is of the Rudras the foremost (S 4, 3, 27), which is perhaps
equivalent to the expression (6, 34, 23) of Krsna, "Of Rudras I am ^an-
kara; of Vasus, Pavaka", as both Kapalin and ^ankara mean &va. In
12, 208, 2 if., the Rudras are eleven sons of Tvastr (so S) and are called:
Vis"varupa, Ajaikapad, Ahi Budhnya, Virupaksa, Raivata, Hara, Bahurupa,
Tryambaka (lord of gods), Savitra, Jayanta, and Pinakin (the "invincible").
In 13, 150, I2f., there are other names, eleven, but known as a hundred,
thus : Ajaikapad, Ahi Budhnya, Pinakin, Rta, Pitrrupa, Tryambaka, Mahes"-
vara, Vrsakapi, £ambhu, Havana, and Is'vara, (ekadas~ai 'te prathita
Rudras tribhuvaneSvarah, s"atam etat samamnatam ^atarudre
mahatmanam). In 13, 14, 390, the eleven are "eleven hundred Rudras",
surrounding Siva. In 4, 2, 21, Arjuna as the twelfth Rudra, thirteenth Adi-
tya, and ninth Vasu shows that the number is fixed. The Ramayana
makes Aditi the mother of Rudras (R 3, 14, I4),while H 11530 and 12477
makes their mother Surabhi, "mother of ambrosia, Brahmanas, cows, and
Rudras"; the father, Brahman or Kas"yapa; while 12, 207, 23 makes Dharma
(as Yama ? see below) father of Vasus , Rudras (mighty) , Vis"ve Devas,
Sadhyas, and Maruts (Marutvantah). Hariv. 165 and 11531 makes a
list of eleven, mainly by combining those given above from the Adi and
Anus~asana (Senani is new). For still later Puranic lists, see Wilson's
note to VP. p. 121. The epic knows the Rudras as companions of Indra,
servants of &va and of his son, and also as the escort of Yama who ap
pears surrounded by them (3, 237, n). They are described as of im
measurable strength and fiery (H 16273), with golden necklaces and "like
lightning-illumined clouds". On the ^atarudriya, see my Great Epic of
India, p. 368. On the "eighth Rudra" (implying seven?) see § 115.
§ 114. The Vis"ve Devas. -- In 4, 58, 71 f., Indra comes to see a
battle; the gods come with him, arranged in groups, nikayas; his
personal attendants are especially the All -gods, Asvins, and Maruts, all
in one Gana (Vis'vasvimarutam ganah). The words have united (Vis-
vedevan, Visvedevailj, 9,45,6, differentiated from Pitrs) into one title
of gods who accompany Indra and with the other groups especially ac
company the Pitrs (earlier, e. g. AB. 3, 31, they include the Pitrs). They
belong (it is said) geographically to the South with the Pitrs, and "there
they rest revered and sharing the fortunes (oblations) of the Fathers" (5,
109, 3, atra Visve sada devafr Pitrbhilj sardham asate, etc.). In 3,
43, I3,_ Arjuna on his way to heaven meets Sadhyas, Visve, Maruts, As
vins, Adityas, Rudras, and Vasus (similar grouping, I, 123, 70). With Sa
dhyas and Valakhilyas they fear Visvamitra (i, 71, 39), but they are here
174 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
associates also of Soma and Yama, greater gods. Their origin from the
mundane egg is especially mentioned (i, I, 34). The five sons of Drau-
padi are their incarnations (1,67, 127): Visvan devaganan viddhi
samjatan, as if that number represented them. Along with the hosts of
Fathers, Saints, Death, and Time, they see and bear witness to the acts
of men and give rewards accordingly; also as "lords of hosts", Gane-
svaras, they are associated with Saumyas, Raudras, Yogabhutaganas, and
other followers of &va Nandlsvara (13, 150, i8f. and 24f.). Yet this spe
cific occupation of the pseudo-epic does not interfere with the purely
epic character of the ViSve as "go car as or constant associates with the
Pitrs" (13,91,24); but this post-epical passage elaborates them into a
list apparently of sixty-four who receive ^raddha offerings, though the
texts vary in regard to some of the names, and it is possible that after
the name Varin in this list the original ViSve-group ended, for the verse
ends "the eternal Vis"ve Devas are these" (whose mouth is Agni). In that
case there would be twenty -nine Vi^ve- names; but this would leave an
unexplained supplementary group, called, as receivers of Sraddha-offerings,
the " gat i go car as of Kala". In either case, two Somavarcas appear
in both texts, and two Krtis in the Southern text. Paramakrodhin is
probably one name, though the natural number of sixty-four would then
become one less, an unusual number for any group. Finally it may be
said that it is of little importance whether one list or the other is right,,
as the names are mere epithets, some of them the epithets of the great
gods, Indra, All-maker, etc. The S text (13, 138, 39f.) substitutes Saha,
Krti, Gramya, and Hrimat for the Northern names Bala (balam!), Dhrti,
Parsni, and Hrimat. The names follow: Bala or Saha, Krti or Dhrti, Vi-
papman, Punyakrt, Pavana, Parsni or Gramya, Ksema (Ksemya), Samuha,.
Divyasanu, Vivasvat, VIryavat, Hrimat or Hrimat, Kirtimat, Krta, Jitatman,
Munivlrya, DIptaroman, Bhayamkara, Anukarman, Pratlta, Pradatr, Amsu-
mat, ^ailabha, Paramakrodhin, Dhlrosnin, Bhupati, Sraja, Vajrin, and Varin ;
and also (Vis"ve or heavenly beings like them) : Vidyudvarcas, Somavarcas^
Suryasri, Somapa, Suryasavitra, Dattatman, Pundarlyaka, Usninabha, Na-
bhoda, Vis"vayu, Dipti, Camuhara, Suresa, Vyomari, ^arikara, Bhava, Isa^
Kartr, Krti, Daksa, Bhuvana, Divyakarmakrt, Ganita, Pancavlrya, Aditya,
RaSmivat, Saptakrt, Somavarcas, Vis"vakrt, Kavi, Anugoptr, Sugoptr,
Naptr, I^vara. The list in H H54if. of the Visve Deva visvesalj, sons
of Dharma and Vi^va, is shorter : Sudharman, ^ankhapad, Uktha (or Daksa),
Vapusmat, Ananta, and Mahirana, as "of Caksusa Manu" and also Visva-
vasu, Suparvan, Nikumbha ("Viskumbha"), and Ruru ("Rudra"), the last
being "rsiputra and sunlike in glory". Visvavasu, here one of the All-
gods, is also a Gandharva, a Marut and a Sadhya (in H). In H 11849,
the Visve and other groups are sired by Kasyapa; in H 12479, by Manu.
The last list agrees with that of the Puranas in number (nine or ten).
That these gods were originally forms of Manes may be surmised from
their constant association with the Pitrs at the funeral feast. They are
also placated when a new house is built. So when Laksmana builds a
hut for Rama, the latter "makes an offering to the All-gods", as he does
to Rudra and Visnu, to avert evil and bring luck (R 2, 56, 32, Vais-
vadevabalim krtva . . vastusamsamanlyani mangalani pravar-
tayan . . papasamsamanam balim), before he bathes. The Vaisvadeva
offering is thrown upon the ground, like that to the lower spirits, and it
is eaten only by dogs and birds and men who eat dog-meat. It is offered
VI. THE HOSTS OF SPIRITS. 175
regularly morn and eve. (3, 2, 59). The same rule is repeated (13, 97,
23) with an addition, specifying that the offering should be made out
of doors in connection with offerings to the dead. The Vis"ve are some
what perfunctorily invoked for protection with other groups, "Adityas,
Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, Vis"ve ca Devatalj (sic), the Maruts with Indra,
the Dis"as, and DigiSvaras" (3, 308, nf.) — for the benefit of a traveller;
after a more formal invocation of King Varuna ("guard thee on the
water") and Tapana Tamonuda, the "darkness-smiting Sun". They are
all invoked to save the traveller from the Bhuts of air, earth, and sky.
§ 115. The Sadhyas. — These "perfected" (successful) ones are
militant gods who accompany and fight for the Devas of celestial origin.
They have no individual members till the Harivams"a period , when a
nominal mother Sadhya begets Sadhyas called Prabhava, Cyavana, Is"ana,
Surabhi, Aranya, Maruta, ViSvavasu, Baladhruva, Mahisa, Tanuja, Vidhana,
Anagha, Vatsara, Vibhuti, Suparvata, Vrsa, and Naga, among whom Vi-
bhuti receives the imposing epithet sarvasuranisudana, "slayer of all
the Asuras" (H 11536). The real epic knows none of these as a Sadhya,
(rather as Rsi, god, and other spiritual forms). Except for this passage
the Sadhyas are an indeterminate host, often mentioned but nowhere de
fined except explicitly as gods invoked as witnesses and born of the
mundane egg (i, i, 35; R 7, 97, 9). In 5, 36, 3, they say Sadhya deva
vayam, "we are gods" (cf. RV. 10, 90, 16), and they are addressed as
"eaters of ambrosia" by the Golden Goose (i. e. God, 12, 300, 4 and 7).
The mother Sadhya appears in H 147, etc. As fighting gods they even
precede the Maruts (7, 35, 30). They appear usually grouped with other
gods of smaller importance, as in I, 71, 39 and 87, i: "honored by the
Thirty-three, the Sadhyas, Maruts, and Vasus, in the house of gods "(de-
vavegman). In R 6, 120, 8, Visnu is "fifth of Sadhyas", as he is "eighth
of Rudras" and "Prajapati of Vasus".
§ 116. The Vidyadharas. — These wizards (wisdom -holders) are
spirits who have become like fairies or sylphs. They have a leader but it is
uncertain who he is (below). They gaze with astonishment at human
prowess (7, 98, 34): "The gods leaned over the edge of their cars to
stare (admire), led by Brahman and Soma, and crowds of Siddhas, Caranas,
Vidyadharas, and Mahoragas wondered at the duel". As they watch a
combat, "they strew flowers" (7, 139, 55; S 6,69,71). They flee from
danger with their wives (R 4, 67, 46 and R 5, i, 26); rejoice with music
and loud laughter (R 4, 43, 52 f.); are crowned with wreaths and are "fair of
aspect" ; possessing the "great wisdom", which is explained as the Yoga-
trick of diminishing their size, etc., as Yogins can (mahavidya, R 5, I,
27). With Gandharvas, Kimnaras, Siddhas, and Nagas they share the
epithets "doers of good and devoted to joy" (R 4, 43, 53). They are es
sentially spirits of the air, vihagas (12, 334, 15; R 5, i, 171; R 5, 54, 51
and ib. 56, 31, etc.). In R 5, i, 171, they go in Ganas and ib. 165, where
the path of the wind is described as traversed by Airavata and by kais"i-
kacaryas, the "teachers of singing and dancing "are explained (by the
commentators) either as Gandharvas or as the Vidyadhara king. In R 6,
69, 71, as in R 5, i, 27, Vidyadharamaharsaya^ seem to be great
seers among them. It may be remarked that vidyaganas are them
selves animate "troops of sciences", accompanying Diva's consort, animate
though "made by sages" (kavibhih krtafr); as Vidya (Sophia) is herself
an attendant on ParvatI (3, 231, 48 f.). Any vidya may be given away,
176 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
imparted as a kind of magic. Thus the vidya called pratismrti is se
cretly imparted by Vyasa to Yudhisthira (3, 36, 30), just "as the secret
teaching of teachers is imparted to a son or devoted pupil, without study
(7, 194, 6). In 2, 10, 27, the leader of the Vidyadharas is Cakradharman
(who appears to have sons) in Kubera's palace, for these sylphs are found
especially in Gandhamadana and other northern mountains with Kimnaras
(3, 108, ii ; ib. 158, 33; ib, 159, 19, "wreathed and fair"). A second leader
mentioned is Vipracitti (-purogamah, in Indra's palace, S 2, 7, 24).
This may show Jain influence, since the Jains regard the Vidyadharas as
evil, and Vipracitti is an evil Danava. Thirdly, the wise bear Jambavat is
called Vidyadharendra, "chief of Vidyadharas" (13, 14, 28 and 42: Jam-
bavaty abravld dhi mam . . yad abravin mam Vidyadharen-
drasya suta. See Jambavat, §8). The Vidyadhari is a female of great
beauty (4, 9, 15, etc.). There is a terrible mahastram vaidyadharam
(R i, 56, n) or weapon used by these sylphs, though they are not war
like (i, 228, 33, etc.). When a magic sacrifice forces Indra to come to
earth with Taksaka, they come with him, but not to help (i, 56, 9), only
as companions of nymphs and the (sentient) clouds (cf. varidharas in
R 5, i, 165). Ravana conquered the Gandharvas and Kimnaras and Vidya
dharas and carried off their women, the "fair women of the Vidyadharas"
being held captive in his court (R 5, 12, 20; R 6, 61, 10). The Ram. lo
cates their home among the Hyperboreans in the mountains beyond the
Vaikhanasas (saints) and the "land of horse-faced women" (PiSacis? R 4,
43, 32 and 52). They are also on Kubera's Gandhamadana (above) and
on the Kraunca mountain (9, 46, 88) ; and Rama finds the "playground of
Vidyadhara women" on Citrakuta (R 2, 94, 12); as too they are seen on
the hills of Malabar (R 6, 74, 44) and even in the forest of Khandava (i,
228, 33)-
§ 117. The Kapas. -- These are beings illustrating the gradual for
mation of new groups. They are not really epic but are described for
the first and only time in 13, 158, 4f., where they are said to have been
so powerful that they evicted the gods from heaven. Their leader was
Dhanin. Though evilly disposed toward the gods, they were exceedingly
religious in other regards, so that they resembled the great seers. But
the priests of the gods, when they took up the strife, overcame them, for
the Kapas could not withstand the fires and Mantras of the priests. They
are regarded as a class of Danavas (ib. 19), virtuous but godless ; perhaps
historically a sect or clan opposed to the orthodox cult. If they are Pitrs (?),
their opposition to the gods recalls the similar Vedic Pitrs, who have
gods as foes, devas"atravah (RV. 6, 59, i), an epic epithet of Asuras and
Raksasas, as foes of gods.
VII. THE DIVINE SEERS AS STAR-GODS.
§ 1 1 8. The Rsis interchange with Pitrs on the one hand and gods
on the other. They are the singers of old, seers glorified as forms of
(fire and) stars and yet recognised as ancestors of mortal men. They are
intermediaries. Brahman created Asi, the Sword, as a divine being to
protect men, and gave it to Rudra, who gave it to Visnu, who gave it to
Marici. Marici passed it over to the Seers, and it was they who gave it
to (Indra) Vasava; he bestowed it upon the Lokapalas, and they gave it
to the law- giver Manu (12, 166, 66). The seers here are the Maharsis,
VII. THE DIVINE SEERS AS STAR-GODS. 177
who had accepted the law of Brahman, viz. (ib 22 f.), Bhrgu, Atri, Angiras,
the Siddhas, Kasyapas, Vasistha, Gautama, Agastya, Narada, Parvata, the
Valakhilyas, Prabhasas, Sikatas, Ghrtapas, Somavayavyas , Vaisvanaras,
Maricipas, Akrstas, Hamsas, Agniyonis, Vanaprasthas, and Prsnis. The
seers are Mahfdevas, gods of earth (RS 6, 114, 4), not because they are
all of the priestly caste (priests being ksitidevatah, 13, 141, 62), but
because they are as gods, though of mortal nature of old. Thus it is said
indifferently that the rules for funerals were made by Pitrs or by Rsis (R
6, 114, 108). Among Rsis, some are Devarsis and Danavarsis; some are
Maharsis, some are Paramarsis (the arcismantah or very bright stars
about the polar star); others, like Trisanku, are Rajarsis, of kingly ex
traction; or Brahmarsis (Viprarsis), of priestly origin. The most famous
group is that of the Seven Seers of the North. Lists of the other groups,
of seven some, in the East, West, and South are given (R 7, I, 2f.), though
the "seven" are elsewhere not so clearly defined. (In the North) : Va
sistha, Kasyapa, Atri, ViSvamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni, Bharadvaja ; (East):
Kausika, Yavakrita, Gargya, Galava, Kanva, son of Medhatithi ; (South) :
Svastyatreya, Namuci, Pramuci, Agastya, Atri, Sumukha, Vimukha ; (West) :
Nrsadgu (-dgu), Kavasa (-sin), Dhaumya, Raudreya (mahan rsih) or Kau-
seya. Other seers functioning at Rama's court are Vamadeva, Jabali,
Katyayana, Suyajna, Vijaya, (R 6, 131, 60 f . ; cf. ib. i, 7, 5; ib. S I, 8, 6).
Kutsa appears in a later passage (R 59, pra. 2, 31). The Mbh. also
has its distributed lists of seers , but it is confused with kings and Ra
jarsis and does not agree except here and there with that of R (13, 166,
37 f.). In 13, 150,40, besides the geographical sevens of the Lokapalas
(§ 92), there is a fifth heptad of "world-making Munis" (seers), who, "when
lauded, cause men to become praised and blessed". This is followed by
another seven called dharanidharas (Dharma, Kama, Kala, Vasu, Va-
suki. Ananta, and Kapila), and then a seventh seven-group, which, owing
to the interposition of four others (Rama, Vyasa, ASvatthaman, and Lo-
masa), does not become apparent till vs. 44, where seven seers renowned
on account of their austerity are listed: Samvarta, Merusavarna, Markan-
deya, Sankhya, Yoga, Narada, and Durvasas ! In this bizarre combination
all that is apparent is that the author is trying to make a seven times
seven table of venerable seers and sages (cf. a similar list in 12, 208, 26 f.).
The Southerners here are called Brahmarsis and the Westerners Maharsis.
The "seven wind-seers" born of a saint and father of the Maruts (9, 38,
35) show the same tendency to make heptads. Many of the seers in the
list first given above (12, 166, 24 f., cf. 7, 190, 34f.) are families and sects
of devotees like the Usmapas, Phenapas, etc., mentioned as Pitrs (for Akrstas
and Vanaprasthas, v. 1. are Karusas and Masaprasthas : cf. 3,64,62 and
J3> !45 57). Such seers en masse float through the air with gods (3, 36,
42; 7, 124,40, etc.), and appear on holy days at certain points (3, 159,
16; on Parvan days, i. e. once a week). Among them are Vatikas and
Caranas (9, 55, 14) and they are described as vayubhaksas, abbhaksas,
dantolukhalikas, etc. (ib. 37, 48f.). The seer is called a Muni (i, 107,
i$f. ; seers appear as birds at Bhisma's death), though there are special
lists of Munis, important mainly in showing that class-names tend to be
come individuals. Thus Vayubhaksa and Parnada and Adha^iras are kinds
of Munis but are treated as names of individuals (2, 4, 9f. ; S 5, 83, 29 f.).
The Saptajana (nama) Munis of R 4, 13, 18, eat only on the seventh night,
then eat only air, and go to heaven in seven hundred years (calendar-saints).
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 12
178 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
§ 119. But the formal distinction between Brahmarsis and Devarsis
is as little observed as that between Rsis and Maharsis ; only the Rajarsis
stand out, on account of their royal origin. A Brahmarsi of one passage
is a Viprarsi in another (13, 6, 37 compared with 3, 281, 14; 5, 176, 46),
but the new name indicates that he who was first regarded as "seer of
Brahman" has become a "Brahmanic (priestly) seer". Examples of Brahm
arsis are Atri and Angiras ; of Devarsis, Narada and Vasistha ; of Rajarsis,
Vainya and other kings. Us"anas is a demons' Devarsi (R 7, 81, i), for
there are also seers of the demons, Danavarsis (3, 169, 23). Utanka is a
Viprarsi (i, 3, 143). The Rsis in general are countless. Eighty-eight thou
sand without offspring and fifty thousand with offspring are in Brahman's
court (2, n, 54, stereotyped figure). There are Brahmalaukikas (R 7, 98,
24), belonging to Brahman's sphere, also Paramesthya Rsis. Pitrlokarsis
(in the South) live with Devarsis and Rajarsis there (5, 109, 5 ; ib. 9, Vi-
prarsis). Surarsi = Devarsi (R 6, 129,53), of Narada. These seers, of
course, appear constantly anywhere. For example, when Krsna goes along
a road, he meets Devarsis and Rajarsis on either side of the way, both
with b rah mi sri or holy beauty, but acting like mortals (Rama Jamad-
agnya is their spokesman, 5, 83, 65). When the gods visit Indra with the
seers, the latter lead (i, 226, 15); but the seers themselves, even the great
Seven, follow Indra (2, 53, 12). They come with the gods to visit men
at peace or in battle, cry Bravo to the brave and murmur blessings on the
worlds (R 6, 90, 37, etc.). In 14, 77, 17 f., the Saptarsis, Devarsis, and
Brahmarsis "murmur victory to Arjuna"; all but the last group being
frightened. As priests utter mangalyas before kings, so the Rsis before
Indra (5, 83, 8); their best wealth is truth (12, 56, 18). They may have
children by nymphs, or by the grace of Siva, or without woman's aid (A-
lambayana in 13, 18, 5 f., but see below). Their form of marriage is not
interfered with by the gods (R 3, 55, 34). It is the seers who made the
worlds and even the Deity reveres them (13,31,25; see also Brahman
and Creation).
§ 1 20. The families of Rsis lead to jealousy and arrogance: "the
best Rsis in the world" are Bhrgus, Angirasas, Vasisthas, Kas"yapas, Aga-
styas, Atreyas (3, 26, 7, i. e. priests of these classes). The plural is used
as patronymic (as here), Bhrgavah, "sons of Bhrgu" ; so Gargas are "sons
of Garga" = Gargyas (i, 178, 15; 7, 190, 34, etc.). A later theory has it
that Bhrgu is a Varuna, the Prajapatis of all peoples on earth being Bhrgu,
Angiras, and Kavi, of whom Bhrgu had seven sons, and the others eight
each. Bhrgu's sons were Cyavana, VajrasTrsa, £uci, Aurva, Sukra, Varenya,
and Savana ; called Bhargavas, and Varunas because Siva, as Varuna, adop
ted them (13, 85, 125 f.). The sons of the other two ancestors of the hu
man race vary. Angiras, to whom the genealogy of I, 66, 5 gives but
three sons, here has eight, Brhaspati, etc. to Sudhanvan (who is "even
better than Virocana", with whom he converses, 5, 35, 5 f.). These are
called also sons of Agni (Angiras is son of Agni and of Brahman). Kavi's
sons vary most (v. 1.), one text having Bhrgu, Virajas, Kas"i, and Ugra,
against S, Varuna, KaSyapa, Agni (S 13, 132, 42 f. = 85, i3Of.). Other seers
are renowned as sectarian diadochi, the Phenapas handing down the tenets
of Narada to the Vaikhanasas, who gave the teaching to Soma in Brah
man's first birth. In his second birth Brahman, receiving it, gave it to
Rudra, and Rudra to the Valakhilyas (in Krtayuga, 12, 349, I4f.). In
Brahman's third birth (as Logos, 349, 19 f.), Narada imparted it to the Rsi
VII. THE DIVINE SEERS AS STAR-GODS. 179
Suparna (trisauparna), whence it came to Vayu, and from him to the
Rsis called Vighasas"ins. Barhisada and Jyestha (Samavedantaga, 349, 45 f.)
received it later. The Bhrgu-Angirasa-vams"ajas, "not very angry", unite
in cursing Hanumat, perhaps recognising in him the future scientist and
grammarian, navavyakaranarthavettr (R 7, 36, 34 and 48). Most of
this is later than the real epic.
§ 121. Bhrgu is the greatest Maharsi (6, 34, 25). He heads the list
of Bhrgus, Angirasas, Vasisthas, and Kas"yapas (3, 115, 2); and composes
a £astra which differs philosophically from the one ascribed to Manu
(12, 182 to 192), deriving fire and wind from water, while Manu derives
water from light and light from wind. Bhrgu teaches here that the earth
is water solidified by the action of wind, which came from water. Wind
here is not a god, but sun and moon are limited gods who can "see no
farther than their own light". Bhrgu was born from Fire, Pavaka, at
Varuna's sacrifice, though fathered by Brahman, whose breast he cleaves.
He is father of Sukra Kavi (whose son he is in 13, 85, 133) and of Cya-
vana (by Puloma), and thus grandfather of Pramati and ancestor of Aurva
(named urum bhittva, I, 179, 8), the son of Arusi, daughter of Manu (i,
5, I3f. ; ib. 8, if.; 66,41). Aurva burned the sight of those descendants
of Krtavlrya who stole the Bhrgus' hoarded wealth (i, 178, 15 f.). He was
father of Rcika, the father of Jamadagni, and destroyed Talajangha (i,
66,46 and 49; 13, 154, 11). Bhrgu cursed Agni to "eat all things" (9,
47, 21); he cursed Himavat to lose its gems, because H. gave Uma to
Rudra (12, 340, 62); and he cursed Visnu, for beheading his wife Puloma,
who favored the demons, to be born as man and lose his wife (R i, 25,
21 ; ib. 7, 51, 2, told by "Durvasas, son of Atri"). When Vasistha cursed
Nimi to lose his body, Bhrgu kept him alive as nimesa (wink), Nimi being
of Atri's race, son of Dattatreya (13, 91, 7 f.; he was king of Mithila: as Id
raja Nimir nama, R 7, 55, 4f.). A different genealogy is found in the
story of Vitahavya, who attacked Divodasa and changed his caste (tyajito
jatim, 13, 30, 56 and 66). He became priest through Bhrgu's lying state
ment that "only priests" were in his asylum (cf. AV. 5, 18, 10). Vfta-
havya's son is the Viprarsi Grtsamada, about whom "there is a revelation
in the Rg-Veda" (see AB. 5, 2, 4). He was fair as Indra and was attacked
by the fiends in consequence. Grtsamada was first of his line born in
the priesthood, vipratvam, as his father was a Ksattriya who "got priest
hood" (13, 30, 61 f.). Though a friend of Indra, Grtsamada worshipped
Mahadeva; he was turned into a deer (13, 18, 19 f.). Bhrgutuiiga preserves
the name of the ancestral abode (i, 75, 57, etc.). He is ancestor of Ruru
and Sunaka.
§ 122. The Bhargavas' most famous member is Us"anas, the Kavi cal
led ^ukra, preceptor of Asuras, renowned no less for wealth than for in
telligence (R 3,43, 32; ib. 4, 51, 12). His daughter Araja was violated
by Manu's son Danda, whom Us"anas cursed, resulting in ashes destroying
Janasthana (Dandaka-forest, R 7, 79, i8f.), when he was Danda's Purohita.
As Purohita of the Asuras he also favors the Raksasas and advises Me-
ghanada how to sacrifice, which he refuses to do as it "honors his foes"
(R 7, 25, 6 f.). Us"anas is here quite^ anthropomorphic in distinction from
R 6, 4, 48, where he is the planet Sukra whose "favorable rays" presage
weal, like the aspect of Paramarsis. Mbh. I, 65, 36 f. ; 66, 41 f., presents
him as half planet (Venus) and half preceptor of Asuras, having four sons
called "Asura-sacrificers", Asurayajakas, Tvastadhara, Atri, Raudra, and
i8o III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Karmin. Kavi USanas is here son of Kavi (Bhrgu), interpreted as con
troller of rain and also as uniting with Brhaspati in being Guru of gods
as well as of Asuras through Yoga (refers to the inverted legend of Mait.
Up., that Brhaspati as Us~anas mistaught the Asuras). He is called best
of Bhrgus (1,80, i) and Bhargava usually implies him (3,4,2; cf. 9,6,10),
especially as Nitis"astra-kartr (so N. at 5, 39, 30; cf. 8, 8, 4). Usanas' wife
is Sataparvan (sic, 5, 117, 13); his daughter Devi is wife of Varuna. De-
vayani (i, 76, i), also his daughter, revives Kaca, when reduced to paste,
a son of Brhaspati, and marries Yayati, whom Sukra curses (i, 83, 37). For
her sake he quarrels with Vrsaparvan, inducing this Asura king to make
his own daughter the slave of Devayanl. Even here Sukra Kavya is the
power that "sends rain and makes plants grow" and so is "lord of all in
earth and heaven" (i, 78, 38 f . ; S adds sarvalokaguruh Kavyah). As
military epigrammatist he is often cited (12, 138, 134; cf. ib. 56, 28 and
9, 58, 14 f.), but the same utterance ascribed to him and to Brhaspati shows
uncertainty of origin. He appears here as Maharsi USanas and as Lord
USanas (12, 57, 2 and 40). Us~anas sided with the Asuras as natural heir
of his father, whose wife's head Visnu cut off (12, 290, if.). His name
£ukra is interpreted as Siva's "seed", because the god swallowed him
and then let him out, though he deserved punishment for stealing the
wealth of Kubera, Siva's friend. Uma interceded for him, so he became
her son (ib. 32 and 34). He and &va thus oppose Visnu and other gods
(ib. 293, 17). He invented his system of Niti at Kapalamocana Tirtha,
where the head of the demon hurled by Rama fell off from the thigh of
Mahodara (3, 83, 135; 9, 39, 8f.). He teaches Prahlada and other Daityas
(12,37,10; ib. 139, 70 f.; ib. 142,22; ib. 280 — 281; his Sastra and Ga-
thas). The divya katha of the virtuous pigeon is his (12, 143, 8f., as
cribed to Bhargava Muni; S says Us"anas). His Sastra includes military
matters (15, 7, 15). He found out "Indra's secret" (potency of fasts, 13, 103,
39); his place in heaven is distinct from those of Maruta and Brahman
(ib. 107, 80, 94, 100) ; he makes his locks snakes and turns Rudra's throat
blue (see Siva). S adds new verses as "s'lokas sung by Us~anas" (after
B 12, 69, 73 and after 12, 73, 5, glorification of AV. ; cf. also S 12, 94, o,f.).
H 12200 makes Sukra priest of Hiranyakas~ipu. Other Bhargavas of im
portance are Atri (see below); Cyavana, whose aim in life was to kill
Kusikas, till he delegated the vendetta to Aurva ; and Aurva, who became
the Aurva Fire or Mare's Mouth or Horse's Head, HayaSiras, which will
consume ocean (7, 135, 22; cf. i, 170, 53; 180, 22). This fire in 12, 343,
60, is interpreted as Visnu's energy. On Cyavana, see p. 168 (As"vins).
He healed with his hands, restored youth, created magic grounds, lived
like a sunk log in water, and was sold for a cow (13, 50, 2f. ; to 56, 4).
He lived in the West, where men become saints "with little trouble",
near Mt. Mainaka (3, 89, 13). See § 125 for other Bharga_vas.
§ 123. Brhaspati (i, 104, 10) is the most famous Aiigirasa, though
"best" of this family is applied even to Drona (grandson of Brhaspati).
Angiras himself is of no moment; he married the daughter of Marutta
(12,235,28); he guards the sun (3,92,6); teaches rules of fasting (13,
106, 71); and is a form of fire, angara meaning coal (13, 85, 105; here
too "Bhrgu from burn"). The story of Angiras taking the place of Agni
and of his daughters, moon's phases, has been told under Agni. Angiras
is third son of Brahman in the list of Prajapatis (i, 65 and 66; not R 3,
14); verses cited as his occur (12, 69, 71). But the glory is his son's. Brhas-
VII. THE DIVINE SEERS AS STAR-GODS. 181
pati (the planet Jupiter) is preceptor of the gods and gives them in
struction orally, as well as composes a Sastra for them and others, but
otherwise he is remarkably inactive. His wife Tara, raped by Soma (p. 90),
was the cause of the great "war about Tara" (5, 117, 13, etc.). He re
stores dead heroes to life by plants treated with Mantras (R 6, 50, 28).
He conies stammering into the presence of Indra (R 6, 92, 4), but other
wise is treated as revered Guru. He is regent of Pusya (R 2, 26, 9), is
invoked with or without Sukra for blessings (ib. 25, n and 99, 41), the
instruction of the two upadhyayas being the same (9, 61, 48), the pair
being past masters of polity (8,37,20); Brhaspatisamo matau is a
standing phrase. This best of Angirasas (5, 16, 27) operates with fire (9,
41, 29) to aid the gods, making a sacrifice to protect Saci from Nahusa,
and sending fire as a messenger (5, 15, 25 f.; 12, 343, 48). As a reward
he receives the Atharvarigiras Veda (5, 18, 5 f.), whence his name Athar-
vangiras. He heads the Devarsis and Siddhas when they visit Skanda ;
he is called both Devarsi (i, 67, 69) and Maharsi (5, 18, 2; 9, 44, 21 f., he
consecrates Skanda). Whatever is for a Guru or Purohita to do, falls to
Brhaspati; hence he is "lord of priests" (14,43,8). He violates his elder
brother's wife (Utathya's Mamata) and becomes father of Dlrghatamas ;
also, by a Sudra, of Kaksfvat (etc., I, 104, iof.). He befriends Trita
(p. 94) in the pit (9, 36, 36 f.). For his Naya and Sastra, see 2, 50, 9;
3, 150, 29; 4, 58,6; 12, 58, if.; 13, in, ii. He is pupil of Manu (12, 201,
3), and after Manu he and Us~anas promulgate their treatises (12, 336, 45 f.).
He appears as a god (12, 322, 61), with Pusan, Bhaga, As"vins, and Agni
(pleased with butter-oblation, 13, 65, 7). The later epic adds many details;
of his cursing ocean (12, 343, 27) because it was not clear; of his weeping
with anger and flinging his spoon at the sky (ib. 337, 14), etc.; and S
has a long interpolation (12, 73) exalting the Atharya-Veda, and Brhaspati
with this Veda. His pupils were Uparicara and Suka (ib. 337, 2f. ; 325,
23). The Adi reckons him among the Adityas and makes his sister the
wife of the eighth Vasu, Prabhasa (i, 66, 20, 27, 39), and the mother of
Vis"vakarman. There is a distinction made between the Barhaspati Bha-
rati or treatise on theology (divine cows, 13, 76, 28) and the Barhaspatam
Jnanam or Sastram, his legal code, declared by Indra (12, 142, 17). He
lectures to Asuras as well as to gods (as Devaguru and on sin washed
out by good acts, ib. 152, 32 f.). Brhaspati's quarrel with Samvarta is
mentioned in 12,29,21 and told in 14, 5, 4f.1)^Bharadvaja is eldest son
of Brhaspati (§ 125). Samvarta is his brother, a Siva-worshipper (14,5 — 6),
opposed to Indra and Brhaspati. 2)
§ 124. Vasistha and Vis"vamitra. - The Seven Seers are the most
important group of Devarsis. Like the Devas they have their maids, De-
varsikanyas, nymphs who welcome the Devarsis to heaven (13, 107, 130;
the general rule, but see above, is that seers cannot have children with
out women, i, 74, 52). As the Brahmarsis are headed by Angiras and the
Paramarsis by the son of Brahman called Sanatkumara, so Brhaspati heads
the general group of Devarsis (3, 85, 71; 12, 37, 9); but the Seven De
varsis are headed by Vasistha, and these are they that have their rising
1) On Brhaspati, see remarks on Usanas and Brhaspati in my Ruling Caste, p. 202 ;
and on his epic connection with Atharvan, Atharva sa Brhaspatih (13, 14,397), see
Proc. Amer. Philosophical So., vol. 49, p. 39 f.
2) Compare Leumann, Die Bharata-Sage, p. 68 f., on theXsaipvarta - Maruttlya
Itihasa. According to H 1833 f., Marutta's daughter became Sarpvarta's wife, not the
wife of Angiras (as in 13, 137, 16). On Brhaspati's impious treatise, see H 1505 f.
1 82 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
and setting as stars on Meru in the North, in contrast to the Brahmarsis
and Maharsis. Historical treatment of the two chief seers is here ignor
ed. These Seven are sometimes implied by the word Devarsis. Thus
in the tale of Nahusa, "the Seven Seers and the Brahmarsis will drag
him", followed by "the Devarsis and Brahmarsis dragged him" (5, 15, 20;
17, 8). Compare too sapta saptarsayah Siddha Vasisthapramu-
khaih saha (14, 27, 18), where, as often, the later epic unites other
blessed ones in heptads with the Seven Seers. Vasistha stands so much
at the head that the Vasisthi kastha is the "Northern course" of the
sun (=dhanisthl, or Kuberan, 5, 109, 16). No difficulty is experienced
in treating the seven as at once persons and stars: "The Seven Seers
shine in the sky because they honor the law of the Creator" (3, 25, 14).
Washed free of stains they shine like fires in Indra's heaven; they were
with Manu in the ark (2, 7, gf. ; 3, 187, 31). Near the "field of Kapila"
they have a Tlrtha (3, 83, 72). But as a group they have little action in
common. They are occasionally identified with the seven Prajapatis (12,
336, 27 f.), but when enlisted are more often separated, as in i, 123, 50 f.
(cf. H 14148), "all the Prajapatis and the Seven Maharsis, Bharadvaja,
Kasyapa, Gautama, Vis"vamitra, Jamadagni, Vasistha, and Atri, who rose
when the sun was extinguished". Atri usually stands next to Vasistha or
Kasyapa, and like the latter, belongs to both groups. The Seven Seers
are in the North with Arundhati, wife of Vasistha (later of Dharma, H 145)
or of all the seers (? 5, in, 14). In the story of Svaha (see Agni), each
wife is personated by Agni's love. To be unable to see Arundhati pre
sages death (RG 3, 59, 16); to see her and the pole-star intermittently
presages death in a year (12, 318, 9). In the Theft of the Lotus, the vir
tuous Arundhati is accompanied by a maid-of-all-work, Ganda. Vrsadarbhi
(Saibya), angered at the rejection of his offering, produced a Yatudhani
and bade her kill the Seers, which she could do only by knowing the
meaning of their names. Indra, disguised as a hunter, tested their virtue,
and the Seven went to heaven with him — a tale immediately retold with
variants, Indra being undisguised and Agastya the chief seer in action, as
he and others in the second version take part in this tale (13,93, 20 f.).
The Seven also unite in composing a code. They are called here the
CitrasMkhandinas, an epithet also of Visnu (12, 336, 27 f.). Arundhati, though
a model of faithfulness, yet suspected Vasistha and became "smoky-red"
(i, 233, 28 f.). She is a spotless adherent of Siva, as is ViSvamitra of Skanda
(3, 225 and 9, 48); she may be the Jatila of i, 196, 14, "wife of seven Rsis
as said in the Purana" (as in 12, 38, 5, called Gautami). Vasistha is the
"best" (etc., etymology, i, 174, 6); born of Mitra-Varuna (see p. 118)
or "owing to Krsna's power and wish born in a jar" (13, 159, 19). As son
of Varuna he is Varuni, also called Apava (i, 99, 5); he was born, bred,
and died in the East (5, 108, 13). His special Tirtha is Ujjalaka (3, 130,
17, or Ujjanaka). For the theft of his cow, see Vasus (§ 112). The cow,
Nandini, was also desired by ViSvamitra, son of Kus"ika's son Gadhi, who
tried to steal it in a well-known tale (i, 174, 5 f., as Brahmarsi, here son
of Brahman). His eldest son, Sakti, quarrelled with Mitrasaha Kalmasa-
pada, patron of Visvamitra, who had a Raksasa devour Sakti and the
rest of Vasistha's hundred sons (i, 176, 6 f.; R 3, 66, 8). Vasistha tried to
drown himself, but the rivers Vipa£ and Satadru refused to drown him;
afterwards he freed the king Kalmasapada Saudasa from possession by a
Raksasa, and the king caused the Seer to beget by his wife, Madayanti,
VII. THE DIVINE SEERS AS STAR-GODS. 183
a son ASmaka (i, 177,47; Saudasa also in 13,6,32; 14, 57, igf.). Another
tale connects Vasistha and ViSvamitra, the Apavaha, which relates how
the two seers, living on opposite sides of the SarasvatT, quarrelled. Vi-
s"vamitra commanded the river to bring him his rival to kill. Afraid to
disobey yet also afraid of the curse of Vasistha, the Sarasvati carried him
off to the other bank but brought him back before Vis"vamitra could kill
Vasistha, who won over the river by fulsome praise. The Sarasvati ran
with blood for a year owing to the curse of ViSvamitra (9, 42, I f.), and
hence became the Aruna ("Red River", name of a branch of the Ganges).
Vasistha is credited with several other deeds. He cursed Kartavirya (q.v.);
he revived Indra, when the god was stupified (12, 282, 21); he slew the
Khalin Asuras as priest of the gods, by bringing the Ganges, as Sarayu,
to the lake in which they recovered life (13, 156, I7f.). He exterminated,
but with some difficulty, the demons of Vaisravana attacked by Mucu-
kunda (12, 74, 6f.). Kings gained merit by providing him with water,
wealth, and a wife (12, 235, 17 and 30; 13, 137,6; 15; 18). Both chapters
say that he produced rain in drought ; he is called Bhutakrt and Devaraj
(13, 137, 13), "king of (priests as) gods". The pseudo-epic also employs
Vasistha as sermoniser (12, 303, 7f., etc.). His rival Visvamitra became
a priest because he lacked the ability to be a king (9, 40, i6f. );
but as a priest he slew Vasistha's sons (R I, 59, 18), created the Kausiki
(Para) river, served as priest of Mataiiga and elevated Trisanku, "made
another world", became father of Sakuntala, and is noted for his pitiless
disposition (i, 71, 20 f.). He is called Bhusura as a priestly god, and his
guest Indra as Vasistha made him wait a hundred years serving him food
(5, 106, I7f.). Galava waited on the seer and in the pseudo-epic is called
his son (13, 4, 52). He also ate dog's meat in a famine (12, 141, 26 f.)
occurring between Treta and Dvapara, which fixes his date. The village
where he accepted meat from a Candala was adorned with temples deco
rated with images of birds and had iron bells. He enunciates the doctrine
that a seer cannot commit a deadly sin (ib. 75). In 12, 293, 13 and 13,
3, i f., he is said to have created Yatudhanas and fiends, founded the race
of Kus"ika, delivered Sunaljsepa, become father of Hariscandra, hung Tri
sanku head downward in the southern sky (cf. H 73Of.), changed Rambha
into a rock, and, as a star, is said to shine in the middle of the Seven
Seers of the North and Dhruva Auttanapada. Gadhi married his daughter
to Rclka, son of Cyavana, and by this Rclka's advice mother and daughter,
embracing two trees, became mothers of Visvamitra and Jamadagni. As
his descendants are named Yajnavalkya, Narada, As"valayana, etc. (ib. 13,
18, 52 f.). According to R I, 34, 3f., it is his older sister Satyavati who
descended to earth as the KauSikI river (ib. i, 51 f., the story of TriSanku).
His son Kapila is called Deva (3, 108, 18).
§ 125. The other members of the group of Seven Seers are not so
important. Ahalya lends interest to Gautama, who is argued down by
Atri, serves as priest of Nimi, and is called Medhatithi, his son being
Cirakarin, who objected to matricide enjoined by Gautama (12, 267, 2f.).
As sons are named 3atananda, Krpa, Sarabhanga, Ekata, Dvita, Trita (§ 46),
Vamadeva. The last has "wonderful" swift steeds and appears beside
Medhatithi in 3akra's court (2, 7, 17; 3, 192, 4Of.). Bharadvaja, eldest son
of Brhaspati and priest of Divodasa (13, 30, 24), provides Vltahavya with
a son (by a sacrifice, ib.) and supplies Rama Das~arathi with a magic garden
(R 2,91, i if.). He is said to reside at Prayaga but is not an important
1 84 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
figure in either epic, though father of Drona by Ghrtaci (i, 166, if.). The
pseudo-epic says that he flung water at Visnu and thus made the Srivatsa
sign on his breast (12, 343, 54); but the same chapter (vs. 132) ascribes
this sign to Rudra's trident.1) His son Bhumanyu (i, 94, 22; H 1730) is
Bharata's by "legal transfer". Yavakrita, another son, is resurrected with
Bharadvaja after entering fire (3, 138, 22). Jamadagni is famous mainly as
father of Bhargava Rama (R i, 75, 3), though he is extolled as a great
sacrificer (3,90, 16). Rama's fame rests on his being Haihayesapramathin,
or slayer of Arjuna and the other Haihayas (5, 181, 12). Of warriors he
slew 64000, cutting off their ears and noses and breaking their teeth, be
sides stifling 7000 Haihayas in smoke and torturing them, and butchering
10000 with his own axe. Altogether he cleared earth of warriors twenty-
one times and then gave earth to Kasyapa (i, 66, 48, etc). He contends
with Bhlsma (5, 179, 14), etc. The five lakes he filled with blood are
known (3, 83, 27 f.) and he is often mentioned, in his role of destroyer,
as "the most glorious increaser of the fame of the Bhrgus" (7, 70, 23 f.,
as Bhargava). He killed his mother Renuka to oblige his father (3, 116,
14; R 2, 21, 32), an act highly extolled, though she was a good wife
(R i, 51, n); but her husband accused her in re Citraratha (3, 116,
6f.). Rama, however, restored her to life and received invulnerability
and long life as his reward. He is a direct descendant of Indra, incar
nate as Gadhi (12,49,6; a Sivaite, ib. 33). Rama cut off the arms of
Arjuna Kartavirya (whose followers killed Jamadagni), through the curse
of Vasistha, as originally the hero got his thousand arms through grace
of Dattatreya (a form of Visnu). Vayu argues with him on the folly of
opposing seers (12,49, 35; 13, 153, 7). See also § 150. The seer Kas"ya-
pa is a Prajapati (q. v.), but also priest of Para£u-Rama (3, 117, I2f.).
His son, the crane, is older than the Himalayan owl (3, 199, 7; 12, 169,
i8f.). Atri also is a kulapati and a seer, whose wife is Anasuya (R 7,
i, 5). She was so vigorous an ascetic that she irrigated earth with the
Ganges in drought and on another occasion "made ten nights one" (R
2, 117, n), because her friend was cursed to "become a widow to-morrow".
"Morrow shall not be", said Anasuya, and extinguished it by making ten
nights one. At least, so the scholiast explains the phrase das~aratram
krta ratrili; but it is more likely that, being a clever woman, Anasuya
shifted the calendar. Atri had many sons (i, 66, 6); he is son of Brahman
and son of Us"anas as well (contradictions of the sort are common of course),
also father of Durvasas. Atri was the first to deify a king, so that Gau
tama called him a sycophant, but Sanatkumara upheld the deification, and
Atri got ten crores of gold and ten loads of jewels (3, 185, 35). The point
of the story is that the king is god on earth, as is the priest, and they
must combine to keep the lower orders in subjection. The king here
is the Rajarsi Prthu Vainya, whose astronomer was Garga. This king's
father had been dethroned and executed for his sins, in accordance with
the principle that a wicked king "should be killed like a mad dog", so
that his son was naturally pleased to be made divine. Atri saved the gods,
when Rahu's arrows had pierced sun and moon, by becoming sun and
moon and giving equal light (13, 157, 8f.). Noteworthy in this version
of the ancient tale is the attribute of arrows. Atri (originally an epithet
of fire, like the names of all the Seven) "burns" the demon and then
*) On Bharadvaja as philosopher (12, 182—189), see Pizzagalli, La Cosmogonia
di Bhrgu (Memorie del R. Institute Lombardo, 1910).
VII. THE DIVINE SEERS AS STAR-GODS. 185
"illumines" the world with his own glory (tejas). According to 1,21,13,
Atri tried for a century to get to the bottom of the ocean. He is mytho-
logically important only as demon-expeller and father of Soma (q. v.). He
is son of Brahman (13, 65, i), well versed in physiology (12, 214, 23), and
is cited for the dictum, "those who give gold grant all wishes" (13,65, i).
§ 126. Agastya is the chief seer outside the charmed circles of Bhrgus,
Augirasas, and the Seven. *) He is still called Agasti in the epic and is
famous for having become the Seer of the South (as star he is Canopus).
He was a sort of half-brother, kumbhayoni, of Vasistha, son of Mitra-
Varuna (3, 103, 13 f.), hence called Kumbhasambhava. He was told by his
ancestors, whom he saw hanging in a pit upside down, to get offspring.
He then made and married the perfect woman Lopamudra (3, 130, 6), for
whose sake he sought jewels, but got from the Asura Ilvala the latter's
well cooked brother Vatapi to eat (3, n, 37; R 3, n, 57). Merely saying
hum, Agastya reduced the Asura to ashes. In Salya this is told as a
clever trick (9, 31, 13; cf. 3, 96, 4,f. ; 206, 28, etc.). As lokabhavana he
drank up ocean to free earth from the Kaleya Asuras or from Hiranyaksa
(i, 188, 15; 3, 103, 13 f.; 104, I5f.; S 12, 208, 13 f.). He cursed Nahusa
for insolence and Kubera (3, 179, 13 f.; 161, 58f.). He tricked the Vindhya
to stop growing till his return as he went South (conquered the South,
R 6, 118, 14). His wife accompanied him (type of devotion, 3, 113, 23).
He legalised hunting by dedicating deer to gods (i, 118, 14). He gave
rain when Indra failed to do so (14, 92, 4 f.). He is expressly mentioned
with the Seven Seers as examples of those who became hermits, "mighty
in their own Sutras and Sastras", and eventually rose to heaven "not as
Naksatras but as clusters of lights" (12, 245, i6f. ; anaksatrah . . jyo-
tisam ganalj, ib. 22 f.). Such star-seers are still affected by earthly
struggles (5, 51, 54). Agastya turns Marica and his mother into fiends
(R i, 25, n); is visited by Rama and aids him (cf. R 3, n, 33 f.; ib. 7,
76, 23 f., etc.). He causes Mahendra to be set in the sea, gives Indra's
spear to Rama, and frees Sveta from the curse of eating his own body
(R 4, 41, 20; R 6, in, 4; R 7, 78, 19). His brother is ^arabhanga (R 3,
I][5 39 f-)- Agastya refused to be son of Mitra (R 7, 57, 5 f.). His pupil
is AgniveSa, Guru of Drona (i, 139, 9f.). His mother is not epic, butVP.
i, 10, 9 makes him an incarnation of Pulastya and Priti, formerly called
Dambholi (here also other later views regarding the birth of other seers).
H 12845 agrees with R 4, 41, 35 in locating his abode on Kunjara, but R
places his asylum five leagues from Ramagiri, on the GodavarT, and on
Malaya (ib. 3, 11, 39 and 81 ; ib. 4,41, 16; ib. 6, 126,41). Elements of
the Agastya story appear in connection with other saints. His feat of
drinking up ocean he shares with Utathya; but it is what any (§ 65) Yogin
can do (12, 237, 24, kamat pibati ca 'sayan). The story of his eating
Vatapi, the brother of Ilvala, is like that (p. 180) of Kaca, son of Brhas-
pati, who was reduced to paste and eaten. The tale of the inverted an
cestors and their advice is to be found in connection with Jaratkaru and
others. These good stories exist, and are fitted on to various figures,
like the beloved tale of the "wisest youngest" (yo 'nucanah sa no mahan,
3, I33> 12 = 9, 5i, 5°> and 12, 324, 6), a general apophthegm of the seers
fitted on to Sarasvata, who was Vyasa Apantaratamas.
*) For details of the Agastya-story, see Adolf Holtzmann in ZDMG. 34, 589 f.
1 86 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
VIII. EARTHLY RSIS.
§ 127. Other groups less definite than those above and a few more
single seers are prominent. Among the groups are the Valakhilyas, who
sometimes appear on earth and sometimes are assigned to the sun, where
they appear as Maricipas, drinking the rays of the sun, or in the sun's
disc or on Himavat (i, 30, 7; R 3, 35, 14 f.). Garuda was born through
their penance to rival Indra; their father may be Kratu (ib. ; N. to I, 66, 8).
They belong to the class of Siddhas, who include saints of both worlds
(R 3, I, 23 ; ib. 2, 70, 30), and have attained their state through asceticism
(siddhagati, 3, 145, 9; 146, 93 ; 158, 84), though the Siddhas also include
star-saints (R 5, 54, 24). The Valakhilyas worship beside Ganges (3, 142,
5) and make sacrifice (3, 90, 10). In the former passage they may be called
Vaihayasas, or these "spirits of air" may be a separate class (as later).
They are often associated with Vaikhanasas (as at Mt. Arcika, 3, 125, 17),
also a class of supernatural saints (3, 114, 15). In 13, 141, 99 f., the Vala
khilyas live, thumb-size, in the sun's disc, keeping the uncha vow and hav
ing the power of gods (cf. H 11811 and VP. 2, 10, 21). They live 1000
ages. The Ram. identifies them with Vaikhanasas (R 4, 40, 58), but not
always (R 3, 6, 2 and ib. 35, I4f.). The Sarasvatya gana of 60000 saints
mentioned with Gargya may be identified with these saints of the Saras-
vatl (9, 51, 51 and 3, 90, 10). Rudra teaches them (12, 249, 18).
§ 128. The Uttara Kurus are another class of Northern saints and
seers, living beyond the gate barred by the head of the monster Mahisa,
south of Nila and on the flank of Meru (3, 145, 17; 23i,97f. ; 6,7,2). They
live ten thousand and ten hundred years and are buried by birds (cf.
p. 20). They have heavenly felicity in food and freedom ; their clothes are
grown by trees; their women are not restrained (i, 122, 7f. ; 13, 54, 16).
They associate with spirits born of water and fire and mountain, and where
they live, Indra "rains wishes", and jealousy is unknown (13, 102, 25, lokah.
as modern log, people).
§ 129. a) Caranas and Caras. — Other collective and indeterminate
bodies called seers and Munis are the Caranas, raised from the condition
of earthly "wandering" minstrels to a heavenly state. The "path of Ca
ranas "is that of seers, yet they are found at the courts of kings as well
as gods, as also in hermitages (i, 63, 66; 5, 123, 5, etc.; cf. R 4, 40, 30).
They speak as heavenly prophets and are reckoned as Rsis (R 5, 55, 30
and 34). A similar heavenly group is that of the heavenly Cyclists, a sort
of Siddha (R 5, 48, 24), who accompany Nagas, Siddhas, Gandharvas, etc.,
as in 3, 85, 72. The scholiast calls them the cycling heavenly bodies (sun
and moon), but in 13, 141, 103, a distinction is drawn between these pure
souls, called Cakracaras, the Somacaras, and the Valakhilyas, as if all were
sainted seers, with whom are the Pitr Seers called As"makuttas, Sampra-
ksalas, etc. The Saumyas and Raudras of 13, 150, 26 are apparently groups
of Pitr Seers (as in Manu 3, 199); but the ^vetas and Yatis who support
the Pancaratra Sankhya religion (of 12, 349 and 350) are earthly sectarians.
b) Finally, the Tusita spirits or gods also illustrate the negligible dis
tinction between gods and spirits. They are created by Siva, who (in the
pseudo-epic) creates and upholds the seven Munis and groups of gods,
the drinkers of heat and of Soma, the Lekhas, and Suyamas and Tusitas
and Brahmakayas and Abhasuras, the smoke-drinkers and Gandhapas, the
VIII. EARTHLY Rsis. 187
eaters by touch (Spars"a£anas), drinkers by (or of) sight, the butter-drinkers,
thought-gleamers (Cintyadyotas) , and groups more familiar (Suparna-
Gandharva-Pis"aca-Danava Yaksas tatha Carana-pannagas" ca),
some being seers and some gods (13, 18, 73 f.). The Tusitas are Buddhistic
and are found only here and in H (171, 418, 1346), being as unknown to
the real epic as are the Abhasuras and Lekhas (v. 1. lokas).
§ 130. Several individual seers, sometimes without family, sometimes
assigned to a well-known group, exist for the purpose of a story or moral.
The seer Tanu is such a Rsi, an allegory of hope. He was eight times
as long as other men and as thin as one's little finger, and he talked with
a hopeless king around whom sat the Munis "as round Dhruva sit the
Seven Seers" (12, 127, 6f.; ib. 25). Matanga, famous in R, where the trees
are said to have grown in his hermitage from the sweat of his pupils (R
3, 73, 23 f.; ib. 74, 21 f.), and owing to whose curse Valin's followers turn
to stone if they intrude on him (R 4, n, 52; ib. 46, 22), appears in Mbh.
as authority for the rule, "break rather than bend" (as Matanga, metri
causa, 5, 127, 19). He was of low birth and was reproved by his ass for
beating her, which caused him to exercise austerities till his accumulation
of merit exercised the gods, and Indra in self-defence taught him that it
was vain for a man of low caste to try to attain Brahmanhood and turned him
into a bird (see p. 137). Dadhici, or-ca, who took Indra's place for a thou
sand years and took sides with Siva at Daksa's sacrifice, is known chiefly
as giver of his bones to make Indra's bolt (12, 285, 1 1 f . ; ib. 343, 28f.).
Many of this order are famous Rajarsis, that is seers who had been kings,
like Dillpa (5, 109, 5, of the South), Yayati, Mahabhisak, etc., who won and
lost worlds (i, 102, 3, S has °bhisak). Mahabhisak, being cursed, apa-
dhyatah, by Brahman to be born on earth, was born as the son of Pra-
tlpa (Samtanu, I, 96, 3 f.). Yayati Nahusya is known as ancestor of the epic
heroes and as one who attained to heaven and fell through pride but sub
sequently regained his heavenly place ; the Yayatipatana on the Narmada
being still a holy spot (3, 82, 48; cf. ib. 129, 3 f., his place on the Yamuna).
His son Yadu born of DevayanI, daughter of Sukra Kavya, was cursed by
his father, while Puru was made heir (5, 149, 2f.). His love for ViSvacI,
his Gathas on desire, death by starvation, but otherwise his felicity are
well-known themes (later is the tale of his daughter Madhavi, 5, 115, 6f. ;
ib. 121, if.; cf. i, 75, 32f.; 83, 37; 85, 9; and 12, 26, 13; 327, 31 the
Gatha, na bibheti paro yasmat, etc.). He has a Rajopanisad or
secret of royal policy, which is to kill every foe (12, 93, 39). His last words
were nalam ekasya tat sarvam, "the universe is not enough for one
man" (7, 63, 9). The Ramayana tells the story of his wives (7, 58, 7f.), be
sides referring often to his felicity and misfortune (R 3, 66, 7; R 4, 17, 10,
etc.). Yadu's sons became Raksasas and Yatudhanas (R 7, 59, 15) ; his other
disinherited sons became ancestors of wild tribes, Druhyu, Turvasu, Anu.
R i, 70, 40 makes Yayati the thirty-sixth descendant from Brahman as
first; Mbh. (i, 76, i) makes him tenth. Less general are the tales of Rsis
like Grtsamada, cursed to become a mrgah krurafr, wild beast, because
he made a mistake in recitation (Varistha cursed him, but MaheSvara freed
him and made him "immortal and free from sorrow", 13, 18, 20). Nis"a-
kara was a southern Rsi who practiced penance for eight thousand years
and could reconstruct the wings of Sampati when burned by the sun (R
4, 60, 8 f.). SuvarnaSiras is the golden-haired ever young Muni who sings
in the ocean, unseen, immeasurable, "whose song is the roar" of ocean
1 88 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(5, no, 12: not an "epithet of Svarbhanu", PW). The same passage (ib.
109, n) says that Yavakrita's son helped Savarni Manu establish the south
ern boundary of the sun. A Rsi Mankanaka had vegetable juice for blood
and danced till all the world danced with him. He was son of Wind and
Sukanya and begot seven sons with wind-names. Siva converted him by
turning his blood to ashes (3, 83, n6f. ; 9, 38, 36 f.). The later epic tells
of Likhita's hands growing out after being cut off (12, 23, i8f.; 115,22;
130, 29 f.; 13, 137, 19), and of the Devarsi called Bhurbhuva, a son of Brah
man, whom one sees in heaven (13, 107, 81; H 11509)! Occasionally a
saint is split in two and makes a pair. Thus in 3, 26, 5 f., Vaka or Baka
Dalbhya (=Darbhya); but in 3, 193, 4f., Baka and Dalbhya appear as "two
long-lived seers". It is thus that Narada Parvata (water-giving cloud) be
comes N. and P. Whether history or myth underlies some of the tales
of the Rsis is doubtful. Animandavya, who was not a thief and yet was
impaled as a thief (13, 18, 46), and opposed the Law, Dharma(§ 58), may reflect
Christian tradition. JImuta the Rsi who discovered a gold-mine in the
mountains and gave his name to Jaimuta gold may also have been an his
torical character. He is named with Marutta of auriferous memory, a
Rajarsi (5, ill, 23; 178, 47; 7, 55, 37 f.). So with the founders of schools
such as Sandilya and his wise daughter Pancas~ikha, befriended by Siva,
who paralysedjndra as he tried to kill the saint, "long-suffering Kapileya",
first pupil of Asuri, born in the family of ParaSara (7, 202, 84; 9, 54, 6;
12, 218, 6f.; 254, 14; 321,24; 13,65, 19). Yet these characters are invol
ved in mythology and even Markandeya lived to a mythical age, though
this son of Mrkandu (S 3, 130 interpolated after B 128) is but an ancient
story-telling Rsi (3, 25, 4f. ; 183, 42 f.; 199, I, quest of an elder), of whom
we know naught except his tales, save that he was opposed to meat-
eating (13, 115, 38; perhaps ib. 125, 35) and was husband of Dhumorna
(ib. 146, 4). Other Rsis, Yajnavalkya, who converses with Janaka Daiva-
rati on the eight principles and sixteen modifications known to metaphy
sics (12, 311, 3 f.), Katyayana, Garga, Gargya, etc. are really historical
characters. Durvasas, "son of Atri", and Narada, "son of Visvamitra",
are not dissimilar in their love of mischief. They both wander over the
worlds, human and divine, and both make trouble. Durvasas was a human
form of &va, as Narada was of Visnu. Durvasas's blessing provided Krsna
with 16000 wives (13, 160, 47; 161, 37)! The early epic merely makes him
a disagreeable guest, a bald ascetic of ferocious temper (3, 260, 3 f.). Na
rada as Gandharva is a cloud-spirit, hence a nimbler and grumbler, finally
a saint fond of strife. So Vis"vavasu, though a Gandharva, discourses philo
sophy (12, 319, 27 f.). Narada recited the epic to the gods, as did Asita
Devala to the Pitrs (Devalasita teaches Narada, 12, 276, I f.). Of all these,
Narada is most transparent. His name means "water-giver" ; he is at
first the cloud, par vat a, then Narada Parvata, and finally Parvata becomes
a shadowy second, till they even quarrel (7, 55, 14 f.) and curse Nrga to
become a lizard (R 7, 53, 7f. cf. 13, 70, if., a different version of the pop
ular tale of the curse attached to stealing a priest's cow). In 12, 30, 4f.,
as uncle and nephew, they curse each other to become a monkey and to
lose heaven, because Narada loves Sukumari. Narada is Maharsi, especi
ally Devarsi, but he appears "on a cloud" (R 7, 21, 3). So Kundadhara
is a cloud (jaladhara) yet a Maharsi who speaks, etc. (12,272,6 and
i8f.). Narada as samarapriya and kelikara sends Ravana to the White
Island to be mocked (R7,20, 18; ib. 37, pra.5, 13). One who dies is not at once
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 189
reborn but wanders as a spirit like a great cloud through the sky (12,
298, 1 8). Narada is lokacara, and as a cloud, with ^vasana (wind), goes
as (cf. meghaduta) messenger (3, 19, 2 if.). Examples of his desire to
foment trouble will be found at 9, 52, nf.; ib. 50,66; 13, 155, 17; 158,
20, etc. Matali tells him that he has a soul himsatmakamana, or -la,
"stained with love of strife" (5, 100, 19); but he does many good acts (3,
175, 18; 5, 185, 2; 7, 163, 15, etc.). Otherwise he is a fable-monger, philo
sopher, and sectarian teacher (5, 160, 15; 14,24, if.; 12, 339, 4 f.). Na-
rada's mother was Vfrim; but this is in a second birth (H i2Of.). See § 93 f.
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS.
§ 131. Brahman. — Brahman lacks the hold of the nature-gods upon
popular imagination. He is vaguer and tends to pass back into the universal
world-power out of which he emerged, the neuter brahmam.. param (R7,
109, 4, sic) or brahman. Yet the personifying power invests even It with
figurative anthropomorphism; "the city of Brahman" •-= brahman (brah-
mapuram prapya, brahma mahat, 12, 177, 5of.). The brahman
is philosophical; Brahman is mythological, the husband of Kriya (§ 38) or
of Savitri (13, 146, 4; cf. § 41).
Brahman is atmabhu, svayambhu, "self-existent", and as such is
generally identified with Prajapati or the Great Father of the World, Pita-
maha, and with the other personified abstractions, Dhatr, Vidhatr (Maker,
Disposer), and Visvakarman, panurgos in a good sense, All-maker. He
is Lokapitamaha, imperishable, undeteriorating (5, 97, 2); "ageless, eternal,
unborn" are his standing epithets. He is at once creator, preserver, and
destroyer, combining in himself, in the earlier epic, the functions later
appropriated by other gods. As Creator, Brahman created the worlds and
all that moves and does not move ; he is Bhutapati (2, 3, 14), "lord of
existent things"; he assigned also to all their occupations (9, 39, 35; 10,
3, 1 8). "Maker and lord of the world" he is called, by various terms
(srstikrd deva, sarvasya dhatr, lokakartr, lokadhatr, sarva-
lokakrt, jagatsrastr, lokapati, jagatpati, etc). He is purvaja, "first
born" as first being, and so aja, "unborn". His creation is through de
miurges. He produces spiritually "mental sons" and they beget all crea
tures. Brahman's own birth from the mundane egg or from the lotus (below)
is ignored in the earliest versions of his creation. Thus R 2, no, 3 f., in
substantial agreement with 12, 166, I2f, makes Brahman born in the prim
ordial waters, which, unintelligent, enveloped the world. R says in boar-
form (RG as "Visnu" is late), but Mbh. ignores the "form" and says that
"Brahman created air, fire, sun, earth, space, clouds" (etc. divisions of
time), "and then the Great Father, assuming a corporeal body, Sariram
lokastham, begot sons of great energy. Daksa, son of Pracetas (one
of these), then begot sixty daughters, and the Brahmarsis begot offspring
by them, who bore all creatures, gods, Pitrs (etc., down to the beings born
of sweat and eggs). Then the Great Father of all the worlds declared
to them the law as uttered in the Vedas". The first of these mental sons
was Marici; from him came Kasyapa, from whom again came gods and
men. The numbers and names of the sons differ in different accounts.
In the S text of the tale above, Bharadvaja takes the place of Rudra, and
Bhrgu (as is right, cf. 1,5,7) appears between Marici and Atri ; also Pra
japati (Daksa) takes the place of Pracetasa. The list of sons is then Marfci,
i go III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(Bhrgu), Atri, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasistha and Angiras (dual), Bha-
radvaja (or Rudra); followed by "and Daksa Pracetasa (or Prajapati) begot
sixty daughters". The S text endeavors to remove Rudra (Siva) from the
stigma of inferiority, but it has one advantage, that of making the mental
sons nine in number (as in some other passages). The genealogists (i,
66, 4 and 65, 10) call these sons "mental", but know only six, omitting
Bhrgu, Vasistha, and Bharadvaja or Rudra ; yet they add Bhrgu later. Nine
sons beginning with Marici are recognised in 3, 272, 45 (without further
names); the scholiast here adds to the six the names of Vasistha, Narada,
and Bhrgu (cf. 12, 340, 18; 346, 6). Manu adds all these together and so
makes ten (Manu I, 35). Rudra may also be got into the list by I, 66,
i: "Six are the great seers known as Brahman's mental sons; eleven are
the sons of Sthanu (called, the eleven Rudras"). The genealogist derives
"Daksa and Daksa's wife", respectively, from the right and left thumbs of
Brahman ; gives Brahman another son, Manu (father of the Prajapati whose
sons were the eight Vasus), and says that Bhrgu was born from the left
breast (heart) of Brahman (to become father of Sukra and Cyavana), as
Dharma was born "cleaving the right breast" of the Father-god. Dhatr
and Vidhatr are here "set with Manu" (also a son of Brahman in i, 73,
9 and 12, 341, 34); their sister is Laksmi, to whom also are ascribed cloud
horses as "mental sons" (1,66,41 and 51), Six seem to be the traditio
nal number. Eight bring the sons in accord with the eight prakrtayati
of philosophy (so Manu and Vasistha are added in 12, 341, 34). As seven
the sons are confused with the Seven Seers (§ 118). Thus in 12, 208, 3,
the seven are patayah prajanam or Prajapatis (including Vasistha here)
and also "seven Brahmans" (also H 42). In this chapter, Daksa is the
only son of the ten Pracetasas (sons of Pracmabarhis in the family of Atri)
and is called Ka (Brahman's name), though in the preceding section Daksa
is "seventh of the mental sons of Brahman" and the eldest, "born from
the thumb of Brahman previous to the birth of Marici" (12, 207, 17 and
19). As seventh son, Daksa is recognised also in 3, 163, 14. In R I, 70,
17, a genealogy, Marici is chief because he fathers KaSyapa, ancestor of
gods and men, and so elsewhere in genealogies. Daksa again is born in
later accounts from the mundane egg or from the All -Soul and has his
own "seven sons" (i, I, 33) and twenty-one Prajapatis, though called Pra
cetasa. In i, 75, 4f., Pracetasa Daksa is Lokapitamaha, since he married
VirinI, (daughter of Virina), called Asikni (Night; cf. H 120) and begot
fifty daughters, who were commissioned to bear him sons. They wed
Dharma, KaSyapa, and Soma, and to Kasyapa thirteen of them bore the
Sun and other gods ; the Sun being in turn father of Yama and of Manu,
who begot all men ! If one believes in the unity of the epic one has a
pretty task here, for elsewhere Daksa has sixty daughters and Manu is
the direct son of Brahman and weds the extra ten (12, 343, 57; H 12450);
and in 1,65, 11 there are only thirteen daughters, Aditi being the first.
Another tale, 10, 17, 10, makes Brahman appoint Rudra Bhava (Siva) to be
demiurge and create all beings, but £iva runs and hides in water (like
Agni), and when he, Sthanu, has disappeared, Brahman "created another
creator to create beings", and this proxy "created beings and seven Pra
japatis, with Daksa first" (the S text has, "Daksa Prajapati created seven").
Brahman here at least is higher than Siva, and so he is in 8, 35, 2f., where
Pitamaha is abhyadhika, "superior" to Rudra. The special demiurge
of the second creation is Daksa also in H 116, though in the deluge-story
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 191
Brahman creates the universe through Manu, who is the father not only
of men but of gods and demons (3, 187, 53). In 2, u, i8f., where the
perfect hall of Brahman is described, the prajanam patayah include
Daksa, Pracetas, etc., Gautama, Angiras, Kratu, till the list runs into names
that cannot be considered, but it suggests that when the "twenty -one"
prajanam patayafr of I, I, 33 are mentioned as twenty-one Prajapatis
(I2> 335> 35) an(J only twenty are named, the name Prahlada may have
been left out as incongruous, the space being filled out by the inept yalj
proktalj actually found. Brahman here himself heads the list of Praja
patis as first of the twenty(-one). Perhaps the stated "six" (above) ori
ginally included Brahman, thus agreeing with the "seven creators" in
number. R 3, 14, 6f. has a similar list including Kardama, Vikrita and
others mentioned here (12, 335, 35), but also others not in this list, Ari-
stanemi, etc., and it omits Brahman. Kratu is son of Brahman and father
of the Valakhilyas (i, 66, 9). The mystic equivalents of the mental seven
are Sana, Sanatsujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, Kapila, and Sa-
natana (12, 340, 72). Of the demiurges, Pulastya, the "beloved son" (3, 274,
12), begot Raksasas, Yaksas, Apes, and Kinnaras; he is renowned as father
of ViSravas (hence Vais"ravana and Ravana), who was half of himself (3,
274, I2f.). The tale of Jatayus in R 3, 14 assigns only eight daughters
to Kas"yapa (among them Tamra) and is from the source of Mbh._ I, 66,
though it upholds the later view that Daksa had sixty daughters. Adi 65
and 66 were originally not parts of one creation myth but have been
patched together. Many other beings are especially "sons of Brahman",
Jambavat, Kavi (adopted son, 13, 85, 125), Death (7, 53, 17, born of Brah
man's wrath), Rudra (idem, H 43), Tandi (13, 14, 19); and Surabhi is (dif
ferent to the account in I, 66) born from Brahman's vomit of ambrosia,
a disgusting tale (5, 102, 3). Earth and Jara and Sarasvati are also "daugh
ters of Brahman" (2,18,2; 12,343,75; 13,155,2). Narada and Sanat
kumara are first "great seers" only, and then become "sons of Brahman".
Vacaspati and some other abstractions are not sired at all. The cosmic
myth derives even Brahman from the golden egg and philosophy has him
born of Atman (i, I, 32; 12, 312, 3), a theory united with that of the birth
from Visnu's navel (R 7, 56, 7). Vasistha adresses Brahman as "born of
the egg, born of the lotus, god of gods, savior of the world" (cf. H 35f.
and 7962 f.). The egg -theory is repudiated in a speech ascribed to the
Wind god: "How can he who is unborn be born of an egg? The egg
means space; thence only was the Great Father born. There is no (cos
mic) egg; but Brahman is; he is the king, the enlivener (creator) of the
world" (13, 154, 19). Though "lotus-born", abjaja, is not an unusual
epithet, it or its equivalent padmayoni, kamalasana, etc., is found
chiefly in late chapters of books seven and thirteen, in I, 54, n and 3,
82, 25, a Tfrtha-praise of Puskara, also in the Markandeya episode. The
birth from the lotus is formally recounted in 3, 272, 44; 12, 207, 13; and
referred to occasionally, as in 3, 12, 38, nabhipadmad ajayata Brahma.
The androgynous Brahman is found in H 50, where he divides himself
to make male and female.
§ 132. Brahman's titles, and those the most magnificent, are given
to him without regard to belief in what the titles imply. In the late pas
sage where he is subject to Visnu and this god produces him from his
navel and curtly orders Brahman to attend to his "creative business"
(prajapatyam karma, R 7, 104, 7), probably as late a passage as any
1 92 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
in R, Brahman is "mighty lord of the world". In the same book he is
described as tribhuvanes"vara, devadeva, "lord of the three worlds",
"god of gods"; though the Uttara is intent on making not Brahman but
Visnu fit these titles (R 7, 98, i5f., 23 f.). In R 7,69,22, Brahman is "god
of gods and lord of gods and great forefather" (devadeva, d eves" a,
prapitamaha); in R 7, 76, 38f, he is devadeves~a, "lord of god of
gods", an epithet usually applied to Siva. The same thing occurs in H,
devoted to Visnu, but willing to give titular honors to Brahman, in Ori
ental style. Titles mean something historically, but they are no gauge of
belief or of the estimation in which a god is really held. They are often
mere survivals. Brahman's titles, Great Father (grandfather of the world),
Lord of all, Creator, Owner of all, Guru of worlds and gods, Pitamaha,
Prajapati, Vis'ves'a, Srastr, Dhatr, Lokaguru, Lokavrddha, Suraguru (3,274,
11 » 5> 49) 41 cf. 1,6, 5; 64, 39), are amplified more for grandiloquence
than for added meaning by the epithets Sarvalokapitamaha, Sarvabhuta-
pitamaha, Lokabhavana, Lokesvares~vara, Lokadinidhanesvara, Adideva (7,
53, 13 and 20), Bhutatman (3, 87, 19), Lokadi, Hiranyagarbha, and a few
expressions of doubtful meaning, Virifici (i, 38, 17), Niruktaga (12, 340,
50; cf. niruktam abhijagmivan, 12, 343, 73, of Yaska finding the lost
Veda). Dhatr, often independent, is Brahman, e. g. in 3, 20, 27 f. ; 3, 173,
8 (cf. 3, 19, 24; 5, 163, 44). Visnu and &va eventually assume Brahman's
titles Jagannatha, Vasudhadhipa, Sambhu, Sthanu, Paramesthin, and even
Pitamaha (3, 231, 53). Agni and Indra as well as Brahman are called
Bhagavat, Lokabhavana, Ts"a, Deves~a, and Brahman is Sarvabhuj (like Agni),
when destroyer (12, 141, 55). Brahman is also "witness of the world", Lo-
kasaksin (Deves"a, of Brahman, 3, 142, 51). In a few places Isana and ISvara
are clearly used of Brahman (i, 188, 18; 3, 30, 22; 32, i). _Brahman is per
sonified Fate (3, 30, 26 and 36). R 2, 14, 49 calls him Atmabhu, Prapi
tamaha, and has also the titles of the other epic, Lokapati, Varada, Sar
valokapitamaha (R 6, 61, 23 f.).1)
§ 133. The view that Brahman was the Adideva or original god is
modified only in the later epic by his superiority being set aside in favor
of Visnu or Siva, with one exception. This exception indeed implies that
the god is "lotus-born" and so comes under the head of Visnu's general
superiority. It is complicated, however, by the intrusion of another ele
ment, which recognises as coeval with Brahman the demon of darkness.
The account in general resembles those already given. Brahman is born
from the lotus ; Daksa is the seventh son, and has fifty daughters. Dhatr
Brahman is commissioned by Govinda to be "overseer of all beings" (12,
207, I7f. ; ib. 38). But immediately on Brahman's birth occurs that of the
demon Asura Madhu, whose only origin is "darkness" and who is even
tually slain by Krsna- Visnu, "to avenge Brahman", as the demon of dark
ness was endeavoring to kill the creator. Madhu, like Brahman, is pur-
vaja, first-born, and from darkness (tamasa or, with S, tamasali). His
origin antedates creation and is due to the principle of darkness alone.
*) For other titles, expressing the idea of those above, add Aja, Purvaja, Abjaja,
etc. already noted. Adolph Holtzmann, Brahman im Mahabharata, has given, as
indicated in the title, a conspectus of statements concerning Brahman for the Great Epic
(ZDMG. 38, 167 f.). There too will be found a few more titles, synonymous with those
registered above, such as Trilokesa, Bhumipati, Lokakrt. The moral side of Brahman is
emphasised in the titles Devasattama, Surasrestha (etc., e. g. 7, 94, 51), "best of the
gods". On his epithet "four-faced" see below.
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 193
He is described as attacking Brahman to steal the Vedas (in 12, 348, 27 f . ;
earlier, without the title Purvaja, in 3, 12 and 202). Brahman as the
principle of light thus creates also in a living being the soul which
goes to his heaven as light. In R 3, 5, 44, he greets such a soul with a
mere welcoming word, susvagatam (Sarabhafiga, the sainted suicide;
but heroes also go to the world of Brahman, 7, 142, 29; 143, 34 and 47).
But in 12, 200, 25, Brahman cries "welcome" and then "made conscious
the flame (soul) and it entered his mouth".
The old Vedic tradition that the Creator was exhausted on completing
the creative act finds a faint reflection in the epic statement that when
Brahman had created, he rested under a certain ^almali tree (12, 156, 7).
He "created the worlds" at Prthudaka on the Sarasvati (9,39, 35)!
§ 134. Brahman as Preserver. - The usual view that Brahman
having created remains inactive, is true only in part. He appoints in the
beginning the functions of his children, the gods (i, 31, 18); especially to
Indra he hands over the kingship of the gods (i, 212, 25), and entrusts
to him the combat with demons. But he himself is no idle observer. He
continues to create (thus he creates death, 7, 52 = 12, 258), and, though
usually found in Brahmaloka, often wanders about to various resorts (Pra-
yaga, I, 55, i), the Mahendra Hills (favorite resort of Bhutatman Brahman,
3, 87, 19 and 22), the Himavat (9, 38, 5, n, 29) and Puskara, where Brah
man made sacrifice, and the Brahma-lake, where Brahman himself erected
the sacrificial post (3, 84, 86). Brahmaloka itself is no place for medita
tion. Both it and the Hall of Brahman are gay resorts. Saints and heroes
and singers and dancers, one of whom is Brahman's own daughter (Me-
naka, i, 74, 69), enliven Brahman's home (2, n passim and i, 96, 3; 211,
3 ; 3, 82, 25), whether it be on high or on the earth. Brahman lives at
Tirthas and especially in Kuruksetra, which is "heaven on earth" (trivi-
stapa, 3, 83, 4); for once every month "Brahman and the gods assemble
there" (ib. 191). Probably the dawn -hymns give rise to the belief that
the Vedas daily awaken Brahman : "The Vedas and Angas and Vidyas
awaken to-day, adya, the self-existent lord Brahman" (R 2, 14,49). So
day by day he makes the sun rise (3, 313, 46) and keeps daily guard over
individuals as well as over the course of nature. He provides food in
general, but in particular provides wives and husband (3, 224, 23 ; 229,
45). He determines the sex of the new creature (6, 98, 22) and imparts
to it folly or cleverness (5, 31, 2). After "repeatedly calling to mind what
ever was best", Brahman (Dhatr) created As"vatthaman (9, 6, 12), a late
creation. He constantly directs the course of events. As the embittered
heroine says (3, 30, 21 f.): "Brahman, the Creator and Great -grandsire,
Maker and Lord (Dhatr, ls"vara, Isana) gives weal and woe to every crea
ture, and plays with man as a boy does with a bird bound to a string,
or as a man with a marionette ; sending this one to hell and that one to
heaven". This is no drowsy god sitting apart from his creation. It is an
active god, ruler and disposer, though more or less confused with the
idea of Fate. Brahman's activities are remarkably varied for a god theo
retically having nothing to do after creating. He constantly gives advice
when the gods fear danger, tells them what to do, informs them that he
has forseen, and provided against, the untoward event (i, 197, 5; 3, 100,
6; 106, i, here he tells the gods how ocean, drained by Agastya, will be
filled). He comforts "men and gods" in time of trouble (3, 107, 7; loka
as modern log = men). Or a lone petitioner (3, 293, 16) seeks aid in
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 13
194 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
behalf of another and "through the grace of the Self -existent" obtains
the boon.
Long after creation, when men, who had been all Brahmans before
(sarvam brahmam), were divided into castes, and sin flourished, Brahman
created laws and punishment. He makes castes through the help of the
good demon Bali, according to H 1688; but of his own initiative in 12,
1 88, 4f. As "half of Visnu", Brahman sleeps a thousand times four Yugas
(3> J89, 39—42); but when he wakes he remains active till the end of his
day. Thus he curses the sinner who shocks modest Ganges (1,96,6);
curses a nymph to be born as a fish (i, 63, 58); curses another to be born
as a doe (3, no, 36) and become mother of the horned saint Rsyasrnga;
and even curses the gods (but this is late) because they do not sacrifice
to him (H 907). Yet all the curses in the real epic are for the good of
the world, and so he curses Kumbhakarna to sleep half the year, because
this demon (grandchild of Brahman) harries gods and men (R 7, 23); and
so, though he permits Indra to be overcome, he instigates his release (ib.
61, 23). He gives immortality to Vibhisana because, like Prahlada, he is
a good demon (3, 275, 31= R 7,10,35). To sinful demons he refuses
immortality (i, 209, 21). He allows the Asuras to grasp the shadow, not
the substance (R 4, 40, 35). His recognition of Rama as Visnu is based
on moral grounds (R 6, 120, I3f.). From his mouth came the priests as ut-
terers of truth (12, 72,4, etc.) As Sarvalokaprabhu and Bhutabhartr,
he blesses the undertaking of the good (R 2, 25, 25). Even the victim
of his rather inconsiderate boon yields with an expression of confidence
in the self- existent Lokaguru (Hanumat, R 5, 48, 41 f.). He grants the
boon of invulnerability not only to the Asvins but to the more modern
Hanumat (R 5, 59, 19). He takes from Usanas and bestows his wealth on
Maya, because one is evil and the other good (R 4, 51, 12 and 15). Both
epics thus recognise him as an ever-active god. The gods sit round him
and serve him as courtiers do a king (2, 4, 41). He sits in his "holy world-
revered home" and advises Agni how to escape dyspepsia (i, 223, 68),
when appealed to by that god ; and without appeal comforts his daughter-
in-law Puloma (wife ofBhrgu) and "names her tears" the river Vadhusara
(i, 6, 5). A late tale makes him send Indra to comfort SIta (after R 3,
50). He watches battles on earth and comes to earth to advise Vyasa
and Valmlki (i, i, 59f. ; R i, 2, 23 f.). He had a war-chariot, which he
shared with other gods (Indra, Varuna, and is"ana, 7, 127, i), but let it come
into the possession of mortals. He journeys on a vehicle drawn by geese,
the gods and seers being his escort (3, 291, I7f.). He is called here Pad-
mayoni, Caturmukha, Jagatsrastr. He gives away weapons (R 2,44, u,
etc.) and even makes them himself (i, 225, 19; R 3, 44, 14); as Dhatr he
makes the bolt of Indra (12, 343, 41). The brahmam astram was made
by him to counteract other weapons (7, 201, 37), apparently distinct from
"Brahman's rod" (R 6, 22, 5). He made (it is implied) defensive armor
(7, 103, 20). He made Hiranyapura (3, 173, 11), or it was "made by Vi£-
vakarman" (5, 100, 2), who is a secondary Prajapati (i, 66, 28) as "maker
of arts". Probably the two were sometimes identified, as "Vis"vakrt made
the universe" (13, 40, 37). But usually Brahman does the thinking and
Visvakarman does the work. Thus it is both as creator and preserver that
Brahman commands Visvakarman to make Tilottama, to tempt Sunda and
Upasunda to their ruin (i, 211, 10). So (above) Brahman makes the bolt,
but in 3, 100, 23, Tvastr, the artifex, actually converts the bones of Da-
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 195
dhica into the bolt. As warrior-god, Brahman and Prajapati taught Ar-
juna how to use weapons (4, 61, 26), Brahman in particular teaching him
how to shoot. Here Prajapati is not Brahman. So in 14, 35, 25, "spot
less Brahman" is consulted by the seers including Prajapati, a distinct
personality; though ib. 34, "Prajapati who is truth" is not the seer, and
in 3, 183,63, Prajapati who "created men like gods" and is purvotpanna
(=purvaja) is Brahman. After "creating the Vedas, men, gods, demons,
worlds, times, other Prajapatis, truth, law, austerities, usage, purity, and
the castes" (12, 188, nf., asrjat, vidadhe, nirmame for "create"), he
helps the Seers find the Vedas stolen by the demons (12, 210, 19; 348,
28); he first "sang them in the East" (5, 108, 10). He fashions the war
rior's heart (5, 134, 37), perhaps in the beginning, but it is late when he
composes a law-treatise called the Trivarga, abridged by Brhaspati (and
Indra, 12, 59, 30). His Gatha Brahmagitatt are "songs composed by Brah
man" (not "sung in the Veda"), for the synonymous expression is "sung
by Prajapati" (12, 265, 10 and 12; cf. ib. 136, i). Other (all unimportant)
sayings ascribed to Prajapati, Dhatr, Svayambhu, etc. are given in 13, 35,
4—12; 13, 20, 14; i, 113, 12; 3, 3i,39(cf. R 4, 34,11, glto'yam Brahmana
£lokafr kruddhena, on ingratitude). Prajapati (as year, etc. 3,200, 3/f.,
68) is pleased with food, as Indra and Agni are with a seat and a wel
come, respectively. The Vedic mogham annam vindate, etc. is a
gitam Brahmana (5, 12, i8f.). He arbitrates between the quarrelling
breaths (14, 23, 7 f.); decides that aum is the best Veda for gods and
demons (14, 26, 8); and instructs the Seers (ib. 35, 26 f.). In fact, in the
later epic he is too active, personally manufacturing the diadem of Manu
and Rama (pra. R 6, 131,65), etc., as he becomes a lay -figure for utter
ing discourses.
§ 135. Brahman's activity and impartiality lead to the fundamental
weakness of his character. He is a god of asceticicsm, he is father of
gods and demons. Therefore, to win his favor, gods and demons practice
asceticism, and because he is an impartial father he grants invulnerability,
etc., to either god or demon indifferently. As the demons always take
advantage of this weakness, Brahman is ever engaged in preserving the
world from the result of his own folly. One cannot call it ignorance, for
he is prescient. He is "equable to all", that is his boast and glory (i,
49, 10; 13, 85, 3; R i, i, 13), but he is also well-disposed, suhrd, toward
both demons and gods (5, 78, 7), as being equally his children. He created
them as an ascetic (mahatapalj, 3, 189, 47) and "the place of the Great
Father" is obtained by like asceticism (12, 160, 32, 161, 2). So Sunda and
Upasunda win their evil might (i, 209, 21); so Bali becomes a favorite
(12, 223, i if.; Indra is forbidden to kill him). The whole drama of the
Ram. is based on the criminal folly of Brahman in giving Ravana his
power (3, 275, 20; 276, if.; R 6, 41, 63, "Ravana's insolence is due
to Brahman's boon"). Viradha (Tumburu) boasts of the same thing (R 3,
3, 6). The Kabandha exults in being able to attack Indra because Brahman
was so pleased with his tap as that he gave him immunity (R 3, 71, 8).
As Brahman is the priests' darling god (brahmanavatsala, R 7, 5, 16); so
Ravana's son is vallabhafr Svayambhuvalj, to whom Brahman gives
the very brahmastra which ensnares Rama and the means to conquer
Brahman's own son Jambavat (R 6, 73, 64f. ; 74, 12 and 14). Restriction
of Ravana's power is due only to Brahman becoming offended at the
rape of Punjikasthala. Other examples might be cited. They show that
13*
196 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Brahman is constantly active, even if as preserver he preserves in great
part from the consequence of his own acts. Yet he has taken a vow that
"sinners must be slain" (8, 33, 43) and waits the issue calmly, confident
that virtue will win (5, 128, 41; right makes might, 6, 21, gf.). But his
lack of initiative in slaying leads eventually to his dishonor: "One does
not honor very much the gods that do not kill", and those cited as thus
without very much honor are Brahman and Dhatr as well as the god of
innocuous desuetude, Pusan (12, 15, 16). This is put less baldly in R 3,
64, 55: "If the heroic maker of the world were merciful, all would dis
honor him". But he is not altogether disregarded. He is invoked for a
blessing, karotu svasti te Brahma (S 7, 94, 41; B has brahma); his
favor is requested at the beginning of a tale (i, 64, 3). In his honor is
performed a celebration, mahotsava, like that of £iva, at the autumn
harvest festival, in which wrestling and gladiatorial games are performed,
perhaps at the time of the new moon, when seers visit the god in
Brahmaloka (12, 192, 20 and I, 96, 3 f.), as if the Father God were still
a god delighting in destruction (4, 13, 14 and 40; the contest of men
and wild animals is held in the inner court of the palace so that ladies
may look on).
§ 136. Brahman as Destroyer. — He created Death (above), that the
world might be preserved, but he is also known as the god "whose anger
burned the world" (12, 257, 16), and this anger seems to be ever in the
mind of the unsectarian believer. "Surely", cries Matali, "this must be the
destruction of the world which is caused by Brahman" (Pitamahena
samharakprajanamvihito dhruvam = jagatali ksayah, 3, 171,21). He
is "Lord of the World's Destruction", Lokadinidhanes'vara (see above,
§ 132), and the destruction of earth is caused by his wrath, who is Sar-
vapitamahah sarvasya Dhata caturananah (R 5, 54, 37 and 43). This
is not the destruction caused by his sleep, but by his wrath, Svayambhu-
kopena. The world-destruction caused by Brahman's falling asleep is
but a phase of eternal life. How long it lasts is doubtful, as the epic
authorities cannot agree even on so vital a point as this. A Yuga lasts
12000 years and a thousand Yugas measure the duration of Brahman's
sleep and of his day, or, as expressed in terms of the means of destruction,
"at the end of a thousand Yugas, Fire (Vibhavasu) destroys all", and
Brahman, whose sons are here mystically interpreted as the "Fathers of
Fathers" (Mind, Intelligence, etc.), begins to sleep (12, 47, 56; cf. 3, 3, 55; 3,
1 88, 28; 6, 32, 17). But in 12, 312, if., where also the gods are "sons of the
Pitrs", and Brahman is produced by the All-soul (Avyakta as God), the day
of Brahman is "one quarter less" than a day of God, and a day of God
is ten thousand times forty-eight thousand years ; that is, Brahman's day
is seventy-five thousand Kalpas, or 360000000 years. A "day of the ele
ments" lasts 144000000 years according to this system, which, however,
is quite unknown to the real epic. But even the pseudo-epic does not
have such calculations as are found in the Harivams~a and Puranas, in
which one period of a Manu is seventy-one times the four ages or a
period of 4320000 human years and fourteen Manvantaras make one day
of Brahman (H 531). The earlier calculation is that of 12000 years making
one day of Brahman (3, 188, 22 f.). An insert at S 2, 51, 41 says that
3600000 years pass while Visnu sleeps (jagmus tasya . . varsani . sat-
trims~acchatasahasram manusene 'ha sankhyaya). Unless specially
restricted the years are to be calculated as human years, and probably
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 197
•
till the period of the later epic, which is represented by 3, 3 and 3, 188
(above) as well as by the pseudo-epic, the only period known was the
Yuga-complex of twelve thousand years. Then a thousand such were made
a day of Brahman, and with the introduction of Manvantaras in the later
epic speculation, this was replaced by astronomical calculations based on
the knowledge of the precession of Aryabhata or Hipparchus. *)
§ 137. Brahman is caturmukha (passim), caturanana (R 5, 54,
37), caturvaktra (12, 351, n; R 7, 5, 12), not as having four faces and
so four heads, and as bearing a Veda on each head, but as being
omniscient, seeing in all directions. Except for an allusion to his "Veda-
knowing hand" (R 7, 36, 3) this is almost the only descriptive epithet of
his form. He is, as also said, sarvajna, "all-knowing", and as such he is
also caturmurti as he is caturveda, embracing four forms or divisions
of law and Veda (3, 203, 15; S adds caturvarga); or, again, he is
amitadhih, "of unmeasured wisdom" (2, II, 57), more particularly, "he
knows the past, the present, and the future", bhutabhavyabhavisyavid
(7, 54, 32). He is as Is"a and 3ambhu (later epithets of Siva) aware of
what will happen, and as such a Suraguru, most venerable of gods, he
commands Visnu to be born on earth, and Visnu receives the command
carried to him by Indra, says "it is well", and obeys. Useless to conceal
the fact of Visnu's inferiority in the defiant addition that Visnu himself is
Prajapatipati (i, 64, 43 f.). So in 3, 276, 5, Brahman says "the four-armed
god has been sent to earth by my orders" to overcome Ravana. It is he
who makes Soma lord of plants and Dhruva lord of stars and protects
from the fire below (H 64, 1330, 2557). The boar-incarnation is not Visnu's
in the older Ramayana but Brahman's (R 2, no, 3), and the gods do not
at first recognise the boar-form of Visnu at all (3, 142, 50). It is Brahman
who fears no one (R 2, 30, 27); it is he whom Visnu and Indra revere
as DeveSa, Lord of gods (9, 34, 18). Visnu as the "one eternal son of
Aditi" is, to exalt him, said to be "like Brahman" (5, 97, 3). Brahman
outranks Visnu, leading the gods (3, 85, 70 and 73); and "all the gods
along with Visnu" come in fear to him (3, 105, 19). These passages are
not sectarian ; but it is even more surprising that Krsna- Visnu is unknown
to the gods and has to be explained by Brahman (6, 66, 4). At first,
Brahman is a "pure-souled" (i, 212, 22) and "eternal, immeasurable" being,
higher than all the Devas. But the later epic, and long before the gross
additions of the pseudo-epic, inverted this relation. Visnu now creates
Brahman as male demiurge, for at best Brahman from brahman is a
form of Visnu as pure soul (3, 272, 44; 6, 65, 59). Brahman binds upon
Visnu his armor (binds it with a brahmasutra or mantra, 7, 94, 70). He
becomes the demiurge of Visnu, as Manu was once his demiurge (6, 65,
7 if.); he worships the horse-head form of Visnu and receives the law
from him (12, 341, 91 f.); he is the sixth form of Visnu Narayana (12, 350,
4); he becomes the "general agent" of Visnu (12, 340, 50: Hiranyagarbho
lokadis" caturvaktro niruktagalj, Brahma sanatano devo mama
bahvarthacintakalj). Brahman's birth is from the lotus of Visnu's navel;
yet this is but the seventh of a succession of such births. "First", says
Brahman, "I was born from thy will; second, from thy eyes; third, from
J) Compare on this point the conclusive reckoning in the Book of Indian Eras
(Cunningham, 1883), p. 4, where it is shown that the estimate of 4320000 years must have
been based on astronomical calculations. For the Purarjtic reckoning, compare Wilson's
note to the Visnu-Purana, p. 24.
IQ8 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
thy speech; fourth, from thy ears ; fifth, from thy nose ; sixth, as egg from
thee ; and this is my seventh birth, from the lotus" (12, 348, 43). The
sectarian passages are sometimes naively expressive of Brahman's attitude
toward the new role of Visnu. Thus in R 7, no, 3 f., Brahman comes in
a car to greet Rama (Visnu), and hails him as Visnu Lokagati, adding,
"savior of the world, though some do not acknowledge thee".
§ 138. &va, like Visnu, seeks advice from Brahman (i, 211, 4).
Brahman calls £iva "sonny", putraka, sets him a task, and tells him not
to kill (7, 52, 45; 54, 13). Brahman begets 3tva (12, 352, 20; 166, 16; H 43)
in Visnuite passages; Siva springs from his forehead (lalataprabhavah
putralj ^ivalj, 12, 351, n); yet this is more to depreciate &va than to
honor Brahman. It is only through Brahman's boon that Diva's son Skanda
can conquer the demons (3, 231, 105). In I, 18, 42 and 10, 17, 10, Brahman
apparently orders £iva to drink poison for the good of the world. On
the other hand, in late passages, Brahman makes obeisance to Skanda
(7, 202, Qof. ; 9, 44, 30 f.), and "&va creates the Creator". In Drona and
Karna (in part) and in Anus"asana, Siva is superior (Brahman acts as his
charioteer, 8, 34, I2of.), and as Prajapati and Devadeva creates Brahman
(Brahmanam asrjat, 7,201,74; 13, 14,4). Brahman eulogises &va and
confesses his superior power (7, 202, 90 f.). Brahman is made the revealer
to Indra of Siva's power (13, 17, 175). Brahman is a form of &va (8, 33,
58, i. e. "Brahman" is a title of Siva). At this period the great pair take
over Brahman's epithets. Brahman and &va are both caturmukha; Brahman
and Krsna-Visnu are both trikakud and tridhaman (12, 43, 10; 343,
93; R 7, 36, 7, etc.). In 12, 121, 57 f., a contest of cults results in an
inextricable confusion of text, whereby Brahman becomes father (by
sneezing) of Ksupa (cf. R 7, 76, 38), who was born from the sneeze, ksup,
of the god, and had entrusted to him the system of punishment. Brahman
adored Visnu (S has &va), who made part of himself Punishment, which
passes into various hands (through Ksupa again to Manu), the passage
ending with the glorification of £iva (ib. 122, 53; cf. ib. 166, 68 f., where
Manu receives the Sword invented by Brahman and gives it to his own
"son Ksupa").
As the true god, Brahman is god of troth ; any oath taken ''in front
of Brahman" is to be fulfilled (i, 37, 5). He even directs fate and can
modify a curse (i, 16, 5; 20, 16), but he cannot alter entirely such an oath.
On such recognition of Brahman as still the highest god rests the state
ment that only those who die during the northern course of the sun
go to Brahman (6, 32, 24; 13, 169, 9f. etc.), as if he were the supreme repre
sentative of the divine power. It is only surprising in epics infected by
later views to find so much that still recalls the glory that was Brahman's
before the rise of unorthodox sects.
§ 139. Creation. — Brahman's creation, given above in outline, is best
considered in detail with other schemes of creation. R 3, 14, 6f. and
Mbh. i, 65, 10 f. differ in detail and in some important points but agree
in general. Both differ from the creation-scheme of the mundane egg (cf.
Ch. Up. 3, 19, 2), according to which Brahman, Visnu, ^iva, the twenty-
one Prajapatis, sky, earth, "the 33000, 3300, and 33" gods, etc., come
out of the golden (cosmic) egg; and, in particular, the human race, as
represented by the family of Yayati, derives from Dyaus, the Sky, through
Vivasvat, the Sun. The late passage (R 7, 23, pra. 5, 36) puts the number
of gods (suras, S, for svaras B) seen within Narayana Deva (Visuu as
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 199
Kapila) at three crores. The genealogy of I, 65 starts with Brahman, gives
him six mental sons (already named § 131), says that Marici, the first of
these, had a son Kas"yapa, father of all creatures by daughters of Daksa,
thirteen in number (elsewhere fifty, of whom twenty-seven married Soma,
ten married Dharma), mothers of all created beings, as follows: Aditi be
came mother of the Adityas ; Diti, of Hiranyakas~ipu, the father of Prahlada,
Samhrada, Anuhrada, £ibi, and Baskala; Danu, of the (forty!) Danavas,
Vipracitti, ^ambara, Namuci, Puloman, Asiloman, Kesin, Virupaksa, Ni-
kumbha, Vrsaparvan, etc., among them several a ^va- names (as Wester
ners?); Kala, of "sons of wrath"; Danayu, ofVrtra, Vala, and Vira; Sim-
hika, of Rahu, Candrahantr (and other eclipse-demons); Krodha, of
"wrath-conquered" demons; Pradha, of several female spirits and nymphs,
a few gods and Gandharvas; Vinata, of Garuda, Aristanemi, etc.; Kadru,
of ^esa and other serpents ; Kapila, of cows, Gandharvas, Apsarasas, Brah-
mans, and ambrosia ; Muni, of some gods and Gandharvas (Varuna, Par-
janya, Kali, Narada, etc.). ViSva (omitted here!) is in H 146 f. mother of
Vis"vadevas (but wife of Dharma). As already remarked, the daughters
are fifty in 9, 35, 45, or sixty; in this case Manu (§ 142) marries ten; cf.
R 3, 14 and H 142. Vasus and Rudras, All-gods, Sadhyas, and Maruts
are born of the ten daughters who married Dharma (12, 207, 20); Prahlada,
above, was father of Virocana, Kumbha, and Nikumbha (!), the first of whom
was father of Bali (the father of Bana, a &vaite, Rudrasya 'nucaralj, I,
65, i8f.). The sun and moon are assigned to Danu but they are here de
mons! Reverting now to Brahman's other sons the genealogist says that
Atri's sons were numerous seers and saints ; Angiras' were Brhaspati, Uta-
thya, Samvarta ; Pulastya's, Raksasas, Kimnaras, apes, Yaksas, etc. ; Pu-
laha's, fabled animals, lions, tigers, Kimpurusas ; Kratu's, the sun-guarding
seers. Daksa (cf. 12, 207, 19) came from Brahman's right toe and his wife
(Virini) from the left toe. Daksa made her mother of the fifty daughters
aforesaid. The ten marrying Dharma are abstractions (virtues, etc.), Klrti,
Laksmi, Dhrti, Medha, Pusti, £raddha, Kriya, Buddhi, Lajja, Mati. Dharma,
born of Brahman's heart, had as sons £ama, Kama, Harsa (Peace, Love,
Joy), whose wives were Prapti, Rati, Nanda (Possession, Passion, Delight),
"on whom rest the worlds". Rati as wife of Kama is recognised else
where (e. g. R 5, 15, 29). A v. 1. makes it uncertain whether Manu or Muni
(i, 66, 17) is meant as origin of Vasus. Prabhata is mother of Prabhasa,
whose wife is Brhaspati's sister and mother of ViSvakarman. The last is
not identified here with Tvastr, whose daughter, wife of Savitr in mare-
form, bore the As"vins (ib. 27 f.). This pair of gods and animals and plants
are "Guhyakas"; but Brhaspati is here called an Aditya. Bhrgu is father
of 3ukra; and Dhatr (already son of Aditi) and Vidhatr are sons of Brah
man ("staying with Manu"), brothers of Laksmi, whose "mental sons are
the sky- going steeds". Sukra's daughter Devi is wife of Varuna and
mother of Bala and Sura (suranandini), "the intoxicating drink which
delights gods". Suggested perhaps by Sura, Sin (Adharma) is then said
to be born of Destruction, his wife being Nirrti and his sons Bhaya, Ma-
habhaya, and Mrtyu (Fear, Terror, and Death). Nirrti gives her name to
the Nairrta Raksasas; and "Death has neither wife nor son" (but in 12,
59, 93, "Death's daughter" is Sunitha, mother of Vena). Next comes the
genealogy of^ animals. Tamra had five daughters, KakI, £yeni, Bhasf,
Dhrtarastri, SukI (Crow, Hawk, Vulture, Duck, Parrot), who became
mothers of these creatures and their like. Krodhavas"a had nine daugh-
2OO III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
ters of wrathful nature like herself, mothers of deer, bears, elephants,
steeds, apes, etc., especially prominent being Surabhi as mother ofRohim
and of Gandharvi, mothers, in turn, of cows and horses, respectively, and
also mother of Vimala and Anala; of whom the latter became mother of
the seven pindaphala trees (dates, palms, cocoanuts) and of £uki! One
of the nine was Surasa, mother of cranes and Nagas (so 5, 103, 4). SyenI
was wife of Aruna and bore him Sampati and Jatayus (Aruna and Garuda
are sons of Vinata). Kadru bore pannagas, in antithesis to Surasa's
brood of Nagas. This defective and self - contradictory list is eked out
by the statement in R 3, 14 and H 170, that Tamra was one of the eight
daughters of Daksa whom Kas~yapa married, given here as Aditi, Diti, Danu,
Kalika, Tamra, KrodhavaSa, Manu, and Anala, of whom the first four (S
omits Danu) became willingly the mothers of gods, Daityas, Asvagriva
(also in Mbh. as representative Danava), and Naraka and Kalaka ; while
Tamra became mother of the birds (kraunci, etc., v. 1. kaki). Airavata
is here son of Iravati, daughter of Bhadramada (sic) instead of son of Bha-
dramanas, one of the nine daughters of Krodhavas"a (above). Sveta is
mother of world-elephants, Manu is mother of men (R 3, 14, 29). The chief
variation is in the assumption of various Prajapatis not in Mbh., altogether
seventeen original progenitors, Kardama (known in Mbh. 12, 59, 91), Vi-
krita, ^esa, Suvrata or Sams"raya, Bahuputra, Sthanu, Marici, Atri, Kratu,
Pulastya, Angiras, Pracetas, Pulaha, Daksa, Vivasvat, Aristanemi, and "last
of all KaSyapa" (some v. 1. in G). Kas"yapa's wives are Bala and Atibala
or (v. 1.) Manu and Anala; Simhika is introduced among mothers of ani
mals, and there are other minor variations. The incongruous finale of
Mbh. is due to the R model; RB having been copied by Mbh., which in
turn has influenced RG. Two other Ram. genealogies, i, 70 and 2, no,
derive the human race from Manu, son of Vivasvat, son of Kas"yapa, son
of Marici, son of Brahman. For the incongruous accounts concerning Su
rabhi, see further I, 99, 8; 2, n, 40 f. ; 3,9, 4f. ; ib. 230, 33 (appears with
the fiend Sakuni and Sarama, mother of dogs); 5, 102, 2f. ; 12, 173, 3, Da-
ksayanl Devi, below earth, her milk the Milky Sea, mother of the four cows
of space, divine animals that guard the quarters, dis~am palyah, Surupa,
Hamsika, Subhadra, Sarvakamadugdha; 5, no, 10, she is in the West. She
teaches Indra pity for her children (3, 9, 4f. ; R 2, 74, 18). Her milk, united
with ocean, was churned and brought out Sura, LaksmI, ambrosia, Uccaih-
s~ravas, and the kaustubha (5, no, 11). H makes her mother of Rudras
by Kas~yapa, mother of Vasus, of various plants, and rupardhamayl patnl
Brahmanah (H 11527^).
§ 140. Philosophy speaks of nine creations, the first being that of the
personal soul as Brahman; the second, consciousness; the third, mind;
the fourth, the elements, etc., or, with a mixture of myth and philosophy,
makes Brahman create earth and sky after his creator made the vegetable
world (12, 182-192; ib. 311, i6f.). Brahman then becomes the "mental
son" of the superior Visnu (as God) and is born of "the thought of God
desiring to create"; the nasatyam janma or "nasal birth" of Brahman
being the one in which he has a son Sanatkumara, who teaches the Pra-
japati Virina, who in turn teaches the disam pal a Kuksi, even before
the andajam janma (egg-birth) of Brahman (12, 349, 27.). No one scheme
obtains. The Kasyapa as creative power may once have been the tortoise
as earth-power (cf. ^B. 7, 5, I, 5) upholding Mandara (i, 18, 11), later (cf.
VP. 1,9,86) interpreted, kamatham rupam, as a form of Visnu (R 1,45,
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 201
pra. n). Kamatha and Varaha are both epic proper names, but do not
help to establish totemism, though Kamathaka and Kurma as Naga names
may suggest such an explanation. An Asura in shape of a tortoise was
once killed by Visnu (kurmarupena, 3, 84, 121).
§ 141. Secondary creators are Visvakarman and Tvastr (above). The
former makes Soma's car (acquired by Arjuna) and is identified with the
latter as Bhauvana, bhuvanaprabhu (Bhaumana in S; cf. I, 32, 3, as
guard of Soma). He is a Prajapati, who is "house-maker" of the gods
and a vardhaki, carpenter, best of artists (i, 66, 28 f. ; 225, 12 f. ; 4, 46, 3;
5, 56, 7; 6, 50, 43 f.; cf. S 5, 94, 15 and 19 and R 7, 5, 19). For Indra's
sake, Visvakarman made the bow Victory (vijaya), given by Indra to Rama
Bhargava and by him to Karna (8, 31, 43 f.)- He made^iva's car, in which
he overcame the triple city of demons (8, 34, I7f.); Siva's bow and orna
ments given by Agastya to Rama (R I, 75, u); and the golden wreath
worn by Skanda (3, 229, 25); he also made Lanka (3, 279, 12; R 4, 58, 20;
ib. 5, 2, 20, and often). But it is said also of Arjuna's car that "the gods
made it", though doubtless this merely generalises (5, 57,62). In 3, 114,
17 (cf. RG. 4, 44, 49 as Rudra) Visvakarman seems to be a name of Brah
man. He is not the only worker, as Brahman made and owned Arjuna's
bow (4, 43, i f.), but under Brahman he made Tilottama (above) and for Ku-
bera he made the car Puspaka (R 5, 8, 2; ib. 6, 124, 29); for Prajapati to
give to Indra he made the conch got by Yudhisthira, etc., etc. Vis"va-
karman thus made the golden cows (images) given at sacrifices by Gaya
(3, 121, 12); but his most famous work was the ^arngadhanvan, Visnu's
bow (3, 3, 48; R 3, 12, 33; R 4, 42, 25). In R 5, 20, 13, rupakarta sa
Vis~vakrt must be Vis"vakarman. In R 2, 91, uf., he is differentiated
from Tvastr as joint makers of a magical feast. Valin's wonderful bier
is made by Vis"vakarman in R 4, 25, 24 (but "by artisans" in the Bombay
text). R also ascribes to him the making of the homes of Kubera and
of Garuda and of Agastya (R 4, 41, 35; ib. 43, 22). He was father of Nala,
who built the bridge to Lanka (R i, 17, n ; ib. 6, 22, 44). The Tvastram
astram may be his work (R i, 27, 19). Another secondary creator is
Maya, who is to the demons what Visvakarman is to the gods (R 4, 51,
n). He married Hema (R 4, 51, lof. ; ib. 7, 12, 3), is son of Diti, and builds
palaces for the Pandus (2, I, if.). See p. 49.
§ 142. Manu Vaivasvata or Suryaputra, brother of Yama, was a Pra
japati and manavendra or first king, who founded the race of Iksvaku,
the first king and bearer of the rod in the Krta age (R 1,5, 6, etc.).
More generally: "Vivasvat's son was Yama Vaivasvata; wise Manu was
a younger son of the Sun. From Manu men were born" (i, 75, uf.).
His wife is Sarasvati (5, 117, 14, a daughter of Brahman, elsewhere daugh
ter of Daksa and wife of Dharma, H 11525, v. 1. MarutvaU; 12, 343, 75
has Sarasvati as daughter of Brahman) and his daughter is Arusi (wife of
Cyavana and mother of Aurva, i, 66, 46). Ten wives are given him in
later works (12, 343, 57), which give him ten of Daksa's daughters (above).
He had ten sons named and fifty unnamed, who perished by mutual strife.
Among the ten (13, 137, 19) are Vena, Iksvaku, Saryati, Ila •= Sudyumna,
Nabhaga, and others less well known. Manu disposes as well as creates,
determining how much cloudy weather Magadha is to have (2, 21, 10). As
son of the Sun, he gives Soma the "seeing science" (i, 170, 43, caksusi
vidya). He was, as "oldest man", rescued during the deluge by a fish-
form of Brahman (3, 187, 19 f.), perhaps like the tortoise a totem. H 51
2O2 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENS'CH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
first interposes a Viraj between his father and Brahman. With him in
the ark were the Seven Seers, and after the deluge Brahman says: "I am
Brahman the creator; naught is higher than I ... Manu shall now create
all beings, gods, Asuras, men, the whole movable and immovable world"
(3, 187, 52 f.), but he adds "by my grace", i. e. Manu is demiurge. This
Manu receives the law from Brahman (12, 349, 51), as he receives the
system of punishment, but it is not he whose verba ipsissima are so
often cited. He is born of the cosmic egg (i, I, 32) and is a Rajarsi or
royal seer. The earliest passage to differentiate Manus is 6, 34, 6 (Gita 10, 6),
which speaks of Seven Seers and four Manus producing the world through
Krsna's thought. These are not the four Savarnas but Vaivasvata, Sva-
yairibhuva, Caksusa, and Svarocisa. The split began with distinguishing
the son of the Sun from the son of Brahman (= grandson). Svarocisa is
a synonym of Vaivasvata, an epithet become a person. He also is a legal
light. His son ^ankhapada and his grandson Sudharman or Suvarnabha
are mentioned in 12, 349, 37. Caksusa also had a son Varistha (13, 18,
20). Then from misunderstood Vedic passages (RV. 8, 51, i; 10,62, ii)
were fashioned new Manus, Savaraa (cf. Merusavarni, 2, 78, 14), known as
the eighth Manu (12, 225, 3Of.; 13,18,48), etc. The aeons of these Manus
occur in about the same order, the first mentioned by name being those
of Vaivasvata and Svayambhuva (12, 335, 9; 337, 56), Suryaputra's antara
being synonymous with the former (ib. 343,26; 350,42 — 55). H 4O9f.
gives the names of the fourteen Manus recognised later, as well as those
of the four Savarnas (cf. VP. 3, 2); but all this is really out of the epic
range. Pracetasa Manu gets his name from the fact that all the Prace-
tasas were born of Pracinabarhis, great-grandson of Aiiga, son of Manu
(i, 75, 4f. ; 13, 147, 24); as such he is a Prajapati. Prajapati himself is
differentiated from Brahman (12, 108, 25 f.), but often is identical with the
creator, and in plural form becomes secondary creators, which also include
Aryaman and his sons, called Prades*as as lords and creators (12,208, if.;
ib. 10; ib. 269, 21, etc.), that is, another father of the race (Aryaman as
race-name). Instead of fourteen, seven Manus are recognised in 13, 14,
397; 1 8, 73 (as 3iva-worshippers). Manu is reckoned the eighth sage after
the seven mental sons of Brahman, who together constitute the group of
pravrtti or active saints as apposed to the nivrtti or Yoga-devoted saints
(Sana, Sanatsujata, etc.; 12, 336, 44f. ; 341, 35 and 69).*) In the holy G-
verses (6, 43, 2f. ; spurious), Manu must be Gayatri (the holy Gs are
G-ayatri, G-ita, G-anga, and G-ovinda). In 3, 221, 4, Manu is a name of
Agni, but this, like the identification of Manu and the Sun (3, 3, 56), is
of no mythological importance. For Kala and Kama as creative powers,
see § 31 and § 105 f.; for Dyaus and Prthivi as Father and Mother, see
§ 34 and § 35. Post- epical forms of the creation-myths will be found in
H 11279-12277 (=3, 7f.).
§ 143. Visnu, — He is youngest son of Aditi and Kas"yapa (§ 37). Philo
sophy recognises him (apart from Krsna) as lord and ruler of all, creator
of all (14,43, 13; 44, 16). This means more than do his common titles
devadeva, lokasvamin, devadeves"a, vis"ves~vara, since these are
born by other gods who are also titularly, "god of gods", etc. As most
fundamental in Visnu appears to be his sun-ship as bird, suparna, who
goes on high, awakening earth, and having a thousand rays or flames (pra-
*) On the ethical distinction, see Dr. Otto Strauss, Ethische Probleme aus dem
Mahabharata (1912).
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 203
jagara urdhvaga, sahasrarcis, sahasramgu), the golden germ, hira-
nyagarbha, vasuretas, suvarnavarna, having the seven steeds of
the sun and his disc, saptavahana, cakrin, who courses through air,
vihayasagati, etc., and is identified with the sun as ravi, surya, savitr,
arka, aditya, bhrajisnu (epithets of Visnu). He has fire-names as well,
and again the sun in his eye (agni, samvartaka, vahni, anala, dfpa-
murti, and ravilocana). Many of his titles (e. g. Vaikuntha) come from
Indra ("Vasudeva" appears to revert to this origin) and are again borrowed
by Siva. Lists of his titles as names are given, one shorter (6, 65, 61 f. ;
R 6, 120 = G 102), though not early, one of a "thousand names" (13, 149,
I2f.), presumably a later compilation of honorific appellations. Here are
found "hair-names" of solar (Indric?) origin, harikeSava, haris'mas'ru
(cf., however, H 4337 and 13, 149, 82, trilokegalj KeSavah Kes"iha
Harih); "the rays of sun and moon are called hairs" (7, 202, 134). As
sun he is govinda, gopati, and goptr (also of Surya), and is represented
by Garuda, first as his sign and then, Suparnavahana, as his vehicle (i,
33, 16; 13, 149, 51 ; R 6, 59, 127), probably as the (peacock) sun-bird (§ 12);
later is his goose-car (R 7, 37, pra. 5, 93). The early texts represent him
as going by himself (he is the "divinity of motion" in general as the three-
stride-god; cf. 14,42,25) or, Surya -like, born by steeds. Then he has
Garuda as his sign, Suparnaketu, Garudadhvaja, which lasts into the
period when Garuda is his vehicle (H 2491, 2707; cf. 6823). It is not un
likely that Visnu's name itself means bird (first as the productive spirit).1)
Perhaps Madhusudana also (cf. RV. 9, 67, 9) implies that Visnu is the rip
ening sun (interpreted as slayer of Madhu). 2)
§ 144. Visnu is Madhava and Kusumakara (and MargasTrsa), the Madhu-
month as the spring-time or first (as well as best) month of the year (6,
34j35; J3> I49j 31)- As sun too he is A^vagira Harih (HayaSiras, 12, 340,
59, etc.), for which reason, as the sun-horse rising from the sea, he
identifies himself with Uccailjs'ravas, the loud-noised sea (6, 34, 27), as it
1) Compare Johansson, Solfageln i Indien (The Vedic Soma-robbing eagle as
Visn.u = bird = creative spirit).
2) This was written before the appearance of JRAS. Jan. 1913, but it may stand de
spite Mr. Macnicol's explanation of these epithets as peculiarly Krs^a's, for Madhusudana
is an epithet of Rama as well as of Krsn.a (in both epics), i. e. it is originally epithet of
Visnu. Govinda is govidam patih and gopatih in the same passage (13, 149, 33 and
66) and probably the poets felt little or no difference between Govinda and Gopati ; but
the latter is an epithet common to Visnu, Siva, Varun.a, and Surya, and cannot help to
determine the nature of Krsna as a vegetarian god (see below note to § 153). Visnu is
the first All-god recognised in the epic, but this is not wholly as a pu sto for Krsfjia.
In Krs$a's own laud Visnu is chief of Adityas, as Saftkara is of Rudras (GIta 10, 21 and
23 ; cf. the appropriation of this passage by Siva in 13, 14, 322). But in pure philosophy,
where Visnu stands alone, as in the passage cited above from the Anugita, Visnu, brah-
mamayo mahan, is the beginning of the world, lord, Isvara, of all spiritual beings,
than who is no being higher (14, 43, 13 f.). It is not necessary to derive Visnu's greatness
from Indra (with Jacobi) nor to develop the epic triad (not really epic as triad) from Agni,
Vayu, and Surya (with Weber Ind. Str. 2, 226), as if Visftu reached his supremacy through
amalgamation with Indra=Vayu (Omina und Portenta, p. 338). Visnu is first a philo
sopher's god, i. e. a. priestly god, representing the active yet kindly sun as source of all,
and one with the divine light, the best possible god to personify the Bhagavan nityah
(5> 42> 2I> i- e- brahma) and at the same time to absorb the local bucolic divinities, Ba-
larama, Rama, Krsna, who were never less than demigod chieftains. It must not be for
gotten that long before either epic the idea of the All-god as real being and as personi
fied God was a commonplace. This God-idea was expressed variously, either as "Deva
Narayana, self of all" (14, 25, 17) or under the image of a god well-known, Visnu or Siva-
Rudra, the latter representing to the priests Agni bhutapati (cf. 14, 43, 6f.).
2O4 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
is said: "Here (out of the sea) rises the sun with the head of a horse,
filling the world made beautiful (by him), and causing it to be filled with
voices" (5, 99, 5). In this form he slew demons and it is characteristic
that As"vagriva, Hayagriva, Rocamana, indicates a demoniac as well as a
divine form (1,65, 23 f. ; R 4, 42, 26). So the Mare's Head is at once a
demoniac and divine form of fire, identified as such with the sun (§ 38),
though as it is in water yet above the surface, it was probably a vol
cano (cf. R 5, 55, 14). Less usual is the identification of Visnu with the
light of the moon, which occurs only as part of his identification, qua
All-god, with many other gods (also as "physician", bhisak; Dhanvan-
tari is a form of Visnu, 13, 149, 43 f.). Fire, sun, and Visnu combine to
make the "horrible form", ghora tanuh, of £iva, as opposed to the "gentle
lunar form" of that god (7, 202, 108 and 142). The names of the sacred
apes, ("sun-faced", Hari, Dadhimukha, etc.), may be due to the fact that
they represent the sun-ape, Kapi, Kapmdra, Vrsakapi, all names of Visnu
(R 6, 73, 59; 12, 343, 89; also of the Sun, etc. 3, 3, 61), later taken by £iva
(7, 202, 136). The king of apes was born of a tear of Visnu (R 7, 37,
pra. i, 7f.), but this a late passage and elsewhere the same father of Valin
and Sugriva is son of Prajapati (R 6, 67, 59). Indra passes over to Vismi
many of his titles and also his heroic deeds. Visnu becomes the typical
fighter for the gods (7, 14,49; ib. 21, 37, etc.); though still united with
Indra, as with the sun, to typify power (i, 88, 9). He is Vasavanuja, In-
dra's junior by birth, and traces remain of his inferiority, as when he is
Upendra, and Indra is Mahendra (3, 3, 41). But the later epic, while it
cannot omit the derogatory title Upendra ("under Indra"), yet defiantly calls
him Atlndra ("over Indra"), as it preserves his birth and then denies that
he is born (agraja, aja, ayonija, 13, 149, 24, 108, etc.). In 13, 149,29,
Visnu is "the world's first-born", Jagadadija (in PW as of&va!); but pur-
vaja and adija do not necessarily imply more than ayonija and anadi,
existing from the beginning; though Visnu in human form, as Devaki-
nandana, is of course both atmayonih svayamjatah and really Hala-
dharanuja, the unborn god yet younger born brother of Balarama (2, 22,
36; 13, 149, 94 f.). Visnu in the later epic is called quite rightly Indra-
karman, "having Indra's deeds" (R 6, 120, 18; 13, 149, 97). not only as
Krsna but as independent slayer of demons (5, 10, 43); to whom the gods
appeal for help (3, 103, if.). He "looks after the gods" (3, 249, 26); he is
their savior, gati (7, 4, 4). He even takes Indra's form on occasion (12,
64, isf.). For Indra Visnu charges the bolt to kill the demon and is ap
pealed to for purification, being hymned as Mahadeva (often of Siva), who
with three strides overpassed the three worlds (5, 10, iof.). But it is he
also who makes Indra the overseer of the gods (ib. 7), and in other ways
Visnu is superior, being seldom sundered from the All -Soul Visnu, who
is the Who and What (kalj kim) of the universe. A few passages still
make him inferior to Brahman (§ 137) as to Indra, but the epic in general
is an apologia for Vismi as Narayana and All-god, either incorporate in
Krsna or as an independent superior god ; retaining the old traditions of
him as the bearer of discus and stepper over three worlds, but subordi
nating this to his identification with Krsna. Visnu is "created by Siva"
(Mahadeva) in 13, 14, 4, etc., in passages where 3iva is the All-soul and
creator of Brahman, Visnu, Indra, and the rest. All such passages are
late epic (see Siva).
§ 145. Appearance and weapons of Visnu: Though the god is anir-
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 205
des"yavapus, "one whose form cannot be described",1) Yet efforts are
made to describe him. Thus he is "four-armed" (R 6, 120, 15); he has
four fangs, four forms, caturmurti, -rupa, four lights, caturbhanu,
four souls, four presentations, vyuha, knows the four Vedas, and is ca-
turasra(P); or he has eight or ten arms or is "many armed" and "many-
fanged"; he is one-footed or three-footed, has one horn or several horns,
many heads, a thousand; also a thousand eyes and feet. He has seven
tongues or a hundred. The sacred three gives him the titles tripada,
tridhatu, tridhaman, trisaman, triyuga. He is red-eyed, has eyes
as large as a lotus (-leaf), aravindaksa, jalajalocana, etc.; his color
is varied, anekavarna; he is white and black and yellow and red, but
especially yellow (s"ukla, krsna, babhru, rohita, hari). For the glory
of the greatness of the god he is described as having many members,
faces, bellies, thighs, eyes, and so on, and in conformity therewith he is
a "great eater". The epithets "having eyes (mouths, faces) on all sides"
are derived from older tradition ("red-eyed" may be due to this or to the
boar-avatar, 3, 142, 46). In general, it must be understood that the mon
strous appearance is for grandeur ; for Visnu is fair, beautiful , lovely
(svaksa, sundara, pes"ala, s"ubhanga, sudars"ana, sumukha, sva-
sya, etc.). It is as the embodiment of space with four or ten directions
that he is called four and eight and even ten-armed (13, 147, 3 and 32).
He has a hundred curly locks, Satavarta, and shares with &va among
others the title s"ikhandin;heispadmanabha; from his lotus-navel came
Brahman (3,203, I2f., as Govinda), jalajakusumayoni (8,90,24). Out
of the lotus which sprang from his forehead came Sri and became wife
of Dharma (12, 59, 131), hence Sri kamalalaya; who, with lotus in hand,
is engraved on Kubera's car (R 5, 7, 14); padmahasta is auspicious.
Visnu wears the kaustubham maniratnam (R 1,45,26), the pearl which
rose from ocean as manir divyah (i, 18, 36) or maniratnam (5, 102,
12, etc.); then the diadem "of solar glory", which gives him the epithet
kiritin. These he wears and clothes of yellow silk (kirftakaustubha-
dhara, pltakaus"eyavasas, 3, 203, 18), as he sits on the coils of the
world-serpent, nagabhoga; but he is usually addressed as one ornamented
especially with the pearl of dazzling light, lasatkaustubhabhusana
(as voc., 3, 263, 13). He is Mukunda (13, 149, 68), perhaps as being him
self the jewel. Kiritin is an Indra-epithet and not peculiar to gods. On
his ringlets, Visnu wears garlands, sragvin, of wild-flowers, vanamalin;
he also wears jewelled ear-rings, kundalin, and arm-bands made of
shining gold rubbed with sandal-paste, rucirangada, candanaiigadin,
kanakangadin. On his breast is the quatrefoil called Srivatsa (R 6, 120,
27), caused by Diva's trident or by the wet hand of Bharadvaja (12, 343,
132 and cf. § 125). Hrslkes'a and ^rivatsanka apply to Visnu and Krsna,
the former epithet being the name the Munis give to Kes"ava (6,67, 21);
also the Garuda worshippers of Visnu are all marked with the Srivatsa
(5, 101, 5). Mandodarf says that Rama is the supreme creator -god who
wears on his breast the Srivatsa, as he bears conch, discus and club (R
6, 1 14, i f.), which with bow and sword are the arms of Visnu. A later passage
says that Visnu got his ear-rings from the ancestor of Bali whose prison-
*) *3> 149, 83. The descriptive epithets are found for the most part in this section,
also H 2201 f., 12, 285, 77; 6, 35, 10 f., etc. Sahasraksa is Indra's own epithet. Many of
the others, "lotus-eyed, all-faced, hari", etc., are solar epithets; some also belong to Siva
("one-footed, hundred-tongued, thousand-formed"), while "seven-tongued" belongs to Agni.
206 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
door Visnu now guards (R 7, 23, I, if.). Visnu's "horns" may be orna
ments or remainders of his animal forms. He is ekaSrngin, unicorn (3,
142, 29) as the boar, while as a bull he has two or several horns (nai-
kas"rnga). The bull is his form as the sun, which is called a bull (go-
putra = son of Sun); but in general this beast is typical of virile strength.
So Visnu is "the bull, fond of bulls, with a bull-like belly, having eyes
and form and the acts of a bull", as he is gohita, vrsapriya, etc.,
and of course gopati and goptr (13, 149, 41, 76, etc.). RG 6, 102, 17
gives him two "Veda-horns" (v. 1. a thousand, rksamas'rngo for sahas-
r a s r ri g o). Besides conch, discus, bow, and club, Visnu bears the sword Nandaka.
The discus is a fiery wheel with a thousand spokes, borne in his right
hand, and made by the All-maker for use against demons of darkness
(13, 149, 120; R 6, 74, 70, etc.). It is the sun: yavad avartate cakram,
"as far as the sun shines" (R 6, 131, n). Krsna uses the disc as a boom
erang (i, 228, iof.); it is Sudarsanam (6, 59> 91)' "fair to see" (as name),
by Sivaism interpreted as "hard for any one except Siva to see", and
made his gift to Visnu! (13, 14, 79); it is of course an auspicious sign to
have a discus-mark on the arm (i, 74, 4) and the dung of cattle is auspi
cious from its shape (§ 9). His usual arms give Visnu the title Sankha-
cakragadadhara (3, 189,40, etc.). His bow is of horn (R 6, 120, 16;
sarngadhanvan, 13, 149, 120); as "breaker of the axe" he is called in
late description sudhanva khandaparasufr (ib. 74, explained by 12, 343,
117), and as Balarama he is called Halayudha (rathangapani = cakra-
dhara). Narayana has all these titles, as Visnu, with whom, even to the
halo or nimbus about the head, he is identical. Both have the web-sign
jalap ad a, -bhuj, of the foot of the goose. Narayana is mystically in
the disc of the sun and cleansed souls enter the sun-door into him, thence
pass into Aniruddha, and there, becoming pure mind, go to Pradyumna,
and so pass into Sankarsana (Jfva,) and then into Ksetrajna (Vasudeva;
12, 345, I3f.). It will not be necessary to go into further details of these
speculations of theology; they really lie apart from mythology. As archer-
sun and nimbus-god, jatamandaladharin, Visnu is a warrior, darpa-
han, surarihan, durarihan, durga, durjaya, duratikrama; his
chariot is wind or Garuda, he is borne by seven steeds ; his fighting-titles
come in part from Indra (dhanamjaya, puramdara, janardana); he
is "fond of fighting" and conquers all, to become kind, refuge of all, sav
ior of the world (samitimjaya, also of Yama; trailokyanatha, ja-
gannatha, etc., cf. 3, 49, 20 and in the list 13, 149, 76, 84,86). He first
promulgated the law of battle (12, 64, 21, says Indra!). Though he is the
conqueror of innumerable demons he is known particularly as slayer of
Kesin and Bhaga and Kalanemi; as hero he is Tarafr suralj Saurifr;
3uraseno Yadusresthafr (list 13, 149, 37 andR 6, 120, 17, as battle leader,
and list 50, 82, 88). As warrior he carries his club (not goad) in his left
hand because he needs the right for his chief weapon, the discus; other
weapons he carries "in his other arms". His horn, pancajanya, he blows
himself (R 7, 7, 9); his bow becomes the property of heroes (R 3, 12, 33f.
etc.). Further description, like the epithet All -soul (a title also of the
sun, 3, 3, 27; 189, 41) is philosophic ("formless, multiformed womb of all,
all-enjoyer", etc.) and may be passed over; only ganesvara, lord of
hosts, may be mentioned, to emphasise the fact that the epic comes be
fore GaneSa is invented. Only the late introduction (i, i, 74 f.) acknow
ledges Ganesa, though the idea of him is common enough (3,65,23, puja
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 207
vighnakartrnam). Even the introduction has not stereotyped his name,
which appears as Ganes'ana as well as Ganesa. Ganes"vara is title of
Visnu alone in 13, 149, 79; but Ganesvaravinayakafr (ib. 150, 25) are also
recognised. Vinayakas are malevolent demons grouped with the leaders
of the lords of divine hosts. *) Visnu is however really identified with many
gods. Thus he is Paramesthin, Svayambhu, Kala, Dharma, Prajapati, Vis'-
vakarman, Arka, Agnj, Vasu, Varuna, Tvastr, &va,_ Dhanesvara, Skanda,
Vacaspati, the Jyotir-Aditya (as distinguished from Aditya), etc. He is ni-
yanta niyamo Yamalj (ib. 105); Vayu, Daksa, Indra and Mahendra, Soma,
Kamadeva (and kamahan), Dhatr, Vidhatr, Parjanya, Manu, Marici, Tara,
£as"abindu, Vyasa, Jahnu, Kumbha, Nahusa, Sunda, etc. As &va he is
Bhagahan and Nandin; he is star-clusters, Dhruva, Punarvasu, etc. He is
at the same time creator. Thus he creates Brahman from his navel, Ru-
dra from his ire and forehead, the Rudras from his right side, the Adityas
from his left side, the Vasus from his front and the (Asvin) pair, Nasatya
and Dasra, from his back. The Prajapatis, Seven Seers, four classes of
Pitrs, £ri, Sarasvati, Dhruva, etc., are of him or in him (matsthan pasya,
12, 340, 50 f.). Danda as form of Visnu is described as a Raksasa (12, 121,
I4f. ; 122,24). As All-god, Dyaus is his head, earth his feet, water his
sweat, and the stars are his hair-pits (3, 189, 4f.). Elsewhere the Asvins
are his ears, the moon and sun, his eyes; Brahman, his heart; Sarasvati,
his tongue (6, 65, 61 ; R 6, 120, 9 and 25). As heavenly light and orderer
of time he is Rtadhaman (R 6, 120, 8; 12, 343, 69).
§ 146. As is evident from the preceding, Visnu is not especially
preserver, but as the All he is also destroyer, not only of grief and sin,
s"okanas"ana, papanaSana, but as destroyer, antaka, of living things,
svapana, who puts the world to sleep, the vis"atana and samhartr
(3, 189, 4). As Avatar he saves; as wakener and maker, he creates; as
Rudra, death, etc., he destroys. Thus it is he who as the Mare's Head
destroys the world, a curious role for a preserver. In fact, like all All-
gods, Vismi has all functions. That he is especially the "divinity of gods"
is too much to say, though it is said (unmetrically in S I, 95, 7: deva-
nam daivatam Visnur, vipranam agnir brahma ca). As such "he
is called Vaikuntha by the gods, while the Vedas call him Vismi" (ib. 6,
8, 22), or, according to the Northern text, "men call him Visnu". Both
texts give him a local habitation north of the Sea of Milk; there he rides
in the car of eight wheels (elements, 6, 8, 15). All texts have the story
of his three strides, as Vikramin, Trivikrama (also Vikrama and Krama),
as the son of KaSyapa and Aditi in dwarf form (hence Govinda as "earth-
finder", 12, 207, 26). This and other Avatars are to be distinguished from
the four forms, caturmurtidhara, as Kes~ava, Samkarsana, Pradyumna,
and Aniruddha (12, 340, 102) or (7, 29, 26 f.) one form is that of a saint
practicing austerity on earth; one (as sun) "watches the world as it does
good and evil"; one is active in the world of men; and one sleeps a
thousand years. In R 6, 120, 26 night and day are the falling and rising,
x) This shows that Yajftavalkya is later than the epics and that a good deal of the stuff
offered as epic text in the printed "Southern" version is late addition, plastered on to the
epic, just as chapters always have been added (cf. S 12, 68, 46, where Mahesvara-Ganesa
causes the massacre of Saudasa's army at Benares). Ganesa is a title of Siva (3, 39, 79
and R 7, 23, pra. 4, 34), but, though both passages are late for epic texts, neither implies
Ganesa as god. Compare (below) Krsna as remover of difficulty. See on Ganesa in
Mbh. M. Winternitz in WZKM. 14, 51 (1900); JRAS. 1898, pp. 147, 380 and 631 f., who
shows that Ganesa is not in the Southern Grantha recension.
208 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
respectively, of Visnu's eyelids. It is said that his Avatars are "to ex
terminate evil", and so he "is born in the houses of good men" (3, 189,
27 f.), as if animal Avatars were excluded. One of his four forms here
lasts a thousand times the four ages (ib. 40). Among the forms given by
his titles, he is the lotus and the tree, especially the Nyagrodha, Udum-
bara, and As"vattha. As bird, he is the goose and "fair-winged" (Suparna);
as animal, the mahoraga bhujagottama (Sesa), the great snake and
boar, mahavaraha, the bull, the lion, s~arabha, vyala, and narasim-
havapus. As boar perhaps he is trikakud. These real Avatars are
indifferently mingled with his form as "teacher of Kapila", as Damodara
(list, 53; cf. 3, 49, 22), etc. Jahnu and Prthu and Sasabindu (and Gupta?)
may be incarnations. Vaikuntha, Vaikhana, Suyamuna are uncertain titles,
as is Sipivista (3, 102, 19 f.)1. Prthu is a true_ incarnation (12, 59, 128 f.).
Visnu is twelvefold as being all the twelve Adityas born of Aditi, who,
however, is said elsewhere to have born him seven times (12, 43, 6; 47,
38, Krsna Visnu). Only here and in the later list of names is Visnu espe
cially Vajasana (i2v 43, 9, Vajasani = Vajasana in 13, 149, 98). RB 7,
23, 4, 44 has v.l. In Santi he is tricaksuh, trikakup, tridhama, tridivac
cy utah (Avatar), Kapila, others already cited, and dundubhi, gabhasti-
nemi, Rbhu, Vibhu, svadha, svaha (etc., one hundred names in S).
The title Mahadridhrt probably refers to bearing the earth as tortoise
(may be as Krsna). Adhoksaja, "born under the axle", must refer to the
late legend of Putana as told in H 9087 (cf. 13, 14, 69 and 12, 343, 83,
where it is explained as upholder of earth!). Native etymologies are of
little value or obvious. According to them Visnu is bull as Dharma ; Hari,
because he receives a share of the sacrifice (hare bhagam) and because
it is his best color; Govinda (= gopendra), because he "found earth";
Krsna, because he ploughs and is dark; Vaikuntha, because Vayu helps
him to make earth; Virinca, because this is the Kapila name of Prajapati;
Kapila, as the sun; Dharmaja, born of Dharma, etc.
The most surprising and historically important fact in the various
lauds of Visnu as All-god is that he is nowhere called by the sacrosanct
formula of the Vedanta. He is wise, knowing, blest, true, joy, etc., but
he is not even said to be possessed of cit, still less is he designated as
being saccidananda in the phrase of the later Upanisads and Vedanta,
though he is the supreme philosophical principle, paficavims'atimo
Visnuli (12, 303, 38), as Narayana, highest soul (302, 96) and highest
knowledge, jnanam uttamam, buddhih, sattvam (R 6, 120, 17), and
siddhartha (list, 24 f.). This is not because the Sankhya theologians
controlled the text, but because the Vedanta shibboleth was unknown
when the Visnuite passages even of Santi were composed.
§ 147. The wife of Visnu is Laksmi or Sri (R I, 77, 30; sometimes
the two are distinct), who rose from ocean clothed in white and for whom
gods and demons contended (i, 18, 35 f.)- She is Fortune, as happiness
and wealth; as Krsna's wife she is Rukmini (i, 61, 44; 67, 156), mother
of Pradyumna. Laksmi is sister of Dhatr and Vidhatr and mother of the
sky-steeds (i, 66, 50). It is a late epic trait to make her exclusively
Visnu's (she is also Dharma's wife). In the pseudo-epic often and occasio
nally earlier she discourses on religion (13, 82, 3 f . ; she does not love
excessive virtue, 5, 39, 62f.; 13, n,6f. tells whom she lives with). Often
On Sipivista see Johansson, Solfageln i Indien, p. 12; but too KZ. 46, 34-
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 209
the conception is but half-personal, "£ri beautifies Visnu" (R 2, 118, 20,
etc.). "Fortune (Laksmi) favors those who keep the seventh day (sixth or
seventh, 3, 3, 64); Ill-fortune comes to the lazy man" (alaksmir aviSaty
enam alasam, 3, 32, 42, etc.); Laksmi is luck in 5, 125, $f. She is
padmalaya, padmahasta, etc. (4, 14, 16, etc.). As Supreme God,
Visnu himself is but a form (cf. Visnutvam upajagmivan, 5, 13, 12
= R 7, 104, 9 and ib. 85, 18). Even his anger is a boon, since those
killed by him are absorbed into him (R 7, 37, pra. 2, 20 f.), the final word
on this topic. Another late trait is his "holy dodeka- syllable name",
otherwise Puranic (VP I, 6, 39), only in S 12, 336, 34 f., where an Apsaras
(disguised as Pis"acl) "baptises in the holy twelve-syllable name (Suddham
nama dvadaSaksaram) of Hari". Visnu's paramam padam is inter
preted as a place not inaccessible to Sandili and Garuda (5, 113, 9f.),
often locally defined, though sometimes as brahma (6 ,32, n); otherwise
as param sthanam (seventh or highest world), reflected in Tirthas
called Visnupadas. One is in the North, where Visnu strode out (on the
Ganges, 5, in, 21); so a Visnupada is where Ariga sacrificed (S 7, 57, n).
A Tirtha called Visnoh sthanam, where "Hari is ever present" (3, 83,
10), results to bathers in attaining Visnu's world ; it is in Kuruksetra, where
Visnu became boar, Varaha Tirtha (ib. 83, 18), though he actually raised
earth at Lokoddhara Tlrtha (ib. 45). A Dwarf-Tirtha (ib. 84, 130) and a
Tortoise-Tirtha (ib. 120) are also known, as is a Salagrama Visnu (ib. 124),
which implies the place on the river Gandakf where Visnu's holy stone
is found, but not the present use of the stone, which is unknown to the
epics (but Nil. so interprets svarnanabha at 5, 40, 10). On the Punjab
or "Kashmir" Visnupada, cf. 3, 130, 8; R 2, 68, 19 (the heavenly, R 4, 37,
17). It may be where Prahlada and Visnu showed their strength with
Skanda's spear (12, 328, 17), in the North. The reading jatidharma in
S makes Visnu an upholder of caste (12, 63, 9). He does not accept
offerings of brandy, fish, honey, meat, distilled liquor, or rice mixed with
sesame ; such offerings are not Vedic but have been introduced by rascals
from greed and lust. Rice-cakes only should be offered to Visnu, whom
alone the Brahman-priests acknowledge in all sacrifices, and flowers with
rice-milk cakes (12, 266, 9 f.). "The people who are debased as eaters
of meat and blood live in Yugandhara, Bhutilaka, Acyutacchala, and Bahlika
(Vahlka), all four districts being in the West, where the people are op
posed to Hari (Haribahyas tu Vahika, na smaranti Harim kvacit)
and care only for this-world-salvation, aihalaukikamoksa. Visnu, however,
is the Devayanapatha (as the sun is Pitryanapatha), and salvation is from
him" (S 12, 336, 53, with interpolation). This indication that the West
was opposed to the Krsna-Visnu cult (here ordained) may be set beside
the statement that the Danavas "abandoned Visnu as god of gods, hating
him and censuring the praise of him" (nindanti stavanam Visnos
tasya nityadviso janah. (S 12, 235, 75 f.), as they too "eat meat and
cook the offerings made to the gods for themselves, and abandon shrines
and praises". *)
§ 148. Avatars of Visnu. -- Those of the boar (§ 137), tortoise
(§ 140), and fish (§ 142) have already been described.2) The difference
*) On the geographical-religious aspect, see Pargiter, JRAS. 1908, 309 f.; Grierson,
ib. 1908, p. 6o2f.; Keith, p. 831 f.
2) The tortoise upholds Mandara in 1, 18, 10; in R I, 45 pra. II, and VP. I, 9, 86, the
tortoise is Visnu; see § 13.
Tndo-Aryan Research III. i b. 14
2io III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
between an Avatar and incorporation as in Prthu, etc., is primarily that
the god descends expressly to save the world in the Avatar; in other
descents the motive may be personal. All the gods descend in "parts"
(i, 2, 93) as human forms, avataranas, partial incarnations of divine
essence. The boar, tortoise and fish Avatars become those of Visnu (in
the epic) only gradually. The epic has no systematic account of the
Avatars and even in Hariv. the list is not that of the later ten. In H 5861 f.,
for example, an account of the god's great acts is given and among them
are six of the usual four Avatars together with later deeds (conquest of
tree-demons, etc.; cf. H 3451). The boy-form here appears distinct from
the Devakmandana form. Here too the "eight-arm form" is a later mani
festation. The later epic has ten Avatars but not always as the same.
In short, the theory of Avatars is still developing in the epic and since,
after the epic, it continued till the epic ten became twenty or more, it
may be said that the epic itself represents only a stage in the belief,
where the factors were still not fixed. Pre-epic is the idea that a creator-
god appears in animal form, Prajapati as boar and tortoise. The epic in
the deluge-story first makes the grampus Brahman and then substitutes
Visnu. In S, Buddha is an Avatar. The bhumer bharavataranam (a
repeated phrase) is an application of descent in active meaning; it is
applied to the Avatar of the god to lower or remove the weight or burden
of earth (cf. 12, 340, 101, etc.). A good short account of the Avatars
occurs in 3, 102, 21 f.: Narayana, as a boar, of old raised earth; as a
man-lion, slew Hiranyakas"ipu ; as a dwarf, banished Bali and killed Jambha
(both Asuras) for interfering with sacrifice; "and Narayana performed other
deeds the number of which is unknown". The two thousand verses,
H 12278 — 14390, contain the fullest detailed account of the early incar
nations.
§ 149. The Boar- Avatar. Earth burdened with creatures, incapable
of dying in the perfect (Krta) age, appeals to Visnu, who becomes a
"unicorn boar" and with his tusk or horn raises her a hundred leagues,
which distance she had sunk into Patala. This causes excitement among
the gods, till Brahman explains that the boar is the eternal spirit Visnu,
Suparna (Narayana but not necessarily Krsna here, 3, 142, 29f.). In I, 21,
12, Visnu is the boar-form of Govinda (= gam vindat); identity with
Krsna emphasised in 12, 209, 7f. (earth is rasatalagata, 26); but earth's
distress is due here not to surplus population but to infidels who "being
fools do not recognise Visnu" as Krsna. Instructive is the fact that the
gods also do not recognise that Krsna is Visnu (ib. 32); Brahman has to
tell them, who in R 2, no, 3 is himself the boar.1) In consequence of
this Avatar, any boar rising out of water with earth on his head must be
worshipped as representing Visnu; just as a dwarf priest or disc-shaped
cow-dung represents him, and a bali should be offered to the dung (13,
126, 3 f . ; here Krsna's brother, born of Narayana's white hair, is also
cited as sermoniser). The boar-form is that of a monstrous beast ten by
one hundred leagues in size, having one tusk and red eyes (3, 272, 55);
in this account earth is submerged by a flood, not by sinners nor by
numbers. In H 12340 the "weight" is that of Visnu's own energy.
§ 150. The Man-lion incarnation also is described in the same Vana
passage. It is not often alluded to in the epic but becomes a favorite in
*) RG. 2, 119, 3 says that Brahman the boar is "Visnu", a later version.
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 211
Hariv. and the Puranas. Hiranyakas"ipu, slain by the man-lion, becomes
&s"upala, as Kalanemi becomes Kamsa (i, 67, 5 f.). The Avatar is as old
as the later Up. and Taitt. Ar. 10, I, 7; but that may not be very old.
Visnu is Nrsimha or Puranasimha (?R 7, 7, 52). The former means of itself
only a "lion(-hearted) man", as it refers to such a hero (9, 53, 23), or
"male lion" (3, 146, 53). The god, as man-lion, "makes half his body
human and half leonine" (3, 272, 56) and with his claws tears to pieces
HiranyakasMpu, the infidel. He does not leap forth from a pillar as later
(see H 2275 and 12707 = H 3, 43, if.). Here Visnu = Krsna = god of
gods, original spirit, absolute god. Hiranyakas"ipu represents Sivaism.
"Virtuous Prahlada" is a Visnuite.
§ 151. As Krsna Govinda also, in the same account, Visnu becomes
a dwarf (3, 272, 31 and 69 f.). After a thousand years of parturition (sign
of divinity), Aditi bears Visnu as dwarf to overthrow Bali, usurper of Indra's
power. Accompanied by Brhaspati, the dwarf, balarupadhrt, vamana,
goes to Bali and asks for three paces of land, which being granted the
god covers all with three paces, gives back his realm to Indra, and binds
and sends below earth Bali, who still reigns there, wherefore the universe
is now Visnu's (vaisnavam). Valmiki refers often to this Avatar (e. g.
R 3, 61, 24; R 6, 56, 38), besides describing it in full (ib. I, 29), but adds
nothing of importance. Neither epic has the Puranic account of Us"anas's
interference in behalf of Bali (for v. 1. cf. OST. 4, p. I32f.). Cf. 12, 340,
79 f.; H 1 2900 f.
§ 152. Among the seven original Avatars (if this is the meaning of
the statement above that Visnu was reincarnated seven times) *), the pre
ceding forms of boar and tortoise, man-lion and dwarf, were probably
foremost. The three remaining may have been the fish, Rama, and Krsna.
But there are no Avatar lists till the later epic, and by that time Rama
Jamadagnya, instead of being a Sivaite foe of Visnu, is a form or Avatar
of the god, just as Buddha becomes an Avatar. This older Rama de
scends from Bhrgu and is son of Jamadagni and Renuka, hence called
Bhargava, Jamadagnya, Kaus"ika, and from his weapon (obtained from £iva)
he is Paras~u-Rama. For details see § 125. He lived in the Treta age
and, according to one account, into that period between this and the next
age when Rama Das"arathi lived, with whom he fought. In 3,99, 55f., the
All-godship of Rama Das"arathi overcomes him in a shooting match, and
the apocalypse reveals the god, as in the case of Arjuna and Krsna. Yet
in 12, 207, Rama Jamadagnya exalts Govinda as Visnu, source of all. Val
miki joins him in the laud, as do Diva's brother-in-law, Asita Devala, Vyasa,
etc. The younger Rama (Das"arathi) is regarded as a pradurbhava
(Avatar) in R I, 76, 17, but as "one half" of Visnu (R I, 18, 10), his three
brothers being respectively one quarter and one eighth each, which leaves
no quarter for the sky, as arranged ib. 15, i6f. (a late passage). In R
2, no, 2, he is called lokanatha, but this is not more than a royal title;
and Rama in the real poem is not Visnu but "like Visnu", "like the sun",
and like other superior powers with which he is not identified (R 2, 2,
44f.). R 5, 35, 15 f. describes him as "four-fanged", etc., but as human.
In the Jatayus-episode, a clumsy interpolation in honor of Rama, it is said
that he killed often Daityas and Danavas, as implying divinity, and in R
J) Perhaps it refers to the (unepic) legend that Krsjia was the seventh (eighth) son
of Devaki (VP. 5, I, 74; cf. the Jain legend Antaguda-Dasuo).
14*
212 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
4, 17, 8, he secures salvation (as a god) for the one he slays. He is "not
his own master" (R 2, 105, 15). His Visnu-form is fully recognised only
in Bala and LJttara (R 7, 27, 14 f.), although he is more than an ordinary
man throughout.1) The Mbh., on introducing the Rama -story, calls him
Visnu (3, 151, 7). He reigned ten thousand and ten hundred years at
Ayodhya (12, 29, 61, etc.). The Drona knows him well as a king of old
who defeated Khara and Ravana (7, 107,28; 109, 4); also Indrajit's con
test with Laksmana (ib. 108, 13) is noticed; and in 2, 76, 5 and 3, 85,65
the episode of the golden deer and crossing the Ganges are referred to,
but in no passage except 3, 99, 35 f. and 151, 7 is he the god Visnu. In
stead, in 3, 25, 8f., he is merely "like Indra in power". Most of the al
lusions occur in one group of Drona (parv. 106 — 109; cf. 106, 17), and it
is clear that in neither epic was he at first more than a local royal hero-
god, who has the divinity of such but no more. The third Rama is mytho-
logically of greater importance. According to I, 197, 33, Bala-Rama (Bala-
deva) is as much Avatar as is his brother Krsna, both representing hairs
of Narayana. He is a rustic god called Langalin, "ploughman", or Samkar-
sana, his weapon being the ploughshare, whence Halayudha (9, 47, 26;
49, 16) Deva; Pralambahan too, as slayer of the demon whose death was
also attributed to Krsna. Formal identification of Baladeva and Krsna
as forms of Visnu, and of Baladeva with Sesa Naga, is made in 13, 147,
54f., where Hall Bala iti khyatah bears the plough, as Krsna the discus.
His head is wreathed with snakes, his standard is a palm, trnendra,
with three heads, but he also carries a club; he is crowned with wild
flowers and white-haired (3, 119, 4; 7, n, 31 ; 13, 147, 54 f.). His palm-sign
indicates his love of wine ; when described in full, he is half drunk (i,
219, 7). He stands at the left of Kes"ava, as Arjuna on the right (5, 131,
8). Later his sons, Nis"atha and Ulmuka, are well-known, who are men
tioned (2, 34, 16) in the epic, but not as his sons by Revatl. After a
drunken orgy the Naga of the world comes out of his mouth and he dies
(16, 4, I3f.). Though usually a mere appendage of his younger brother,
he appears to have had some battles of his own. He fought in the eigh
teen-day battle with king Hamsa. He is as devoted to wine as his brother
is to women (i, 220, 20, ksibah . . vanamalf nilavasa madotsiktati).
Such debauchery in no wise detracts from his divinity, however, any more
than the tricks of Krsna and cowardice of Rama injure their godhead.
But in the beginning both Rama Da^arathi and Krsna are blamed as heroes
for the outrageous behavior of which they are guilty (cf. R 3, 2, 22 ; ib.
4, 1 8, 20 f.), while Baladeva's drunkenness is an essential part of his char
acter. Like Indra he gets drunk as a lord as a matter of course.
*) R 5, 51, 39 f. has a mixture of £lokas and Tristubhs. In the first, Rama is "like
Visflu" ; in the second, he is lokatrayanayaka, against whom Brahman and Siva are
powerless. This seems to be an admission of divinity and on a par with R 5, 28, pra-
ksipta after 17, where Rama is Visnu, as in RG 6, 40, 46. But Sundara is an embellished
book and in general, though space will not permit discussion of all passages (R 5, 31, 44,
e. g., has Rama as jagatipati in a Puspitagra not in the other text), Rama is developing
into a form of Visrjui, but the early epic does not know him as such. Rama in R 6, 129
is not Vismi, which is the chief point of ib. 120 (=B 117), and when heard surprises Rama.
R 6, 120, which identifies Rama with Visnu, is late. In R 7, 17, 35, Rama is Visrjui and
Sita is Laksml. On a possible ultimate identification of Rama Dasarathi and Bala-Rama,
see Jacobi, Das Ramayaria, p. 135. Professor Jacobi regards Rama (in both forms)
as a local Indra, and Visrj.u as grown great through absorption of Indra's attributes (ib.
P- 137 f.).
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 213
§ 153. Krsna Devakmandana (who is Vasudeva) and Devakimatr — - *
(7, 1 8, 5), whose nephew Abhimanyu is Visnoh svasur nandakarak \S
(7,49, i), is the "god without end, unborn, born in the house of Yadu, _____
and is called Krsna (Yaduksaye Visnuhi Krsne'ti), bearer of conch,
discus, and mace, who wears the ^rivatsa and clothes of yellow silk" (3,
272, 7 if.). Even as slayer of Jarasandha he is called Visnu (2, 24, 34),
as in Gita n, 30 (cf. 18, 75). Such is in short the position of Krsna in
nine tenths of the great epic and even thp MfrRflm. rprngnJS€? Vasudeva ^
as a form of. Visnu (7, 23, pra. I, 43 f.). While Rama becomes Visnu only
in late additions to the little epic, Krsna as. Visnu permeates the great
epic. This is not to deny that his divinity is questioned. Jarasandha
questions it, but as a Sivaite, and Siva-worship, before it admits the iden
tity of Krsna with Narayana (3, 40, 2), questions it; even 12, 281, 19 f. will
not admit complete identity (see below). Yet even_when one says that
he fears jCrsna less than he fears YudhisthiraT(g, 22t~JM), if i» aHmim»H in.
Ihe same breath that he is th" *j-*»mai gr>^ (Sh ^^ gan5fanr> Vrsni-
ylras" ca Visnuft). The Kurus are old ^ivaites (cf. IS. I, 206) and they
join with Jarasandha in not admitting the divinity of Krsna as Narayana
Visnu, as they deny that Arjuna is Nara, who is revealed (as thus incor
porate, I, 228, 18) to Indra by a heavenly voice (cf. 3, 47, lof. ; and the
equations at 1,67, 151; 199,6). Narayana is of old the supreme spirit
(so still in H 35f.), as Brahman, and Visnu is first identified with him (R
I, 16, i); then Krsna is identified with Visnu (Madhava, as in the Khan-
dava scene, I, 213, 5 f.), and finally Arjuna is identified with Krsna Janar-
dana in exactly the same words as those used to identify Visnu and &va :
"Who hateth (loveth) thee hateth me . . there is no difference between
us" (3, 12, 45 f. ; 12, 343, 133). Yet Nara is son of Indra and less than
Narayana (1,67, nof. ; 5*96,40), and so Arjuna is less than his "char-
ioteer Narayana"- {= Krsna, 8, 62V i), and when the identity of the two is
asserted, sattvam ekam dvidha krtam (5, 49, 20), it comes as some
thing new, not even Brhaspati, Us"anas, gods, or seers having known it;
but Narada has to reveal it (ib. 22). Narada is the revealer of this secret
in general (Nara-Narayanau devau kathitau Naradena me, 8, 96,
28), even to Arjuna's brother (cf. 12, 347, 19; 344, 13 f.; and 335, 8f.,
where Nara, Narayana, Hari, and "self-existent Krsna" are four lokapala
forms of "Dharma's son Narayana" ; cf. 7, 201, 57). The Pancaratras simply
intensify the cult introduced by Narada (12, 340, nof.). So the Harigitas
and Narayanagitam (12, 61, 13; 347, 11) are later imitations of the Bhaga-
vadgita.1) Arjuna acts as demiurge, for "Visnu is not to be waked for
a trifle", as Indra explains to Lomas"a (3, 47, 22), apropos of who should
destroy the Nivatakavaca demons. He who, as Visnu, is the All -soul,
"becomes dearer" as the man-god, as Siva himself (3, 84, 19 f.) prophesies.
As such, however, Krsna is_still the god from whose moufh the world
arises, and Visnu's title saptarcis (cf. the seven suns, 3, 88, 65 f.), as the
devouring rTfe,~is™aTso that of Kes~ava Krsna (3,82,99). Yet even when
the sleep of Visnu is explained (ib. 188, 141; 189, 4f.), it is only at
the end that Markandeya adds: "Now I remember; this supreme god is
your relative here, called Govinda and Janardana; the All-god it is who
*) Compare Sir George Grierson, IA. 1909, on the Narayanas and Bhagavatas and
the same writer's article on Bhakti-marga in Hastings Encyclopedia of Religion
and Ethics. See also Bhandarkar's work cited p. 231, note 2.
214 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
has been born as Krsna" (ib. 189, 52). .The Narayanas must have been
original opponents of the Krsna-cult, for they are represented as sworn
antagonists of Krsna Govinda, though they are Gopalas (7, 18, 31; ib. 19,
7). It is these Gopas whom Arjuna rejects,
(5, 7, i8f.). This must indicate that Narayana was not_Krsna._ and that
Krsna's divine aspirations were opposed by an older Vasudeva's follo-
w^rs (they are called Vasudevasya anugah; here they number only
four thousand, 7, 27, n). Narayana did not at first imply Krsna. Thus
Visnu Narayana leads the timid gods to ask Brahman's help in re Da-
dhica (3, 100, 13) without a hint of Krsna; as Narayana the god is in
voked to uproot Mandara (i, 18, 4f.); as the same god becomes a girl and
seduces the demons to lose ambrosia (i, 18, 45), cuts off Rahu's head (i,
J95 3)) etc., Narayana like Balarama is the white god; Krsna is the black,
and the identification of Asita Devala (Black Devala) with Krsna is in
contrast to the slower and not complete identity of Arjuna, the "white",
with Krsna (8, 76, 35 f.). R 7, 53, 20 f. recognises Vasudeva as Narayana
and in Mbh. I, 218, 4f., Madhava Varsneya is the same god (festival scene).
In R he rescues Nrga from the lizard-form and generally "relieves burdens
in the Kali age". The epic seldom distinguishes between Vasudeva and
Krsna. ^ KuWl'^ i)iM\JLA
§ 154. Krsna as man is son of Vasudeva . called Anakadunduhhi, son
of ^ura, son of (Sura) Citraratha, son of Usangu, son of Vrjinlvat, son of
Krostr, son of Yadu (descendant of Manu). His mother was Devaki,
daughter of Devaka, whose brother Ugrasena, king of the Bhojas, was
deposed by his son Kamsa. His elder brother, by Rohini, was Balarama.
Krsna's wives were 16000 in number: one was Rukmim, whom Krsna
won from Sisupala (2, 45, 15), and who became mother of Pradyumna (5,
48, 70 f.). The legend of H 9181 f., which relates that Pradyumna was adopted
by MayadevT, wife of Sambara, as Rati, and was incorporate Kamadeva
is not found in the epic, though Krsna is creative Love (Kamadeva, Dhatu,
13, 149, 18 and 83^). Pradyumna is regarded as Sanatkumara (i, 67, 152). His
son was Aniruddha, loved by Usa, daughter of Bana, the Sivaite (Puranic
additions make Krsna, Balarama, and Pradyumna fight to recover him
when carried to Sonitapura). Vajra, son of Aniruddha, by Usa (?), became
king of Yadavas when Krsna died (i, in, i, 13, 147, 23f.; 16, 3, 4f.;
4, 21 f.; 7, iof.). Krsna as a child kills his cousin Kamsa (13, 148, 57), but
this is later than 2, 14, and 7, iof., where Krsna and Balarama, when
grown, kill Kamsa and Sunaman, his brother, king of the Surasenas, because
of the alliance of Kamsa with Jarasandha, his father-inlaw (2, 14, 31 f.), whose
daughters, Asti and Prapti, Kamsa married (2, 19, 22). In 7, 10 — II, Krsna
appears as earthly hero but with supernatural power, conquering Varuna
and Paficajana, the Daitya of Patala, and Indra (to get the Parijata tree) and
riding Garuda (as Visnu), but not as the supreme being (he worships
Durvasas), though as Vasudeva recognised as "father of all". The motive
for slaying Kamsa given in 5, 128, 37 f., is that Kamsa was usurper, jivatah
pituh; it is said here that Krsna reinstated his uncle Ugrasena (son of
Ahuka). Krsna is Arjuna's cousin, matuleya, as son of Sura's grandson,
since this Surasena king ofMathura was father ofKunti (2, 22, 25; Sauri
ib. 45, 39). Each cousin is essential to the, other (2, 20, 3 and 14), since
working together they are invincible^ but neither is so without the other
"(na Saurih Pandavam vina na 'jeyo 'sti). They are known as the.
"twii._Krs»as" (both are triyugau, 3, 86, 5f.; cf. 5, 69, 3; 12, 43, 6), as
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 215
in I, 227, 20. But Krsna receives invulnerability and oth^r boons as gifts
of the gods (5* 48, 86). The later epic makes Arjuna one thousandth part
of the (divine) Krsna (as s"akti, S 7, 202, 60). Varsneya, however, is not
savyasacin. Interpolations in regard tn the wnnrinrr! nr-^mplishM hy
Krsna are common (e. g. S. 2, 23). RukminT (SRugmini) is Krsna's
favorite wife who had seven special wives (cf. H 6579f.) By hjer_he_Jay
when Krsna invoked him to save her from Durvasas's crew, and he per-
lormedlTmiracle for her. Eating a hit of rice from the magic disb of the
Sun he made those unbelievers believe that they had feasted well. Though
here "Krsna, Vasudeva, All-soul", he says, "May Hari be pleased with this"
as if not Hari himself (3, 263, i8f.). Dmur^JJ^£_^LC_war Krsna acts as
charioteer for Arjuna, standing at his right;. He transforms a weapon into
a garland (7, 19, i8f.); makes the sun seem to set (ib. 146, 68, a trick
not redounding to his credit); and cures wounds, as part of his business
as charioteer (kusalo hy asvakarmani, 7, 100, 14). He has his own
•charioteer, Daruka, the club Kaumodaki, the sword Nandaka, four steeds
called Balahaka, Meghapuspa, Saibya, and Sugrfva, and a conch called
Pancajanya (4, 45, ipf.; 5, 131, 10; 10, 13, 3 f . ; cf. 7, 147, 47), which
he got from Pancajana when he overcame that Daitya, flung Saubha into
ocean, slew Kes~in, Canura, Hayagriva, Putana, Arista, Dhenuka, Pralamba,
Naraka, Jambha, Pitha, Muru, Ogha, and Nagnajit (Gandhara), a mixture
of myth and history(?); Kamsa is added (7, II, 3f.; cf. 5, 130, 47; S 2,
53, 16; S 7, n, 3). As fighter he is blamed for ignoble conduct (5, 160,
55, maya and indrajala; g, 61, 38, anaryena jihmamargena). ^Thf^
Jicts_of the man suggestT as do his gifts from the gods, that he was a man
and jJTJs view has to he repudiated! "Foolish Js. he who says that Vasu-
deva is only a man" (as his cousin says he is, 5, 160, 52; 6, 65, 40; 66,
19; 12, 47, 32); whereas, the devout believer says, it was he who as boar
raised earth, he who destroys as Rudra with the phallic sign, etc. (12,
47, 56 f.); but he offers sacrifice to Siva (7, 79, 4). Besides the slaughter
of demons he killed Pandya, overcame the Kalingas, and burned Benares
.(5, 48, 75 f-, often referred_ to), and his family of sons are well-known
warriors (Carudesna, etc.; Ahuka here as his "father" 2, 14, 56 f.). S adds
Kalayavana and Mustika to the demons he slays (7, II, 4 and 2, 22, 28;
5 here, as often, draws from H). Marks of humanity rather than divinity
are his cow-boy manners in Magadha (2, 21, 26 f.); hisignorance (in
battle he cannot tell where Arjuna is, 7, 19, 21); his unreasonable rage
and broken promise (6, 59, 88 f.); his worship of Uma and Siva, from
whom he gets~"nis thousands of wives (2, 14, 64; 13, 15, 7f.); his power
"received from the gods", because he killed Naraka and recovered Aditi's
ear-rings (5, 48, 80 f.), whereby "he won from the demon the bow of
Visnu" (in 5, 158, 8 he gets his wives from Naraka; his club and discus
he gets from Varuna and Pavaka, and only after getting them does he
feel able to fight demons, I, 225, 23 f.); his own admission that he was
"unable at any time to perform a divine act", but he would do what he
could as a man, purusakaratah, that is, he could not interfere with the
will of the gods; and his susequent admission that he would have been
nnable^to kill Karna. if Kama had not thrown away Indra's spear (7, 1 80,
6 and 17; rebuked for his behavior, Krsna jnslifie^Jiiniself by saying that
neither Arjuna nor Krsna himself with his discus could have slain Karna
armeg^wltnjnQra's^SD e ar ) . He. is af .. mogt-imly a "half-quarter" of Visnu
(12, 281, 62, turiyardha). He is repeatedly denounced not only as a
216 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
deceitful person but as a low person, cowherd and coward (cf. Bhojasya
purusa, 2, 44, 26; 9, 60, 26, etc.; S 2, 24, 5, matva devam gopa iti);
he is weak and despairing because his kin plague him (cf. 12, 81, 7 and
his flight from Mathura, "because he was afraid", 2, 14, 48 f.). Qf_his
amorousness the epic says little, but it alludes to his rebels (i, 219 and
~222); probably the lover-god was not compatible with the heroir side ap^
not yet developed. That he who as a child could uphold a mountain and
could steal Indra's Parijata tree (7, n, 3f.), could not overcome a hero
because that hero carried Indra's spear, are views still less compatible.
The first is evidently the later teaching, which leads to Krsna being in
the end the SarveSvareSvaresesa and Isesesvaresana, "lord of the lord of
the lord of lords" (a meaningless hyperbole, 7, 149, 24). Recognition of
his child-divinity is explicit but not common. The dwarf-form is that of the
child (sisur bhutva) Krsna, who then "even as boy", bala (3, 12, 26
and 43), did great acts. The particulars given in 2, 41, 4f., are that as a
child he slew a bird (fiend); then he kicked over a car, ate a great deal
and for seven days upheld Govardhana, besides slaying Asva and
Vrsabha; but only the slaying of the bird (Putana) is expressly ascribed
here to his childhood. There is no great stress laid on the child-god.
Like the lover-god the child-god develops later. It is as human warrior
that he is lauded in 3, 12, 29 f. (destroying Mauravas, Nisunda and Naraka,
making safe the road to Pragjyotisa, killing Si£upala, Kratha, etc. and
as conquering the Greek Kaserumat). In 7, u, 2f., as a boy in the
cowherd's family (Nanda), he slew (Kesin) Hayaraja and with his hands
slew the "bull Danava". Then follow the other demons slain, not in
boyhood, Pralamba, Naraka, Jambha, Pitha, Mura, as in Vana (cited), with
Kamsa's death added. 1)
The S text of Sabha, absorbing the Hariv., identifies K. with Brahman
and Rudra (41, 27), tells how Krsna resurrected the son of "Sandipini" (sic)
after the boy was drowned and eaten by a fish (S, 2, 54; cf. H^49o6f.),
etc. The pseudo-epic, completing the divinity of Krsna, unites Siva with
Krsna. Thus in 13, 139, i6f., fire comes out of Krsna's mouth and burns
hills and trees ; he looks and they are restored. It is his soul, energising
as fire to get a son. This soul of fire is told by Brahman that half of
Siva's energy will be born as the desired son (ib. 35; at ib. 140, 34 £iva
similarly burns and restores with a look Himavat, his father-in-law). Doubt
less both tales reflect the Kapila story, as Vasudeva is Kapila and Kapila
*) After Weber's essay on Krsna's birthday (noticed only in the pseudo-epic, see
§ 155), nothing of importance appeared on Krsna till in 1907—8 arose a discussion between
Messers Kennedy and Keith as to the date of the cult of the Child-Krsna. Kennedy di
stinguishes several Krsnas and attributes the Child to the Gujars, due to Christian in
fluence. The perfected cult may have been influenced from this source but the divine
child, as shown above, is explicitly recognised several times in the epic (prior to the
pseudo-epic) and must be as old as the Christian era. Keith regards Krsna as a vegetation
god rather than a sun-god, but admits Visnu as early sun-god identified with Vasudeva.
Kennedy regards Krsna, a "monsoon sun-god slaying the Asura. Kamsa", as distinct from
the local Dvaraka god. See JRAS. 1907, p. 951 f.; ib. 1908, p. i69f.; ib. 505 f.; ib. p. 847.
See also above, § 143, note. No weight is to be laid on the equation Krsna = Christos,
for Krsna was a god before Christ was born ; the only question is whether he was as
much of a god when the epic began as when it ended. Probably all the Krsnas (pace
Kennedy) are one, but the early epic knew him rather as a man-god than as God. By
the end of the pseudo-epic, even Vyasa Krsna was incarnate Logos (buddhi), an ema
nation of Narayana, "born of a virgin", kanlnagarbha; also "born of the word of God
in Brahman's seventh creation" (12, 350, 4, 38, 51). But this is the last word of the Bha-
gavatas and not early epic.
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 217
with a look consumes the Sagaras, who become grasshoppers (3,47, 19;
1 06, 7f. ; S 107, 30). &va exalts Krsna as Kalagni (3, 272, 29 f.).
The worship of Krsna Vasudeva appears to have been hampered by
a (Bengal) rival called Paundraka Vasudeva, who imitated the insignia of
Krsna and was regarded by the latter as a "false god". He supported
Jarasandha (2, 30, 22; cf. ib. 14, I9f.; I, 186, 12). See § 153.
§ 155. The worship of Krsna (apart from laudation) is rather recom
mended than practiced in^the epic, where only the late parts recognise his
holy day. In 13, 14, 290, Siva is said to be pleased with Krsna's eighth day,
Krsnastamirata, but the twelfth day of each month he is to be revered by
a different name (ib. 109, 3 f., 15 f.), beginning in the month MargasTrsa with
Kes"ava, and continuing with the names Narayana, Madhava, Govinda, Visnu,
Madhusudana, Trivikrama, Vamana, Sridhara, Hrsikes'a, Padmanabha, Da-
modara. Who worships him thus on the twelfth of each month gets me
mory of former births, jatismaratvam, and gold; but he who worships
him daily gets his nature and other rewards. The cult is one of harmless
offerings. Visnu himself, who receives sacrifice (3, 255, iof.), as Krsna
or otherwise, inculcates what appears to be a brand-new idea, that sacri
fice should not be bloody ; the god himself is the sacrifice, he demands
only flowers and cakes (12, 269, 26; 277, 32 f. = Dh. Pada, 202; cf. 264,
36 f.). Krsna's (shrine at?) Pun is recognised "in the hollow of the sea"
(6, 66, 41), as made by him, but this may be Dvaraka (so N. ; not in Ben
gal). Otherwise Dvaraka and Mathura are his places but only Dvaravatf
is punya (holy, 3, 88, 24). His age is adau Kaliyugasya, (though the
absence of animal sacrifice is a sure mark of the Krta age, 12, 341, 82 f.),
or more particularly between Dvapara and Kali (6, 66, 40). As Krsna re
presents the four ages and their qualities, he represents not only right
but wrong, adharma, and as such he becomes the demon Bali (13, 159,
iof. ib. 16 = 12, 285, 26), as &va becomes the eclipse-demon. As Nara
yana Purusottama he lived thousands of years as an ascetic worshipping
the supreme god Parayana Deva, but as the same time conquered Indra-
dyumna, Kaserumat, Bhoja Salva, Gopati, and Talaketu, and took Dvaraka
(3, 12, 32 f.)-
§ 156. Other Avatars are mentioned either as incidents in Visnu's
great deeds or formally in a list. In H 5861 f., without mentioning the
word Avatar, the poet describes the acts of the god : He raised earth as
boar and slew Hiranyaksa ; as man-lion, he killed Hiranyakas"ipu ; as dwarf,
bound Bali; as Rama Jamadagnya, between Treta and Dvapara, he cut
off the thousand arms of Kartavlrya ; as Das"arathi, killed Ravana ; in the
Krta age he killed Kalanemi, with eight arms (in Tarakamaya war); he
killed demons under all forms, vis"varupo Visnuh; as a child, he slew
forest-demons, Pralamba, Arista, Dhenuka; as cowherd, he slew Putana
(Sakuni), Kes"in, Yamala and Arjuna (the pair), and Kuvalayaplda (Kamsa's
elephant), Canura, Mustika, and Kamsa. Lists also occur first in the
pseudo-epic. In 12, 340, 77 f. with additions in S (348, 2f.), a list like that
just cited, with Kalayavana, Muru, Pitha, etc. as victims of Krsna. Then
follows a formal list of Avatars: Hamsa, tortoise, fish, boar, man -lion,
dwarf, two Ramas, Krsna, Kalki (ib. 104 and 16, 4, 13 3esa might be menti
oned). The S text at 12, 348,2, has: Matsyah kurmo varahaS ca
narasimho 'tha vamanah, Ramo RamaS ca Rama£ ca Buddhah
Kalki 'ti te das"a, as preliminary to the list above, which is quite
different (it anticipates the story of Nrga, 13, 6, 38 and the story of Usa).
2i 8 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
After explaining how Krsna held up the mountain for seven nights while
Indra rained, S (vs. 41 f.) describes the Buddha and Kalki incarnations:
"At the beginning of the Kali age, leaning against a kingly tree, clothed
in yellow, shorn, and having white teeth, as Buddha, son of Suddhodana,
I shall confuse men; and when I become Buddha, slaves will make use
of the pure; all men will become yellow -gowned Buddhas, and priests
will neither study nor sacrifice ; offerings to fire and respect for Gurus
will vanish ; sons will not obey parents . . Sruti and Smrti will be forgotten,
owing to men's indulgence toward deceitful rules ; till, at the end of this
Kali age, a green-yellow (haripingala, epithet of the Sivaite Durvasas
in 13, 160, 14) Brahmana will appear, called Kalki, son of Visnuyasas, a
Yajfiavalkya Purohita. He will come as a warrior-priest riding on a horse,
hay a, with other priests as (warrior-)companions, to destroy barbarians
and heretics". In 3, 190, 93, Kalki himself is named Visnuyasas (cf. H
2367) and is a priestly warrior, born at Sambhala-grama (cf. 3, 191, 5 and
Vayu P. 58, 78, Mlecchatvam hanti); a late addition to the epic based
on Vayu P. (cf. 3, 191, 16, Vayuproktam). S 2, 50,45 also makes Visnu-
yas"as the name of Kalki (Kalkin). Cf. H 2368, Yajnavalkyapuratisara,
"follower of Yajnavalkya" (or of his works). According to 12, 342, 24 f.,
Visnu worships Rudra Siva as himself, born of his wrath, as Brahman was
born of his grace : "Rudra and Narayana are one being in two forms . .
Visnu adores none save himself". This is what is recognised in H 10662 f.
Rudra is not Avatar but identical. "The murti is one, the gods are three,
Rudra, Visnu, Pitamaha" (not epical).
The whole list of twenty-two Avatars (Bhag. Pur. 2, 7) contains many
pradurbhavas which appear as titles in the epic, such as Purusa, Na-
rada, Kapila, Prthu, Rsabha, Yajna, Dhanvantari. The serpent seems to
be an Avatar in 12, 350, 35: "I take the form of the earth-upholding ser
pent; the form of boar, lion, dwarf, and man" (Vyasa is Avatar of
Narayana here). Other titles of late but instructive form in the lists at
I2> 339) 4O f. are : Caturmaharajika, Tusita (and Mahatusita, Buddhi
stic); Saptamahabhaga, Mahayamya (= Citragupta), Pancaratrika and
Pancakalakartrpati , (Indra's) akhandala, harihaya; hamsa, maha-
hamsa, hayasiras, vadavamukha (as Avatars, cf. 12, 300, 2f. with 5,
36, if.). Visnu is here ascetic with water -pot, vedi, etc. (12, 339, 4f., a
late addition). Atreya is here ascetic but soon becomes an Avatar. In
H 2225 to 2374 the ten Avatars are lotus (cf. 12,343,76), boar, man-lion,
dwarf, Datta (= Dattatreya), two Ramas, Kesava, Vyasa, and Kalki. These
are pravrttis or pradurbhavas (cf. I, 63, 99). As All-god, Visnu is
Rudro bahuSirah (13, 149, 26), but as the "one in many" (eko Visnur
mahad bhutam, prthag bhutany anekasah (ib. 140). The Ram. re
cognises the tortoise and boar incarnations as well as that of Rama, though
only in the later Bala and Uttara with interpolated passages elsewhere (Bud
dha is mentioned, but not as Avatar, in the interpolated R 2, 109, 34; the dwarf,
I, 29; the tortoise, I, 45, pra. n). *) For Visnu and Brahman, see § 137.
!) See Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, 4, 175 f. and 266 f.; 441 f. ; Jacobi, Das
Ramayana, p. 65. In H 10660 f. the three gods who have one form are androgynous,
ardhanarisvarah. Rudra is of the nature of fire; Visnu, of the moon (agnimaya,
somatmaka), these two powers composing the world (8, 34, 49, agnisomau jagat
krtsnam). Pitamaha is ignored here after the introductory and perfunctory recognition
of him as one of the three. The laud is given to Hari-Harau, "with Brahman", but the
last is really left out in favor of the "two highest" who are one, (etau paramau devau)
as creators, preservers, destroyers (eka eva dvidhabhutah).
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 219
As brother of Durga (§ 161) Visnu shares with her the peculiarity
of appearing with either two, four, or eight arms (§ 145), while Siva has
either two, four, six, ten, or eighteen arms (i 3, 14, 250 ; 14, 8, 30). Varahamihira
(BS. 58, 31 f.) speaks only of Visnu and Durga as having four or eight arms.
§ 157. Siva. — In Ram., Siva as Samkara and Rudra is god of the
North (R 6, 74, 59 f.), but he is not regarded as higher than other Devas
(R 6, 59, 132; Ravana is ksepta Samkarasya, R 6, 114, 49), except as
destroyer, yugante, in his special role as Hara (R 3,65,2; ib. 24,26,
Rudra Pinakin, etc.). As Mahes"vara he has a wonder -tree on Himavat,
near where Kubera became yellow-eyed from seeing him (R 4, 37, 28 ; ib.
7, 13, 22 f.). Rama is likened to Bhava, as Sfta to Giriputrl (R 6, 75, 3$f.
etc.). Siva is called Mahadeva and Sambhu (ekadas"atmaka, R 4, 43,
59), Tryambaka (R 6, 43, 6). He is AmareSa, lord of Bhuts (ib. 59, 9),
smiter of Tripura, burner of Kama (ib. 1,23, 13), father of Skanda (ib. 36, 7f.);
his chief notable deeds are to take the world-destroying poison, destroy
Daksa's sacrifice (R I, 66, 9f.), and receive the falling Ganges (R i, 43,
26). The Uttara exalts him more but puts him under Visnu (steps on
Ravana, 7, 16 and 16, 27). He carries a rosary (Hara Ganesa, 7, 23, pra.
4, 29). *) He is sadardhanayana and Mahadeva, "great god with three
eyes" (R 6, 120, 3). In R I, 45, pra. 5 f., it is Hari who gets Hara to
drink the poison. See § 163.
The Mbh. also allows Krsna and Arjuna to bow to and receive boons
from Siva and Uma (eight boons from the god of eight principles and forms
(i, 123, 44; 3, 39, 70; 13, 15, 7f. ; ib. 16, 34 and 54, two octads, tanus
and prakrtis). In the scheme of creation, Skanda bears no relation to
Siva, who is ignored; it is Brahman here who is Is" a and s'ambhu; the
Rudras are sons of Sthanu, who is then himself one of the eleven (i, 64,
45 and 66, i f.). Mahadeva is a title of Visnu (3, 84, 147, etc.). Hara is
name of a demon (i, 67, 23); Rudra and Mahakala are, however, recogn
ised in i, 65, 21, as the god Bana followed. Siva is called Nilakantha
because he drank the poison at Brahman's bidding (1,18,42; but see
below). Brahman creates &va; Siva is Brahman's son (references above
in § 138). The later epic exalts Siva, and here he becomes creator of
Brahman (13, 14, 4). Siva is known as Rudra, Isa, Sambhu, Devadeva,
Devesa, Mahadeva, Bhagavat (as are other gods). Generally, however,
Mahadeva and Sambhu mean Siva, who is called Kapardin from his hair and
J) Compare aksa in 12, 38, 23, the rosary worn by (the friend of Duryodhana)
Carvaka, a Raksasa disguised as a Sivaite priest (on the Carvaka, see Pizzagalli, Nastika,
Carvaka e Lokayatika). The Kurus are oiva-worshippers, though Duryodhana performs the
Vaisnava-sacrifice (3, 255, iof.). References to Rudra-Siva as a great god are not uncom
mon in the Ram., but the force of the number of these is dissipated by the reflection that
most of the references are to Rudra as battle-god and are introduced as similes. They
are frequent enough to show that Rudra was generally recognised as a fearsome god, but
they do not indicate that he was regarded as supreme. The few passages referring to the
Sivaite rosary are all late. The passage above and one in 12, 285, 100 are in late lauds
and the epithet used here, aksamalin, is found again in another similar laud at 7, 201,
69. The early epic has no allusion to a rosary. In 3, 112, 5> the Rsyasrnga episode is late
(cf. R i, 9—19; and Ltiders, Nachrichten der K. Gesell. d. Wissensch. zu Gottingen, Philol-
hist. Kl. 1897 and 1901). Aksamala as wife of Vasistha in Manu is not epic. Perhaps in
13, 104,84, the kaficaniya mala (na sa dusyati karhicit) maybe a rosary (compare
on this subject, Leumann, Aupapatika, p. 72, and the same writer's "Rosaries mentioned
in Indian Literature", p. 888). Aksasutra, Rudraksa, Japamala, Ganettiya are not epic terms
and as aksamala appears in A. V. Parisista, 43, 4, II, this would seem to be the first
word used for the rosary. RG 6,82, 84 is late. Siva aksapriya, 12, 285, 47, is "fond of
dice"; cf. aksaih pramattah, I, 197, 15.
22O III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Pinakin from his bow, Tris"ulin and Trinetra (Tryaksa) from his trident and
eyes ; and generally these epithets are names only of him. But other gran
diose names are the epithets of other gods. Mahes"vara is Indra in I, 211,
23, where Siva becomes four-faced through staring at Tilottama; and in
I, 227, 29 Tridas"anam mahes"varah is also Indra. Of his four faces (ex
plained otherwise here) the pseudo-epic calls his southern face destructive
(13,141, if.; he also has four forms). He has a hundred tongues, a thousand feet,
etc. Three-eyed monsters are not uncommon and, till Krsna improved his ap
pearance, Sis"upala had three eyes and four arms (image of £iva, 2, 43,
i). Siva's third eye is like a sun on his brow (Virupaksa, 12, 343, 25;
13, 140, 34). &va has Raksasa characteristics also as kumbhakarna,
s-arikukarna, gokarna, etc. (3,84,157; 173,44; 12,285,75 and 83).
As husband of Uma, he is Umapati. She is Mahadevi Haimavati identi
fied with ParvatI as he is Mahadeva Giris"a, Girika, etc., as god of the
mountains. A festival to him as mountain-god is given in the spring-month
Vais"akha (lasts 34 days; he is Mahadeva, S I, 241, 69 f. ; B suppresses the
title, apparently because Krsna was the worshipper). In the South, his
fane at Gokarna was known as holy (both epics; gokarna as epithet).
Theological animus has varied the recipients of Tirtha honors. For example,
B at 3, 84, 129 has MaheSvara and Vrsadhvaja, but S has Vates"vara and
then KeSava as those honored. Most of Siva's titles are clear but Tryam-
baka, interpreted as^ "having three eyes" or "lord of three worlds" (H
7589), is doubtful. Siva is Ambikabhartr only in late passages. Possibly
"having three rivers", as Ganges is and Uma may be river; or, as in par-
vatas Tryambakah in v. 1. at R 7,46, 20 (cf. RG 4, 44, 46), ambaka
= Srnga (TriSrnga, cf. TrisTrsa), the "three-peaked mountain" being ori
ginally the god itself (triyambaka is metrical, S 2, 23, 36). If amba =
pupilla, the "three-eyed" meaning would agree with tradition. No three
"mothers" are known1), but this may be derived from the Rudra-Agni con
ception (Agni has three mothers in RV. 3, 56, 5?). Of ^doubtful meaning
also is Hinduka in 12, 285, 139. As carried on a bull, &va is Vrsavahana
(Bhava Girika, I, 197, 21). As ascetic god he is skull-wreathed (14, 8, 29),
worshipped by asceticism (i, 169, 8), and called virajo nirajo 'marafr
(13,17,148; but nlra-ja = moon), "passionless". A hekatomb of human
victims are prepared for him as ^amkara Pas~upati (2, 22, n; ib. 15, 23).
His festival in i, 143, 3f., is also a Pas~upati utsava, calling forth a great
samaja of worshippers (ib. 145, 34; the date would be about the beginning
of March).
§ 158. Although the latest parts of the epic (before the final chapters
of Santi) are devoted to Siva-worship, as if it rose in a new form to op
pose the exaggerated Narayana-Krsna cult, yet the passages in the earlier
books (cf. above and 7, 79, 4, where Arjuna offers the "regular nightly
offering" to Tryambaka) may indicate that there was not at first much anta
gonism between the sects. Siva is the Kuru-maker, lives with Kurus, 13,
17, 107. Each party believes in the supreme greatness of his own god,
but neither decries the other openly. As Devadeva, Rudra gives Arjuna
!) The simplest explanation of Tryambaka may be that Siva has not three mothers
but three Mother-goddesses (Gaurl, Kali, Uma;, who are called Ambikas, each originally
an Amba or Mother. These Mothers are known as a group of attendants and comprise
such forms (names) as MagadhT, showing a local cult, Bhadrakali (independent of Kali
= Bhadrakali, but originally the same), Vetalajaninl, Bhagananda (sexual), Bhavini (=
mother), etc. The list, as attendants of Skanda, is given in 9, 46, 3 f. Vetalas next appear
in H 14533; as matr, 9542; graha, 9562; Vetali is Durga, 10240.
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 221
his own raudram astram (3V 167, 47 f.; 173,42!".), and has a pretended
struggle to test the knight. Siva is here "snake-wearer, club-bearer, of
many forms, his ensign the bull, trident in hand ; he has three heads
(nine eyes), six arms, flame -(red) hair, is clothed in snakes"; but at
the same time is conventionally trinetra, three-eyed (elsewhere he has
"a thousand eyes"). Both passages call him by his ancient name Sarva.
Arjuna worships him, building him an altar, when the flowers thereon
appear on the god's head, who is described as "lord of all gods, blue-
necked, destroyer of Daksa's sacrifice", etc., and, finally, as "Visnu in form
of Siva, Siva in form of Visnu", or Harirudra, a dualism antecedent to
trinitarianism (3, 39, 76). He is "lord of weal, pure helper, guardian of
the bow, great lord of all beings, lord of hosts, ganes"a, destroyer of
impurity, a user of may a (illusion), bull-marked, of eleven forms, eka-
das~atanu, and of eight, astamurti" (3, 49, 4; ib. 8). He hides in holes
(13, 17,61); is Guha and Rahu; wears garlands, sports with Uma in the grove
north of Meru, unseen save by Siddhas (6, 6, 24 f.). In 10, 6, 3 f., As"vatthaman
is estopped from murder by the vision of a gigantic being, bright as the
sun or moon, clothed in tiger-skins, with snakes as armbands, with ter
rible fangs and thousands of eyes. This was Krsna as god. Then the
knight invoked the aid of the "god of gods, husband of Uma, decked with
skulls, called Kapardin, Hara, Rudra, Bhaganetrahara". As "the mighty
boon-giver, white-necked, living in crematoria, having all forms, whose
club is a post, smiter of Tripura, blue-necked, red-haired, who is fond
of courtiers, leader of ghosts, dear to Gauri, overseer of treasure, father
of Kumara, clothed in space, wearer of the moon" (etc., epithets already
noted; 10, 7, n), as "Brahman and as £akra", Siva appears (as does Uma),
surrounded with his Bhuts, "over-short and over-long", deformed in all
ways. What is lacking here and above is almost more important than
what is supplied, viz., all reference to Siva as the phallic god, such as
he is described in later passages. The Parisadas are the manifold forms
of him they worship and are sexually deformed, brhacchephandapin-
dikah (10, 7, 39), as they are "huge-bellied", etc., but in the description
of the god the Linga attributes are lacking. The Mahaparisadas of Rudra
are described again in 9, 45, 104 f., as long-necked (etc.) linguists with
pendent bellies, etc., pralambodaramehanah (ib. 97), five-tufted, three-
tufted, cock-faced, etc., attendants of Siva's son Skanda (their faces are
those of animals). It is as destructive rather than reproductive energy
that Siva is famed; hence "slayer of animals", and the battle-ground of
death is his playground (7, 19, 35; cf. akridam iva Rudrasya pur a
'bhyardayatah pas"un). His fists are like Sakra's bolts; he blazes in
glory as he burns Tripura (3, 39, 56; 7, 156, 135). As god of procreation
he grants the boon of a son and is worshipped expressly for this pur
pose by Drupada (5, 188, 3; cf. 7; 144, 15 f.; I, no, 9). A distinction is
made between Siva and Rudra. Siva created Brahman and Visnu from
his right and left side, (respectively, for purposes of creation and preser
vation), and he created Rudra as Kala (13, 14, 347 f.); hence Rudra is
usually his devastating form; it is Rudra who makes the demoniac arms
of Raksasas (the eight -wheeled bolt, 7, 175, 96). Rudrani with Sasthf
(Gauri?) also separate the female powers of the two (2, 11,41). Mystically
Rudra is Agni (q. v. and cf. 13, 85, 88 f.). Rudra is born when crime is
committed, like a portentous storm of wind (12, 73, 17 f.; 341, 37, as one
of eleven Rudras ; cf. ib. 285, 19). A later passage than that cited above
222 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
first introduces £iva as a phallic god, where, as Rudra, the god "dis
carded his Liuga" (10, 17, 22). In 12, 47, 80 (as Krsna) and 166, 25 f., he
appears with four arms, three eyes, black, yellow, and the third sunlike,
and mahalinga (ib. 48). So in 13, 17, 77, &va, identified with Nandfs"vara,
Nandin, Nandana, is four-faced and mahalinga, carulinga, lingadhy-
aksa, and ib. 46, urdhvaretas, urdhvalinga. Another late passage,
which gives him a rosary (7, 201, 6gf.; cf. 12,285, IO°) an<3 makes him
the All-god and god of a thousand eyes, arms, legs, and heads, says that
he creates in Linga-form (7,201, 93 and 96); by his divine Linga the
worlds are increased; it is worshipped by gods, seers, Gandharvas, and
Apsarasas; and MaheSvara rejoices when his heavenly Linga is revered;
he is Sthanu because sthitalinga (ib. 202, I24f. and 133): "He who al
ways reveres the Linga obtains great happiness" (ib. 140). That this long
passage is a late addition to Drona1) may easily be shown. It contains a
reference to the "two bodies" (cf. 13, 162, 3 f.), has the sthiraliiiga of
13, 162, n, and the late dhurjati (7, 202, 129), etc. The "two bodies"
in themselves are the dve tanu called ghora and Siva or saumya, fire,
lightning, and sun being the first body, and stars, water, and moon the
second. Drona replaces vidyut with Visnu as one form of the horrible
body, as stars ("heavenly lights") interchange with virtue as a kind form
(on Diva's invention of Death, see 12, 258; he is lightning, and sun and
moon). Siva has two lauds (cf. 12, 285, 71), one giving him a thousand
and the other a thousand and eight titles (13, 17, 130 as tala or foun
dation), both marked by late Puranic elements (Manvantaras, Lokaloka
worlds, tanmatras created by Siva, recognition of the KrsnastamI;
cf. 13, 14, 211, etc.). Krsna here worships Siva (to get his son Samba by
JambavatI). Siva's ornaments are Nagas, worn as ear-rings and girdle ; his
clothes are of snake-skin; his arms are club, bow (snake), sword, axe,
and trident; also the discus (from Visnu), 13, 14, i54f-'> cf. ib. 160, if.
The crescent-moon is on his brow, ib. 253.
§ 159. The pseudo-epic describes in detail Siva and his many great
acts. He inspired sundry authors, "makers of books and Sutras"; even
Savarni was made a granthakrt. He made Indra king of Devas at Be
nares, and promised Narada the post of musician to himself, the "naked
ash-strewn god" (digvasa bhasmagunthitali, 13, 14, loif.; 105). As
(above) he has four arms (instead of six), so he has six faces instead of
four; he is seen and not seen (drs~yate 'drs~yate ca 'pi, negative verb) ;
naked he sports with daughters and wives of saints; has a huge sepha;
sometimes rides a white elephant with red ears and four tusks; he is
"beyond the reach of logical argument"; his worshipper needs no logic
but should be willing to become worm or bird or beast at his wish. He
*) On the source of Linga-worship, see Stevenson in JRAS. , 8, 330; Lassen, Indian
Antiquities, 1,524; and the discussion in OST. 4, 406 f. There is no evidence that Linga-
worship was adopted by Brahmanic priests in early days. As creative god, however, nothing
was more natural than for Rudra-Siva even as representing Agni bhutadi to exhibit
himself in this form. The usual theory (Muir agrees with the authors cited above) is that
the savage cult of wild tribes as sisn a- worshippers lent phallicism to Brahmanism, but
I do not know of any wild tribes that were distinguished by the use of this emblem in
the epic, whereas Siva was a god invoked for procreative purposes and both he and
Kubera are not without priapine elements likely to become symbolised among a people
never very shy of sexual matters. It may be that the usual theory is right but it lacks
confirmation. At any rate the Linga is late in its appearance in literature; it certainly is
not an early epic trait. Siva is Vamadeva, 17, 14, 71 ; H 14842.
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 223
is half male and half female. He is the best god, because other gods
worship his Linga. All creatures bear the male or female sign, hence
all are Diva's creatures. If they were Visnu's or Brahman's or Indra's, they
would be marked with discus, lotus, or thunderbolt! But the universe is
all male and female, pullinga and striliiiga, dve tanu, belonging to
&va or Devi, who is the female part of Siva. He gives Vasudeva "six
teen and eight" boons; around him stand eleven hundred Rudras and seven
Manus ; but he is above the seven winds and seven fires ; his forms are
"diseases and sorrows and vices", for he embraces all. His forms are
three, tanavas tisrah, Kala, Purusa, Brahman, with the overman, adhi-
purusa, as fourth. His eight forms are water, fire, priest, sun, moon,
space, earth and wind; he is the eight elements, seven worlds, seven seers,
the all, the kastha and kala, and the five ways of salvation (ib. 16, 65,
cf. Kath. Up. 3, n). Probably mahanga in 13, 17, 83f., where new titles
are found, is one with mahalinga. He is here maker of Vedas, tridas"a
and dvadas"a, higher than grammar, etc. etc. His fondness for dancing
and music is dwelt upon, nrtyapriyo nityanarto nartakah sarva-
lalasah (ib. 50), mahanrtya (117); he is leonine, and a tiger (vyaghro
vyaghres"varanama Kalingarupah, refers to an image in Kalinga, N.) ;
he here has mules as his steeds; ten golden arms; carries ten weapons;
is gajahan (at Benares, ib. 48). As creator he is identified with ViSva-
karman in 12, 285, 59, but as one who sacrificed (cf. 269, 21, of Prajapati)
in the great universal sacrifice (of SB. 13, 7, I, 14) after his birth from earth.
§ 160. Siva's weapons are Pas"upata or Brahmaslras, with which he
killed demons and will destroy the world (given to Arjuna!); the Pinaka,
a club or bow (explained 13, 14, 256, as bow) made of serpents (cf. Aja-
gava, 3, 126, 34; 7, 145, 94); the trident called Vijaya, etc. The bull is
his usual vehicle and Devi Uma rides with him. It is driven by Kala and
was given Siva by Brahman, also by Daksa. The early epic, in distinction
from the fantastic account of the pseudo-epic, recognises Siva as an as
cetic god granting boons chiefly as reward of asceticism and famous for
a few great acts. He destroyed Tripura, the three cities of demons, hence
Tripurantakara, etc. He slew many demons but especially Andhaka (9,
17 ') 4-8, etc., sometimes confused with Antaka). He knocked out Bhaga's
eyes and burned Kama (12, 190, 10) and destroyed Daksa's sacrifice. He
received Ganges as she fell from the sky (6, 6, 31). His vehicle in going
to attack Tripura is drawn by a thousand lions (3, 231, 29). On destroy
ing Daksa's sacrifice, because not invited, &va shot the sacrifice, that fled
as a deer, broke Savitr's arms, kicked out Pusan's teeth, and destroyed
Bhaga's eyes, paralysing all the gods who failed to honor him (cf. 10, 18).
He was assisted by Uma as Bhadrakali, and by Virabhadra, and other
(Raumya) spirits born of Siva's hair-pits (12, 285, 34 f.). His wrath pro
duced Jvara, Fever (12, 284, 47). Another account (13, 77, 20 f.) makes Siva
annoyed with Daksa for creating cows, but he accepts the bull from him.
£iva is type of the Yogins who have the "eightfold lordship", and im
parts this as a boon to Jaiglsavya at Benares; but also he represents arts
and literature, imparting the sixty -four divisions of Kalajnana to Garga
(other boons also recorded here, 13, 18, 2f., won by repeating the god's
1008 names). He is the inspirer of artists (etc., sarvas"ilpapravartaka,
12, 285, 148). For his relation to Brahman, see § 138.
Historically, the most important facts are his identity with Visnu, but
at the same time the absence of trinitarian interpretation, except in one
224 HI. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
late passage (3,272,47) as three avasthati of Prajapati (cf. H 10662);
the virtual absence of Ganes"a (§ 145; cf. 3, 39, 79 as epithet of £iva); the
rare mention of the rosary (3, 112, 5, Rsyas~rnga, late; cf. § 157); and the
late references to Linga (above). Also the late form Parvati (below). Not
unimportant too is the fact that &va appears as patron of arts and lit
erature only in the later epic. S 12, 122 makes Siva the author of all
literature. As teacher ^iva is found in 2, 78, 15. His "law-treatise" called
Vaisalaksa from his epithet is referred to (12, 58, 2; 59, 82). Only in
H 14841 is he Kanada.
§ 161. Uma, wife of &va, is known as Parvati (her modern name)
only in a few late passages (R I, 36, 21, Sailasuta Parvati, in an added
vs.; R 7, 13, 23 has the parallel Rudram; Mbh. 3, 231, 49; 7, 80, 40; 9,
45, 53; 10, 7, 46). Her birth as "daughter of Himavat", whence this name,
is recognised everywhere. Hariv. and Puranas call her Parvati repeatedly
(H also Tryaksapatni, vs. 10000). Common are synonyms, Giriputri, Giri-
rajaputri, ^ailarajaputri, Nagarajaputri, Girija, Nagakanya, Girisa, Parva-
tarajakanya (R 3, 16, 43; Mbh. S I, 172, 28; I, 187, 4). Her old name is
Uma (Kena 25, Uma Haimavati, etc.; in Up. no Parvati occurs before the
late Hamsa). R 6,60, n has Uma; RG 5, 89, 7, Umasahayo deveSah
(not in the Bombay text; all other Uma passages in R cited in PW. lacking
in this text except for the first book); Mbh. 3, 37, 33, "Hri, Sri, Kirti,
Dyuti, Pusti, Uma, LaksmI, and Sarasvati protect thee" ; 9,45, 13; ib. 46,
49. .H 946, derives U-ma from "don't", as her mother Mena thus addressed
her (then called Aparna) for being austere, ^iva is Umadhava, Umapati,
Umasahaya (i, 215, 21; 3, 38, 32, etc.). Devi and MaheSvari usually refer
to her (5, in, 9, etc.). Vis"akha reveres her as Girivaratmaja ^ailaputri
(9, 44, 39). She lectures on the duties of good women (13, 146, 33 f.),
being called here Surakaryakari and LokasamtanakarinT, "doer of the gods'
work", "peopling earth" (ib. n). As Parvati she is accompanied by Gauri
and other inferior female divinities (3, 231,48). She is younger sister of
Ganges, whence £iva received Ganges on his head and held her there a
hundred thousand years (6, 6, 31; see § 4). As Garni she is sister of Va-
sudeva and in this form inhabits the southern mountains. She is called
BhadrakalT and Mahakall, Mahes"van, and Durga, Great Death, Great Sleep
(Mahanidra), and has, as female part of £iva, his characteristics, being
cruel and kind ; as slayer she is Kaitabhanas"im, Mahisasrkpriya (rejoicing
in the blood of the demons she slays, 6, 23, 8). The Durgastotra gives
her family relations, Nandagopakulodbhava, Gopendrasyanuja, Katyayani,
Kaus"ikl ; she is also Sakambhan (corn-mother). As Savitri Vedamatr, she
usurps the place of older goddesses. She lives not only in Himavat but
all over the land, in deserts and under earth, and conquers as war-goddess
(6, 23, 8f.). But she is unknown as Durga except in H and two late hymns,
4, 6, if.; and 6, 23, 2 f., where she is Bhuvanes"varl, YaSodagarbhasam-
bhuta, Vasudevasya bhaginf and lives in Vindhya. She is fond of drink
and flesh and her name Durga is a lucus a non, because she saves from
durga, difficulty (4,6, 20). Her sign is a peacock's tail; she wears di
adem and snakes, with the usual jewels. She has four arms and faces
(also two arms), and carries bow, discus, noose, and other weapons, as
well as lotus, bell, and dish. She saves from robbers and death and is
the "pure woman on earth". As Khadgakhetadharinl, she carries sword
and shield (late words). Added to the arms above, this makes her eight-
armed (so N.), though said to be caturbhuja. She is the "pure light-
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 225
ener of burdens", identified with Fame, Beauty, Success, Patience, Modesty,
and Wisdom (common abstractions) and with Samtati and Mati (the former
new) as with Twilight, Dawn, Night, Sleep, Lustre (Jyotsna), Grace, En
durance, and Pity. She is addressed as Mandaravasini Kumarl (cf. Como-
rin), Kali Kapall (kapila krsnapingala, 6,23,4); sne is candl and
can da (ib. 5), feminines of Siva's and Skanda's epithets. The great dif
ference between the two lauds (both awkward insets) is that, in Virata,
Durga is the sister of Krsna and wife of Narayana and is invoked as if
she had nothing to do with Siva; while in BhTsma she is identified with
Uma (see later, H 3268f.). Durga is also Jatavedasi, and Kali was ori
ginally a flame-name (Mund. Up. I, 2, 4). In these lauds, Mahakall, syno
nym of Bhadrakalf Durga, is elsewhere Parvati or Devi; but Mahadevi
may also be Laksmi (wife of Visnu), as in 13, 62, 6. She may be meant
in the Tfrthas called Kanya and Anaraka (3, 83, 112; 84, 136, Kanya-
samvedya, sacred to the Virgin, as in Kanyas~rama, ib. 83, 189). The later
epic adds a Kanyakupa and -hrada (13, 25, 19 and 53). Here too be
longs the cult of Kokamukha (ib. 52) for this means Durga (6, 23, 8,
"wolf-faced, loving loud laughter, fond of battles"). Devi's popularity,
Mahesvari, is largely due to her being interpreted as goddess of desire,
a Venus (14, 43, 15, Bhagadevanuyatanam mahesvarf mahadevi
Parvati hi sa). Durga is a late adoption of Visnuism; originally a goddess
worshipped by savages (Savaras, Barbaras, Pulindas, H 3274). In H 10235
she is called (GautamI) "Sister of Indra and Visnu". The identity of
Gaurl and Durga is not obvious. Gauri is at first wife of Varuna (q. v.).
But in 3, 84; 151, she is the great goddess of the mountain-peak, Mahadevf.
At 3, 84, 97, for the well-known phrase, "Go to Gaya or sacrifice with a
horse", S has Gaurim va varayet kanyam (S 82, 96, repeated S 85,
10). Gauri accompanies Parvati ^3, 231,48), who is Uma and rides with
Pasupati Mahadeva; in whose train are "Gauri, Vidya, . . Savitri", who
"walk behind Parvati", as the Vijaya weapon walks incorporate here and
Rudra's spear (pattiSa). S 2,9,7, a\so makes Gauri wife of Varuna and
in 13, 146, 10, the word means earth. Gaurisa is Siva (14, 8, 30), who is
here identified with Anaiiga, Krsna, etc. (as in H 10658). In R 5,49, II
and R 7, 25, 2, the minister Nikumbha may be connected with the Caitya
Nikumbhila (ib. 6, §4, 13) which in turn gets its name from "dancing Ni-
kumbhila" (R 5» 24, 47, with brandy-offerings), whom Indrajit should re
vere (cf. R 6, 87, 30). The goddess revered is Bhadrakali (R 6, 85, nf.),
and "dancing Nikumbhila" means dancing the goddess (worshipping her),
§ 162. Uma is a "pitiful goddess" and, for example, persuades Siva
to imitate Rama and restore Jambuka (Sambuka) to life (12, 153, 114, Siva
weeps); though Siva himself is really kind, and especially in the later
epic appears as the holy comforter. Thus to comfort Vyasa for the death
of his son ^uka, Rudra-Siva gives the father "a shadow like his son and
never leaving him", which only the bereaved father may see (chaya
anapaga sada, a shadow-soul, 12, 334, 38); so Galava, going to his
widowed mother, by grace of MaheSvara saw his father alive again (a
vision, 13, 1 8, 58). The moral of his grace is that "even after committing
all crimes, men by mental worship of Siva are freed from sin" (ib. 65 f.).
As a child in the lap of Uma, he who is "lord of all mothers", paralyses
Indra (7, 202, 85). §iva in female form causes a female condition in his
neighbourhood, which converts Ila into Ila (R 7, 87, 12); it is his northern
form which sports with Uma (13, 141, if.). According to 12, 343, 25 f.,
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b. 15
226 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
Diva's neck was made blue because Us"anas's snaky locks bit him, or be
cause Narayana throttled him (ib. 115), and his third eye (whence "Viru-
paksa") was caused by Daksa's austerity; but in 13, 140, 34, Uma covers
his two eyes in sport, whereat a third eye breaks out on his forehead
(H 7592 explains the blue neck from Indra's axe smiting him). A name
of Gaurf is Ambika, and Ambika lokadhatrl, that is the world-upholding
female principle, is a late title of Siva. Uma appears as a female forester
in company with Siva as mountaineer (3, 39); he is her darling, Gau-
rihrdayavallabha (10, 7, 8). It was her jealousy which roused Siva to
destroy Daksa's sacrifice. Mahesvara himself says that it is the custom
to exclude him from sacrifice and seems to be indifferent, till Uma rouses
him (12, 284 — 285; Mahadeva here is only one of eleven Rudras and only
Dadhlci worships him). Siva himself is called Gaura (7, 80, 39) as he
sits with Parvati and hosts of Bhuts, with matted locks and trident in
hand, while music and dancing and noise of song and laughter and shout
ing are going on around them, and is extolled as Ambikabhartr (ib. 59).
The two, Siva and Uma, become visible only at the end of every Yuga
(3, 130, 14) and may be propitiated in Kashmir at the lake Vatikasanda
(or -khanda). The account of Jarasandha and the flinging of the mace
(99 leagues from Girivraja to Gadavasana near Mathura) show that Sivaism
flourished in the North (Kashmir) and East (Benares, Magadha) as opposed
to Krsnaism (Mathura to Surat). The story how Rudra got Uma away from
Bhrgu is told in 12, 343, 62 (here too the saint's curse on Himavat). Their
marriage is told in 13, 84, 71, where Uma curses the gods for trying to
keep Rudra from her (see also § 24). Dialogues between the spouses are
reported in 13, 140, 2f. ; 12, 236, 29 f. In the latter in S, Uma is told by Siva
that he is enjoyer and she enjoyed, he soul and she body, he the real
thing and she the sakti, and nature as s"akti is the universe (he is eight
fold in form, and with eight connections, astamurti, astasamdhivi-
bhusita). Oddly enough, it is as "son of Brahman" that &va, s"rikantha>
proclaims his Pasupata religion (12, 350, 67).
All these forms of Uma (= Amma, the great mother-goddess) go
back to the primitive and universal cult of the mother-goddess (cf. Aditi),
who in popular mythology appears as Kalamma and as Ellamma, that is
as destructive or as kind. Although Kali (as syama) shows that the popular
etymology connects Kali with "black", it is probable that the goddess
in this form is related rather to Kali, the genius of destruction. Her
appellation Bhadrakali (epic above, and Manu, 3, 89) euphemises the name
(Camunda is a later name, not epic). Her modern cult represents her with
four or eight hands. The cult of the disease-goddess in the epic is ex
panded in modern times into a definite cult of Mari-amma as "destructive"
(£itala, etc.) sickness (a goddess). The connection of Parasu-Rama with
the ^iva-cult is maintained to the present day, the temples of Kali having
a special shrine to this Rama, owing to the legend that his wife Renuka
was revived by her head being placed on the body of a Pariah woman.
The goddess Ellamma (= sarvamba) is recognised a's the "goddess with
the head of Renuka", while Paras"u-Rama adores Ambika (Ellamma). ')
l) Compare Gustav Oppert, Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1905, p. 726 f. Oppert
derives Uma from amma (Original Inhabitants of India, p. 421). It is interesting
to note that Ellamma in modern mythology becomes the mother of the Trimurti, hatching
out the three gods as a hen. The part played by serpents in her worship connects her
with the Nagas. See Oppert (Ztschr. fur Ethn. 1905, p. 729). The local forms become in the
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 227
§ 163. Skanda belongs to Siva through a doubtful sonship but more
through his characteristics. He reverts in his earlier form to respectable
antiquity and the fact that the Gita recognises him as chief of army-leaders,
when £ankara is only chief of Rudras (6, 34, 23 f.), together with his
identification with Sanatkumara in Chand. Up. 7, 26, 2, seems to show that
he is not an intruded deification of Alexander. He is not mentioned enough
in the early epic to indicate that he is important, but, as is the case with
Durga, when exploited he is lauded ad nauseam. This too looks as if
he were not a late addition to the epic but a god rapidly increasing in
importance, as the epic expanded, or more particularly as the Siva-cult
expanded. The reason is indeed obvious. Siva had no use for Visnu and
Indra; he needed a new battle-leader of the gods, and for this chose
Kumara (Skanda), son of Agni, and made him at once his own son and
leader of the gods in battle. The genealogy (i, 66, 23 f.) makes Kumara
son of Agni, and Agni is called (2, 31, 44) both Kumarasu and Rudra-
garbha. As mothered by the Krttikas he is (R 3, 12, 20) Karttikeya (Pavaki).
His forms as brothers or sons are Sakha, ViSakha (= Skanda in 3, 232, 7)
and Naigameya (i, 66, 24; "Prsthaja" is a fourthv traditional error); but
the later epic makes Skandavisakha a title of Siva and Visakha inter
changes with Skanda (epithet of Siva, 13, 17, 72). Whose son Skanda
was, is debated in the epic itself: "Some explain him as son of Pitamaha,
Sanatkumara, eldest born of Brahman (so 12, 37, 12); some say he is son
of Mahesvara ; some say he is son of Agni (Vibhavasu); some say he is
son of Uma; some say he is son of the Krttikas jTleiades); some say he
is son of Ganges" (9, 46, 98 f.). In the laud of Siva, 13, 14, Skanda ap
pears "like Agni", beside Uma, riding on a peacock and holding a bell
and javelin (vs. 378). Exclusively his are the epithets Guha, Kumara,
Karttikeya, Pavaki, Mahasena, except as Visnu or Siva appropriate them.
He is son of Agni and son of Ganges, as the former is associated with the
Krttikas and the latter with Rudra. He is Guha as a mysterious being
(sarvaguhyamaya, i, 137, 13). Siva is Guha in 13, 17, 150.
Still another tradition makes Skanda the son of Revati (3, 232, 6,
Svaheyo Revatlsutah), i. e. selects the special wives of Agni and of
Kama, as Agni, to be his mothers. Rohltaka, "a pleasant land, rich in
cattle and corn and beloved by Karttikeya" (2, 32, 4) is inhabited by the
Mad-Peacock folk, Mattamayurakas, and lies in the West, perhaps a Maurya
realm (conquered by Karna, 3, 254, 20). The peacock is the god's in
variable emblem. Skanda's birth from the Krttikas is explained in R I,
37, 28 (sadanana, the "six-faced" god). Ram. knows also the tale of his
rjiercing Mt. Kraufica (R 4, 43, 26 and R 6, 67, 19, as Guha). He is here
Sikhigata, "riding a peacock" (R 6, 69, 30) and is armed with javelin
(called Karttikeya in R 4, 8, 22 and RG ^4, 44, 72; Skanda invoked in
mangala, R 2, 25, n). His birth-place, Saravana, is where Ila became
a woman (R 7, 63, 14 and 87, 10, Mahasena as Subrahmanya, Schol.).
§ 164. Skanda's birth is narrated at length in 9, 43—46. Manes' vara's
energy being dissipated fell on fire but merely enhanced Agni's power,
who flung it as seed into Ganges. She in turn cast it upon Himavat,
"adored by the immortals", and the six Krttikas nursed the child, who
developed six mouths to suck them. He lay on a s"arastamba of gold
end all manifestations of Uma, just as the follower of Siva called VIrabhadra (12, 285, 34)
is only a local genius raised eventually to be a form of Siva with four, sixteen, or two
thousand hands (ib.), and as Khandoba is now a form of Siva (ib. p. 724).
15*
228 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
(the mountain then became golden). Apsarasas danced about the child and
the gods adored it, as Brhaspati performed the birth-rites. Fourfold Veda
and Dhanur-Veda and Music attended him. He approached Rudra (Siva,
devesa, pinakin) in the form of ^Skanda; Uma, daughter of Girivara
(Himavat), as Visakha; Agni, as Sakha (vayumurti, in wind-form);
Ganges, as Naigameya (thus caturmurti, 9, 44, 37). His birth-place is
old (Pan. 6, 3, 16, sareja = s"araja must refer to this). It becomes a
proper name of the place, and is often alluded to, 6, 122, 3; n, 23, 18,
etc. Brahman bestowed leadership over the gods' army upon Skanda and
he was installed on the Sarasvati (9, 44, 49; consecration, ib. 45, if.).
He was like fire, ascetic, and endowed with Yoga power, also fair as the
moon (ib. 44, I7f.). His attendants resemble those of Siva, malformed
animal-headed sprites and the seven hosts of Mothers, fiends of varied
vindictiveness. Several Tirthas celebrate him (3, 83, 165; 84, 145; 85, 60).
Allusions to Karttikeya as senapati are common (5, 165, 7; 6, 50, 33,
etc.). His six faces, sanmukha, sadvaktra, sadanana, are transferred
(epithet) to Siva but seem to be original with Skanda as Karttikeya. His
birth was due primarily to the need of leader in the Tarakamaya war,
where he crushed the gods opposed, as he slew demons, even Mahisa,
who was slain by other gods also but assigned to Skanda (8, 5, 57; cf.
7, 166, 16, Mahisam sanmukho yatha). He is twelve-armed (12, 122,
32). His peacock is his battle-emblem. Kama's son Vrsasena (a Maurya
name) has as standard a peacock which stood "as if about to crow, like
that of Skanda" (7, 105, 17). He is known as disperser of the Asuri
prtana, either as Karttikeya, Pavaki, Mahasena, or Skanda (7, 159, 43;
9, 6, 20 f.). The later epic relates that when challenged to raise his spear
Prahlada failed; only Visnu could move it; none could brandish it (12,
328, 8f.). Gifts at his birth were given by the gods: Garuda gave him
the peacock; Aruna, a fiery cock; the Moon, a sheep; Raksasas, a boar
and buffalo; Agni, a goat, etc. So he grew up and killed Taraka (13, 86,
u f.; sadanana, dvisadaksa, dvadas"abhuja, ib. 86, i8f.). His names
are derived from the circumstances of his birth (ib. 86, 14, skannatvat
Skandatam prapto guhavasad Guho 'bhavat). He lives where Saras-
vat! appears at Plaksaraja (or under such a tree, 9, 43, 49). On the re
lation between Skanda and Agni (§ 49 f.) see 13, 84, 78 f., where Rudra's
seed falling on Agni produces Kama, Love as form of eternal Will: sana-
tano hi samkalpah Kama ity abhidhlyate (ib. 85, n). As Kumara
is a form of Agni and Agni is the "leaper", plavamga, the name Skanda,
if not from the leaping goat (below), may have originated from the leaping
(skand) of his "son". Cf. 2, 31, 44, where Fire is invoked as plavamgati
. . Kumarasuh. In H 9814^, Skanda protects Bana, who is "friend of
Rudra and Skanda". Compare I, 65, 20, Bana as follower of Rudra. But
in 9, 46, 90, Skanda kills Bana (yet see p. 48).
§ 165. Skanda not only slew Taraka, Mahisa, Tripada, Hradodara,
and Bana (son of Bali), but he pierced Mt. Kraunca and split it with the
dart given him by Agni (9, 46, 84; but ib. 44, given by Indra), because
Bana had sought refuge in that mountain. All were destroyed by the
lightning flashes of the great javelin (a Saktyastra "very bright and
noisy, adorned with bells") and by the noises and yawnings (jrmbhama-
nabhih) of Skanda's infernal hosts. Skanda made himself multiform. In
this account Skanda is throughout the son of Agni and nothing is said of
his leading one division of the army of &va, as in Vana, where oiva says
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 229
to him, "Guard thou the seventh Maruta-skandha" (3, 231, 55 f.). The latter
passage contains his formal titles, many being Diva's, such as Amogha,
Bhutesa, Canda, Anamaya, Kamajit. The rest are complimentary, "hero,
glorious, swift, pure, ascetic, fair, good"; he is "dear" and "fond of
Visvamitra and Vasudeva"; Mayuraketu, "peacock-bannered", etc. Indra
cannot kill him. As child he is sisu, balakridanakapriya, lalita;
Matrvatsala, as darling of the wild Mothers. None of the fifty odd
epithts assign him sonship in Siva, only making him son of Gaiiga and
Agni's wives and of Agni; but this is probably due to the passage being
a laud of Agni. He is called here Sasthipriya; and his play with the cock,
his possession of conch and bow, his "six" hands and six faces are
mentioned 3, 225, 25 f. He is not called Subrahmanya in any epic passage
(a Southern epithet), but, like Visnu, he is Brahmanya, Brahmes'aya, Brah-
mavit, and Brahmaja; as fire too he is "six-flamed", sadarcis; also he
has a thousand members, heads, faces, arms, and feet (S by v. 1. makes
him hold ten javelins, dasasaktidharin); he is identified with Svaha and
Svadha (ib. 232, iof.). His attendants are war-imps in 9, 45, but disease-
demons, grahas, in 3, 230, 26 f. They include Putana and other foes of
children and of men, nightmares, fevers, etc., personified, also tree-spirits,
nurses of Skanda, who are kind; but some are horrible and eat human
flesh (S 3, 231, i6f., Vrksaka nama; B Vrddhika). They are distributed
over gods, Manes, and Saints, as Devagrahas, etc., as well as Raksasa-
grahas, Paisacagrahas, Yaksagrahas. Skanda here is called Krttikasuta and
son of Rudra, and his wife is Devasena, sister of Daityasena, ravished by
Kesin. In defence of Devasena, Indra wounded Kesin. Her mother was
sister of Indra's mother, a daughter of Daksa. Indra sought a husband for
Devasena and, when Skanda was born and had conquered the world in
six days, presented her to the youthful god. Brhaspati married them and
she is his queen and has various names, SasthT, Laksmi, Asa, Sukhaprada,
Sinivali, Kuhu, Sadvrtti, Aparajita. Sripancami is the blessed fifth day on
which Sri in person blessed him, and the sixth day also is his great day,
mahatithi, because he then accomplished his aim (3, 229, 52). The
account of his birth here gives a description of his six faces, one of
which was that of a goat (see also Agni). Visvamitra first "accepted him"
and performed for him the thirteen auspicious rites and instituted his
worship (on the fifth day of the bright fortnight of the Krttikas' month).
Agni, as a goat-faced naigameya, soothed and amused him. Seven
Mothers guarded him, Kakf, Halima, Malini, Brmhita, Arya, Palala, Vai-
mitra (v. 1. in S). Clear is here the posteriority of his relationship to £iva :
Rudrasunum tatati prahur Guham, "after this they called Guha the
son of Rudra" (3, 229, 28). The Vana account is mystical and late in many
ways. The javelin here becomes a potency, s'akti; the imps of war be
comes diseases; the Mothers take the place in number as in nurture of
the original mothers. Disease-demons and dog-shaped imps afflicting chil
dren are not new, but their assignment to Skanda marks a late phase.
Skanda is a composite god. First there is Agni Kumara the "ever youthful",
with whom first Skanda was formally identified. On the other hand, as
son of Agni, Skanda was identified with all burnings (fevers) and other
afflictions. The god who represented fire and affliction was naturally
associated with the troops of afflicting beings grouped about £iva and so
became "son of Siva", the more readily as the "hidden" god of mystery
was naturally associated with the hidden places of the mountains (Guha
230 III. RELIGION, WELTL. WISSENSCH. u. KUNST. IB. EPIC MYTHOLOGY.
and guhya; cf. Kubera). The "holiest night" is KarttikI (3, 182, 16). As
the association of six-faced Skanda with the six mother-stars seems as
old a trait as any, it may be well to derive the name Karttikeya from the
stars themselves, who are the divinity of the Sword (War) and regents
directly of war, as well as those who govern the month when war begins
(3, 230, n, S has sakatakaram for saptasirsam; cf. 12, 166, 82), as
it sometimes does (2, 23, 29). ViSakha may derive from the fever-time
beginning with the month Vais"akha, but Sakha (unless from Visakha) is
not clear and Naigameya is not necessarily (naigamesa) a sheep-head
form. These names like Chagavaktra come from a time when different
imps were regarded as sons of the great "leaper", who eventually, as
identical with Siva, becomes "creator of gods", etc. (3, 231, in; 232, I4f.).
After Skanda's birth, the gods feared and opposed him; but then the
Mothers suckled him and Agni being kind, s"iva, protected him (3, 226,
26). Possible Agni as siva may have furthered the fatherhood of Siva,
but the general agreement in nature between the fiery burning spirit of
fever, love, and wounds and Siva's own original nature had more to do
with it. The native explanation of his forms is that when Indra's bolt
touched Skanda, another spirit Visakha arose from its 'entering' vis"ana
(3, 227, 17), and that in the same way all the child-seizers (sicknesses)
as Kumarakas are Skanda's children. Owing to their power over children
all who desire offspring revere Svaha as Uma and Siva as Agni as the
"goat-faced" (C 3, 14391 has Rudram Agnim; B and S have Rudram
Agnimukham). Here the Chagarnukha is some "goat" form spirit identified
with Skanda, who may himself be a leaping goat in his first form, ob
viously as goat a good genius of children (and their production), Bhadra-
sakha, which is called the sixth form of the god. As the goat is the animal
sacred to Prajapati as Agni, it is, so to speak, the sanctified form of the
productive spirit whether as god or as demoniac power.
The attendants given by the various gods to Skanda (Jvalanasunu
and Agniputra) are mentioned in 9, 45, 30 f.: Yama gave him Unmatha
and Pramatha; Surya gave Subhraja and Bhasvara; Soma gave Mani and
Sumani ; Agni gave Jvalajihva and Jyotis; Ams"a gave Parigha, Vata, Bhlma,
Dahati, and Dahana; Vasava, Utkros"a and Satkara or (v. 1.) Pancaka ; Visnu
gave Cakra, Vikramaka, and Cankrama; the As"vins, Vardhana_and Nan-
dhana; Dhatr gave five, Kunda, Kusuma, Kumuda, Dambara, Adambara;
Tvastr gave Cakra and Anucakra (meghacakrau) ;*) Mitra gave Su-
vrata and Satyasandha; Vidhatr gave Suprabha and Subhakarman; Pusan
gave Panltaka and Kalika (or Panika); Vayu gave Bala andAtibala; Va-
runa gave Yama and Atiyama; Himavat gave Suvarcas and Ativarcas;
Meru gave Kancana, Meghamalin, Sthira, and Atisthira; Vindhya gave
Ucchrnga and Atisrriga; Samudra gave Samgraha and Vigraha; ParvatI
gave Unmada, Sankukarna, and Puspadanta; Vasuki gave two (Nagas),
Jaya and Mahajaya.2) The Sadhyas, Rudras, Vasus, Pitrs, Sagaras, rivers
and mountains also gave "armed overseers of the army", characteristic
names of them being Krsna, Upakrsnaka,Nanda,Upanandaka, Dvadas"abhuja,
Bana, Mesa, DvadaSaksa, Hari, Caturdamstra, Kalinga, Siddhartha, Svastika,
Gayana, Vaitalin, Kathaka, Vatika, Yajnavaha, Devayajin, Somapa, Man-
mathakara, Jambuka, Sambuka, and Jambuka, representing devotees, de-
J) S has vakranuvakrau mesavakrau.
2) S, for nagau Jvalanasunave has Gafiga-Jvalanasunave (Vasuki is pan-
nag esvar ah); ib. 24, Brahman gives four (Nandisena, etc.).
IX. THE THREE SUPREME GODS. 231
formities, arts, and abstractions, for the most part. Krsna and Hari as
servants of Skanda betray the sectarian. Minjika and Minjika form a pair
of spirits begotten by Rudra and worshipped by those desiring wealth or
health (3, 231, 10 — 15). *)
§ 166. The union of the three highest gods into a trinity forms
no part of epic belief. As said above (§ 160), the trinitarian doctrine
is recognised only in one late epic passage ; others do not really
imply it and the aim of the later epic poets is to equalise Krsna -Visnu
and Siva as two aspects of God rather than to establish a trinity or re
concile militant factions. In fact, there seems to be no special antago
nism between the two beliefs. Militant powers opposed to each other
appear to hold different faiths and Siva -worshippers scorn the claims of
Krsna to be regarded as God, but only because the claim is presented
by Pandus as an excuse for political preferment. Theological animus,
lacking political aims, appears to be in abeyance. The ancient catho
licity of Indian thought is maintained in the epics. Both Visnu and Siva
are recognised as chief gods; both eventually represent God. But the
epic, cultivating a godling as Visnu, naturally gave first place to Visnu,
and it is for this reason that the Siva -cult appears in its extreme form
(Jsiva as God) as a later (literary) addition ; for the passages exalting Siva
as All-God, the appendage of Siva-worship, cult of Durga, Gaurf, Skanda,
etc., are clearly later than the passages thus exalting Kr§na-Visnu, till
the latest additions of all, such as the last chapters of Santi and the
interpolations in the S text, which, so to speak, again offset the £iva-
cult with the final word of the Bhagavatas. 2)
*) Rudra's seed is here cast upon the mountain and produces this pair, also on the
Lohitoda (Red Sea?), on sunbeams, earth, and trees, thus productive of five kinds of
demons, especially worshipped, as children of Siva and apparently also servants of Skanda,
with arkapuspas (Calotropis gigantea, used in the Satarudriya, SB. 9, I, I, 4, to revere
Siva).
2) In WZKM. 23, 151 f., and ib. 25, 355 f., Dr. Jarl Charpentier argues that the first
Rudra-Siva worshippers are to be identified with the Vratyas, whose initiation into the
orthodox cult forms a well-known Vedic ceremony. In Charpentier's opinion, they worshipped
Rudra-Siva with horrible rites and are the ancestors of the later Sivaite sects. Of this
origin, which does not perhaps accord very well with the esteem in which the god was
held even in Vedic literature, the epic shows no cognisance. To the Mbh. the vratyas are
simply outlawed sinners and the Rudra-Siva worshippers are aristocrats, kings of the East
as well as Kurus. On the form of Visnu and Siva cults, as also the later theology of the
Great Epic, see now Sir R. G. Bhandarkar's Vaisr^avism, Saivism and Minor Reli
gious Systems, 1913 (in Bd. 6 Heft of this series). Bhandarkar shows that Vasudeva
was originally a proper name, not, as in the epic, a patronymic.
Index.
(The numbers refer to the pages.)
Abhasura spirits, 186 f.
Abhimanyu, as Moon, 91.
Abstractions, deified, 53 f., 74, 81; in
Indra's court, 140 ; as wives and sons
of Dharma, 199 ; Uma identified with
(list of), 225.
Abu, mountain, 10.
Acyutacchala, sinful Western locality, 209.
Adambara, attendant of Skanda, 230.
See Dambara.
Adbhuta, form of fire, carries oblations,
father of Skanda, 101, 104. See Agni.
Adhahsiras, a Rsi and class of Rsis, 177.
Adharma, Wrong, Sin, 41, 53; father of
Fear, Death, and Pride, 109, 165, 199.
Adhoksaja, epithet _of Krsna, 208.
Aditi, mother of Adityas, 9, 81 f., 96,
190; of Soma, 91; of Visnu, 199f.;
of Vasus and Rudras, 171, 173; as
Earth and Durga, 79, 81 ; as Devaki,
121 ; wife of Kasyapa, 63 ; ear-rings
of, 50, 79, 81, 87, 215 ; long parturition
of, 211. See Earth, Mountains, Adityas.
Adityas, sons of Aditi, 81 f., 199; number
of, 55; as suns, 84; include Aruna,
84; eighth is Sun, 168; worship Visnu,
34, 81 f . ; born from Visnu, 207 ; name
of an All-god, 174; Jyotir-Aditya as
Visnu, 207.
Adoption, of son, 184.
Adrika, an Apsaras, becomes a fish,
160, 163.
Adrikrtasthali, an Apsaras, 160.
Adultery, of Agni, 104; of Indra, 135.
Affection, deified, 53.
Agasti, Agastya, 9; shrine of, 28; gods
of, 55; sees Pitrs in pit, 34, 185;
kills demons, 47 ; curses Nahusa, 130 f. ;
son of Varuna or as Maitravaruni,
118; priest of Yama, 116; half-brother
of Vasistha, 185; husband of Lopa-
mudra, and tale of Ilvala, 185 ; drinks
ocean, 121, 185, 193; insulted by
Manimat, 144; in Lotus-tale, 182;
as Maharsi, 177f.; family of, 178 f.
Ages, see Yugas.
Agneyi, daughter of Agni, 105.
Agni, Fire, 6, 55: mother of, 10, 104;
a killing god, 55, 106; Anala, son
of Anila, description and tales of
(vanishes, is cursed), 50, 97—103,
179; amorousness of, 103 f.; as goat,
103, 105; as horse, 107; pathikrt, 98;
three-fold, seven flames of, and mystic
forms of, 98, 118, 140; functions of,
100 f.; fire of destruction, 99, 106;
creator, 103; origin of water, 103;
leader and god of the East, 56, 104;
god of guests, 104; pleased with a
welcome, 195; the fire-stick, 99; in
Sami-'wood, 102; beauty and greed
of, 105 f.; gold of, 11; father of gold,
gets gold, 90, 102, 105, 146 f.; euhe-
meristic, 106; wife of, 63; father of
Nila, Drstadyumna, Skanda, etc., 15,
62, 100*,'i02, 104; favored by Brah
man, 194; dispels demons, 40, 43,
100, 107; helps and opposes Indra,
26, 105, 130, 169; receives Indra's
sin, 130; in Yama's abode, 113; fires
of hell, 110; of digestion, 44, 101,
105; saves Pitrs, 31, 64; as witness,
66, 100; fire-ordeal, 99; theology of,
36; fire-chamber, 99; fire-cult of
women, 69; circumambulation of, 106;
priests of, 107; daily offering to, 6,
56; escapes Uma's curse, 61; Agni
and Krsna, 47; and Maya, 49; and
Vayu, 95, 97 f., 102, 105, 146; and
"Ocean, 557"$9r~fT7; "as""Marut, 170;
from Gandharva world (Pururavas),
157, 162; curse-fire, 77; love-fire,
166; as messenger, 106 f., 181; as all
the gods, 105; maker of Vedas, 107;
as Visnu, 207; as father of Skanda
gives Skanda a goat, 228; epithets
of, shared with Indra, 122; tears of,
become Asvins, 169; one with Soma,
91; and with various gods, 105; as
Vasu, son of SandilT, 170; as Loka-
INDEX.
233
pala, 149 f.; Agni and Soma as all
the world, 218; as son of Kavi, 178,
or Visnu's energy, 180, 196 ; as a form
of Siva, 222, 227 ; as goat-faced Skanda,
230. See Agni-names below, Adbhuta,
Anala.
Agni-dagdha, 105; -kanyapura, 105;
-Rudra, 9 ; -Isomau, 101 ; -stoma, 107 ;
-stut, disliked by Indra, *105, 136;
-svatta, 33, 105; -tlrtha, 107; -varna,
103; -vesa, 104, 185; -yoni, Ma-
harsi, 177; Agnyahitas and Anagny-
ahitas, 107.
Ahalya, 135; daughter of Menaka, 164;
wife of Gautama, 183.
Ahar, a Vasu, 170.
Ahi Budhnya, a Rudra, 28, 146, 173.
Ahuka, father of Ugrasena, 214; of
Krsna, 215.
Ahuli, a Marut, 170.
Ailavila, 148. See Kubera.
Airavana, or -ta, elephant, 17 f., 200;
of Indra, 126 ; scars Havana, 127 ;
Naga, 24, 26, 28, 126 ; as cloud, 127.
Aja Rsis, 35.
Ajagava, Siva's bow, 139.
Ajaikapad, 146; a Rudra, 173.
Akampana, a Raksasa, 15.
Akasa-Ganga, 6.
Akrsta Maharsis, 177.
Aksa, a Raksasa, 15.
Aksamala (not epic); aksamala, rosary,
219, note; -sutra, see Rosary.
Aksatavata. tree, 7.
Alaka, Kubera's city and lake, 142 — 144.
Alakananda, river, 5.
Alaksmi, personified antithesis of Laksmi,
76.
Alambusa, a Raksasa, 39 f. ; -sa, an Apa-
saras, 40, 153, 160, 162.
Alarka, beast and king, 47.
Alayudha, a Raksasa, 39 f.
Alexander, 227.
All-God, 203, note ; 218 ; Siva as, 222.
All-Gods, _see Visve Devas.
AU-Soul (Atman), 190 f.; (Avyakta), 196.
Amara, a Marut, 160.
Amaravati, Indra's city, 140 f., 155.
Amavasu, son of Pururavas, 53, 162.
Amba, 5. See Ambika.
Ambarisa, sacrificial animal of, 135.
Ambika', 160, 226. See Amba, Tryam-
baka.
Ambrosia, 21, 25; only for Gods, 27,
36, 48, 55, 77, 129 ; form, the moon,
90; carried by Indra, 137, 155;
source of Surabhi, 191 ; comes from
milk-ocean, 199 f.
Amogha, son of Svaha, form of fire, as
fire of battle, 100 f.; attendant of
Kubera, 144; as Skanda, 229.
Amsa, an Aditya, 81 f. ; fights with javelin,
*123; gift of, to Skanda, 230.
Amsumat, grandson of Sagara, 122; an
' All-god, 174.
Anagha, a Gandharva, 153; a Sadhya,
175.
Anakadundubhi, Vasudeva, 214.
Anala. Agni as Vasu and father of Kart-
tikeya, 170. See Agni. -la, mother of
Kumbhmasi, 155; a wife of Kasyapa,
200.
Ananta, 23; worshipped, 55; at Varuna's
court, 119; distinct from Sesa, 24;
as an All-god, 174. See Sesa.
Anasuya, wife of Atri, marvels of, 184.
Anavadya, an Apsaras, 159 f.
Andhaka, a demon slain by Siva, 223.
Androgynous spirits, 148, 159 and note,
225; Brahman, 191; Siva, 223; trinity,
218, note.
Anga, son of Manu, 202; sacrifices, 209;
Angas (as literature) waken Brahman
193.
Angada, son of Valin, 14, 127, 141.
Angaraka, demon, 44.
Angaraparna, Citraratha, 144, 153, 155.
Angiras, father of Brhaspati, 199 f.; son
of Brahman, 70, 190; son of Agni
and one with Agni, lOOf., 104, 178 f.;
180; heads the Brahmarsis, 181;
guards the sun, 84, 180; family of,
120, 178 f.; 180 f.; Utathya Angiras,
121; Bala Angirasa, 138; among
Maharsis, 177 f. See Brhaspati.
Anila, see Vayu.
Animals, talk, 12; divine, 12 f.: avert
demons, 44; as Guhyakas, 147; for
bidden as food, 16; demoniac, 18;
shapes of gods, 48, 58; represent gods,
103; names of Asuras , 52; omen
from howls of, 72; go to Yama's
abode, 108; kindness to, 135; as
spirits, 159; as forms of Siva, 223;
carry saints to heaven, 160; rebirth
of Grtsamada as deer, 179, 187; of
234
INDEX.
Nrga as lizard, 188; of Parvata as
monkey, 188; of nymph as doe, 194;
genealogy of all animals, 199 f.; con
test of men and animals in games,
196. See Alarka, Avatar, birds, ants,
apes, ass, bear, bee, boar, buffalo,
bull, cat, crocodile, deer, dog, dolphin,
elephant, Gandharvi, goat, Empada,
fish, horse, hunting, lion, man-lion,
lizard, mule, Naga, Pulaha, Pulastya,
ram, Rohini, Sarabha, Sarama, sheep,
snake, tortoise, wolf.
Animandavya and Dharma, 115, 188.
Animism, 52.
Aniruddha, 48, 164, 214; form of Visnu,
206 f.; 214.
Anjana, elephant, 17, 126; Anjana, wife
of Kesarin, 14, 164. See Punjika-
sthala.
Antaka, see Death.
Ants, get gold, 146.
Anu, son of Yadu, 187.
Anucakra, an attendant of Skanda, 230.
Anucana, an Apsaras, 160; significance
of name, 164.
Amiga, an Apsaras, 160.
Anugoptr, an All-god (?), 174.
Anuhlada (-hrada), 52, 199.
Anuka, an Apsaras, 160.
Anukarman, an All-god, 174.
Anumati, moon-phase, 53, 70, 101 f.
Anumloca, an Apsaras, 159 f.
Anuna, an Apsaras, 160.
Apa, a Vasu, 170.
Apamgarbha, Agni, 97, 107.
Aparajita, Devasena, 229.
Aparna, Uma, 11, 224.
Apava, Vasistha, 182.
Apes, divine, 13 f.; men and monkeys,
45, 61; sons of the Sun, 86; connec
tion with Visnu, 204; get special
trees from Indra, 140. See Hanumat.
Apsarasas, in heaven, 31, 140; list of,
origin of 159 f., 164; from Brahman's
eye, 160; Apsaras was a Pisaci, 45;
type of beauty, 54; described, 162;
pitiless, 161; sixty crores of, 55, 160;
live in all the worlds, 60 f.; in trees,
72; on mountains and by rivers, 160;
as Indrakanyas, 163; with Varuna,
Yama, and Kubera, 119, 147, 163;
welcome heroes to heaven, 60, 163;
epithets of, 62; sin transferred to,
131, 163; celebrate SarasvatI, 1621
Apsarasas and Gandharvas, 153 f.;
drop flowers, 163; dance at Skanda's
birth, 228; dangerous, 158, 164;
Vidyutprabha and Vaidiki Aps., 159,
164; instruments, ornaments, and
allurements of, 159 f., 162; Pancacuda,
161 ; deities of love-lorn women, 161 ;
tank of, 163; as water, 163; as wives
of Krsna, 163. See Drama.
Araja, daughter of Usanas, 179.
Aram, 104.
Arantuka, 149.
Aranya, a Sadhya, 175.
Arbuda, 29.
Arcika, mountain, 186.
Arcismata Pitrs, 34.
Arcismati, a fire, 100.
Arista, demon slain by Krsna, 215, 217;
mountain, 8, 14.
Arista, 67 ; mother of Gandharvas, 152 f.
Aristanemi, 22 f.; converses with Sagara.
122; a Prajapati, 191, 200.
Arjuna, son of Indra, 8, 13, 27, 39, 115,
122 f., 141; beauty of, 168; taught by
Brahman, 195; cousin of Krsria, 214;
slays demons, 50; as Indra, 87; as
twelfth Rudra, etc., 173; gifts of gods
to, 149; friend of Visvavasu, 154;
and Urvasi, 162; frees Apsarasas,
163; Arjuna and Krsna, 212 f. See
Kartavirya and Yamala.
Ark, see deluge.
Arka, son of Dyaus, 77; Sun, 82, 83 f.,
89; Danava, 84.
Arkaparna, a Gandharva, 153.
Art, sixty-four arts, 223. See Music,
Pictures, Temples.
Artha, as one of triad, 164; personified,
at Varuna's court, 119.
Aruna, 10, 21 f., 23, 200; myth of, as
Aditya, 84, 200; worships Sun, 89;
king of the East, 152; gives Skanda
a cock, 228; Aruna Rsis, 35.
Aruna, as Apsaras, 84, 160; as river, 183.
Arunapriya, an Apsaras, 160.
Arundhati, 53; chastity of, 104; star-wife
of Vasistha or of Dharma, 182.
Aruni, a Vainateya, 22.
Arupa, an Apsaras, 160.
Arusi, daughter of Manu, mother of
Aurva, 179, 201.
Arvavasu, one of Indra' s seven seers, 138.
INDEX.
235
Arya, a Mother of Skanda, 229.
Aryabhatta, 197.
Aryaka, a Naga, 24 f.
Aryaman, ehief of Pitrs, 34 f.; clan-god
as Aditya, 81; uses club, 123; as a
Prajapati, 202.
Asa, Hope, 74, 102.
Asamanjas, 122.
Asariga, son of Agni, 104.
Asavaha, son of Dyaus, 77.
Asceticism, objected to, 34; of Kubera,
142; sensuality the reward of, 163,
195 f. ; Brahman god of, 195; of Siva,
223. See Raksasas and Tapas.
Asi, Sword as Dharma, 106, 150; created
by Brahman and descent of, 176.
Asiloman, son of Danu, 199.
Asita, an Apsaras, 160. See Devala.
Asmakutta Rsis, 186.
Asmanta, a Marut, 170.
Asoka, 48, 62.
Asramas, not to be disturbed, 71.
Ass, 22, 42: Bali as, 133; reproves a
seer, 187. See Bali, Khara, Mules.
Asta, mountain, 121.
Astavakra, 147.
Asterisms, list of, 92. See Stars.
Asti, daughter of Jarasandha, 214.
Astika, 29.
Astrologer, excluded from funeral feast,
93.
Asuras, 9, 10, 31; elder brothers of gods,
47; born of Diti, 48; get funeral feast,
32; as Raksasas, 40; nobler than
Raksasas, 46; worship Visnu, 34;
etymology and description of, 46 f.;
cities of, 49 f.; overlord of, is Pride,
50; get ambrosia, 55; get Alaksmi,
76; get shadow not substance, 194;
created by Fire, 101; Asuras and Vis-
varupa, 130.
Asura, an Apsaras, 153, 160.
Asurayajakas, sons of Usanas, 179.
Asuri, teacher, 188.
Asva, demon, 48, 52, 62, 216.
Asvagriva, demon, 200, 204.
Asvalayana, descendant of Visvamitra,
183.
Asvapati, 48 f.
Asvasena, a Naga, 27.
Asvatara, a Naga, 24.
Asvatlrtha, 121.
Asvattha, tree, 6f.; form of Visnu, 208.
Asvatthaman, origin of, 62, 116, 193; as
seer, 177; vision of, 221.
Asvins, 8, 10; origin of, 81, 84; Surya-
putrau, 168; from Agni's tears or
from ears or back of Visnu, 169, 207 ;
status of and relation to Cyavana,
63, 65, 127, 135; as Guhyakas, 147,
168, 199; as stars, 53; relation to
Indra, 169; among the Thirty-Three
gods, 55; human offering of, 167;
fathers of apes, 15, 62; healers with
seers, 168 f.; cause birth of Mamdhatr,
169; worship Visnu, 34; discuss fune
ral feast, 32; beauty of, 56, 168;
weapons of, as bows, 67, as plants,
123; hymn to, 168; invulnerable, 194;
their gift to Skanda, 230; a single
Asvin, 167.
Atharvan, story of, 101 f.; as Siva, 103.
Atharvaveda, Mantras of, 62, 102; glo
rified in Southern text, 180 f.; and
Brhaspati, 181.
Atibahu, a Gandharva, 153.
Atibala, grandson of Kardama Prajapati,
166; attendant of Skanda, 230.
Atibala, a wife of Kasyapa, 200.
Atikaya, demon, arrests Indra's bolt,
12, 133.
Atisrnga, Atisthira, Ativarcas, Atiyama,
attendants'of Skanda, 230.
Atman, son of Dyaus, 77; All-Soul, 190 f.
Atreya, Avatar, 218. See Datta.
Atri, teaches rule of funeral feast, 32;
son of Brahman and of Usanas, 184 f.;
father of Soma, 90f.; of Durvasas,
as son of Usanas. 179, 184; ancestor
of fires, 101; seer of the North and
of Kubera, 144; a Maharsi, 177 f.;
acted as Sun, 182, 184; outdoes
Gautama, 183; first to deify kings,
184; creative energy, 189 f.; wife of,
184; family of, 178 f.; numerous sons
of, 199 f.
Aum, see Om.
Aurva Bhargava, 99, 178 f.; becomes
Vadavamukha, 180.
Ausija, see Kaksivat.
Austerity, see Asceticism and Tapas.
Auttanapada, see Dhruva.
Avatars, general description of, 209 f. ;
fish and tortoise, 29, 51, 200; fish
and boar first of Brahman, 197, 205,
210 f.; tortoise not at first of Visnu,
INDEX.
200, 209; man-lion, 51, 67, 210f., 217;
dwarf, 211, 217; Rama Jam., 211;
Dasarathi, 212, 217; Balarama, 212;
Krsna, 213 f.; late list from Hamsa
to Kalki, 217; Buddha and other
pradurbhavas, 218.
Avijnatagati, son of Anila and Siva, 170.
Avindhya, a moral demon, 42.
Ayatana, of Kasyapa, 72. See Devayatana.
Ayati, 53.
Ayodhya, 212.
Ayu, Ayus, son of Pururavas, 53, 131, 162.
Babhru, Visnu, 64; a Rohita Gandhar-
va, 153, 156.
Babhruvahana, 27.
Bahlika or Vahika, a sinful place where
Visnu is not worshipped, 209.
Bahuda, river, 5.
Bahuguna, a Gandharva, 153.
Bahupannaga or Brahmapannaga, a
Marut, 170.
Bahuputra, a Prajapati, 200.
Bahurupa, a Rudra, 173.
Baka, Asuraraj, 39 f.; Baka Dalbhya, 188.
Bakula, tree, 7.
Bala (Vala), 48, 50, 53; son of Varuna,
. 120, 199; Angirasa seer of Indra, 138;
Bala as an All-god, 174; Bala and
Atibala, attendants of Skanda, 230.
Bala, a wife of Kasyapa, 200.
Balada, form of fire, 101.
Baladeva, see Balarama.
Baladhi, story of, 9.
Baladhruva, a Sadhya, 175.
Balahaka, a steed of Krsna, 215.
Balaka, story of, 66.
Balarama, drunken bucolic god, 12, 203;
ploughman god, 212; and Sesa, 24,
212; son of Rohim, 108; titles and
sons of, 212; Avatar of Visnu, 206;
helps Krsna recover Aniruddha, 214.
Bali, demon, son of Virocana, as ass,
18, 48; and Indra, 124f., 132f., 135;
begs from Visnu, 133; favorite of
Brahman, 195 ; discourses with Usanas,
69; father of Bana, 199; banished by
Visnu, 210 f. See Bana and Virocana.
Bali offering to Bhuts and gods, 37, 68;
to cow-dung, 210.
Bana, son of Bali, 48, 51, 132, 199;
father of Usa, 214; follower of Siva,
219; minister of, 52; cows of, held
by Varuna, 120; both protected and
slain by Skanda, 228; an officer in
Skanda's army, 230.
Baptism, 45.
Barhaspati Bharati and Barhaspatya
Sastra, see Brhaspati.
Barhi, a Gandharva, 153.
Barhisada Rsis, 33; name of a Rsi, 179.
Baskala, son of Hiranyakasipu, 199.
Bears, sons of gods, 13, 200. See Jam
ba vat.
Bees, 19, 165.
Benares, 133, 138, 215, 222 f., 226.
Bhadra, elephant, 17.
Bhadra, daughter of Soma, 91; stolen by
Varuna, 121; consort of Kubera, 143.
Bhadrakali, 220, 223 f., 226.
Bhadramada, father of IravatI, 200.
Bhadramanas, elephant, father of Aira-
vata, 126; v. 1. for -mada, 200.
Bhadrasakha, form of Skanda, 230. See
Sakha.
Bhadrasva, land, 11.
Bhaga, worshipped as Aditya, 55, 81 f.,
83 f. ; god of lust, 56, and of marriage,
69, 74, 84; as a Rudra, 84, 173; and
Pusan, arms of cosmic giant, 83; and
SivaBhaganetrahara, 83, 223; constel
lation, 84; Uma mistress of Bhagade-
vanuyatas, 161; slain by Visnu, 206;
bhagadheya, bhagya, 74.
Bhagananda, 220, note.
Bhagavat, title of Brahman and other
gods, 192.
Bhagavatas, sect, 88, 216, 231.
Bhaglratha, father of Ganges, 5.
Bhakti, 89; Sakrabhakti, 136.
Bhandira, tree, 7.
Bhangasvana, Rajarsi changed into a
woman, 136.
Bhanu, son of Dyaus and form of Agni,
77, 101; a Gandharva, 153.
Bhanumati, daughter of Angiras, 100.
Bharadvaja, son of Brhaspati and Ma-
mata, 181, 183; of'Satya, 100; hus
band of VIra and father of Vira, 101 ;
grandfather of Kubera, whose seer
in the North he is, 42, 142, 144, 177;
father of Bhumanyu and of Yava-
krita, 184; priest of Divodasa, 183;
makes Srlvatsa, 184; seduced by
Ghrtaci, 136, 162; his sacrifice effects
birth of son, 138, 183; his fire-arms,
INDEX.
237
104; his garden, 155, 183; philosopher,
184, note; interchanges with Rudra,
190.
Bharanya, a Gandharva, 153 f.
Bharata, 29, 157; adopts Bhumanyu, 184;
son of Satya, fire-form with Bharata
and Bharati, 101.
Bhargavas, explanation of, 120.
Bhari, doubtful name, 154.
Bharunda bird, 20.
Bhasi, 159 f.; mother of vultures, 199. -
Bhaskara, name of Sun and son of
Dyaus| 77, 83, 88.
Bhasvara, an attendant of Skanda, 230.
Bhaumana (-vana), 201.
Bhava, Siva, 8, 64,219; an All-god (?), 174.
Bhavim, 220, note.
Bhavya spirits, 36.
Bhaya, Fear, son of Adharma, 109, 199;
Bhaya, 41; wife of Heti, 107.
Bhayamkara, an All-god, 174.
Bhima,' son of Viiyu, 13, 25, 30, 39 f.,
73, 117, 168; invades Kubera's land,
144, 148; a Gandharva, 153; an
attendant of Skanda, 230; Bhima, an
Apsaras, 160.
Bhimasena, a Gandharva, 153.
Bhisma, son of Samtanu, 5, 34; address
ed by divine voice, 67; as Vasu,
171; contends with Jamadagnya, 184.
Bhogavati, 23 f., 25; king of, 27; in the
South, 28; in Rasatala, 61, 119;
overrun by Havana, 42.
Bhoja Salva, conquered by Krsna, 217.
Bhrgu, son of Agni or of Brahman, hus-
'band of Puloma, 41, 100, 102, 120,
179 f.; helpful Maharsi, 169, 177 f.;
keepe Nimi alive, 179; curses of,
Sastra of, 179, 226; sons of as Varunas,
179 f.; as creative energy, 189; born
of Brahman and ancestor of Rama,
190f., 211 ; Bhrgu, Siva, and Uma, 226.
Bhrgutunga, 179.
Bhiilinga, bird, 20.
Bhumanyu, a Gandharva, 153; son of
Bharadvaja, adopted, 184.
Bhupati, an All-god, 174.
Bhurbhuva, a Devarsi, 188.
Bhurisravas, 22.
Bhurunda, bird, 18,- 20.
Bhut, spirit, 29, 30 f.; 36 f.; Bhuts of
Siva oppress Indra, 131; under Siva,
37; Bhutesa is Kubera or Siva, 142;
Vayu as lord of, 97; Visnu as great
Bhut, 218; malicious spirits, 174;
lords of, 52, 221 ; red or black flowers
for, 68; sugar and sesame for, 69;
in trees, 72; Bhuts and Earth, 79;
mothers of, 89; Bhutatman, 192.
Bhutadhaman, son and form of Indra,
36, 136.
Bhuti, 54.
Bhutilaka, a sinful place, 209.
Bhuvana, an All-god (?), 174.
Bibhisana, see Vibhisana.
Bindusaras, lake, 5, 117; Yama's sacri
fice at, 150.
Birds, divine and demoniac, 19 f.: as
embodied souls, 34; as seers, 177;
from head of Trisiras, 131; bird
sacrifices itself, 106; Mandapala and
Matanga become birds, 35, 137 ; images
of, 183; age of crane and owl, 184;
birds bury Northern Kurus, 186;
mythical genealogy of, 199 f.; bird
tied to string, 193; Visnu as bird,
203, 208. See Bharundaj Bhasi, Bhu-
linga, Cakora, Cakravaka, Chando-
deva, Cataka, Crane, Crow, Garuda,
Hamsa (goose), Hawk, Jlvamjiva,
Mayura, Maurya, Parrot, Peacock,
Pigeon, Putana, Sarasa, Suka, Suki,
Vulture.
Birth, determined by Brahman, 193;
-goddess, see Simvall.
Blood, libation of, 40; demons drink,
45, 47; bloodless sacrifice, 106, 217;
years in hell equal blood-drops of
victim, 111; rain of blood, 128; blood
turned to ashes, 188.
Boar, form of Visnu, 208, 217 f.; any
boar as Visnu, 210; gift of Raksasas,
228.
Brahmacarin, 153.
Brahmadatta, king, has healing touch,
156.
Brahmakaya spirits, 186.
Brahmalaukika Rsis, 178.
Brahmaloka, 193, 195. See Brahman,
World of.
Brahman, as Prajapati. 3, 5, 10, 13, 86,
151 ; etymology of Brahman , 41 ;
chief god, 55 f.; epithets of, 192; as
year, 70; as food, 109; as Fate, 75;
as Visvayoni, 67 ; sons of, 10, 13, 14,
36, 41, 44, 50, 70, 87, 90, 120f., 143,
INDEX.
152, 159, 173, 179, 187 f., 191; mental
sons of, 189 f.; boons of, 42, 48, 50,
194; makes city and weapons, 50,
122, 124; gifts of, 16, 88, 92; 193;
228; curses of, 162 f.; 187; grove,
mountain, place, world of, 9, 10, 54,
60; weapon of, 22, 43; as witness,
192; sends Sesa below earth, 24;
Pitrs at court of, 33, 35, 178; hus
band of Vedi or Savitri, 63, 143; of
Kriya, 83; not honored, 55; creator
of Death, Fire, etc. 78, 97, 100 f., 162,
176; Indra and Brahman, 88, 139 f.;
makes Siva demiurge, 190; father of
Siva, 226; general activities of, 193 f.;
practically ignored in trinity, 218,
note; superior to Visnu, 204; as boar
and as fish, 201, 210; sleep and ages
of, 196; born of Visnu, 191.
Brahmana, see Priest.
Brahmapannaga, see Bahupannaga.
Brahmaraksasa, 44.
Brahmarsi, 10, 177 ; contrasted with the
Seven Devarsis, 182; sires of all
creatures, 189.
Brahmasiras, as Pasupata, 223.
Brahmasdtra, spell, 197.
Brhadbhanu, 77; son-in-law of Surya, 101.
Brhaddhan (Brhatvan), a Gandharva, 153.
Brhadgarbha or Vrsadarbha, son of Sibi,
104.
Brhadrupa, a Marut, 170.
Brhaka, a Gandharva, 153.
Brhaspati, son of Angiras, priest and
chief of Devarsis, 52, 63, 70; 100, 178,
180f.;_as planet (Jupiter), 86, 181,
199; Aditya, 81, 181; lord of strength,
134; husband of Tara, 63; father of
Drona and of Tara, 62; of Kaca, 180;
of Dirghatamas, Bharadvaja, Kaksivat,
181; brother of Samvarta and of
Utathya, and pupil of Manu, 191;
loves a Sudra, ib.; catholicity of, 64;
immanent in kings, 64; priestly func
tions of, 65; talks with Indra, 79,
150 ; advises Indra as Guru but knows
less than Usanas, 135, 181; guards
Saci from Nahusa, 181; lord of all
priests, 82; regent of Pusya, 181;
Mantras, Naya, BharatT, and Sastra
of, 102, 181, 195; Atharvangiras,
operates with fire, 181 ; Guru of Upa-
ricara, Suka, Agni, and Indra, 106,
181; officiates at Indra's sacrifice,
130f.; curses Ocean, 121, 181; mis
leads Asuras, 180 ; consecrates Skanda,
181, 228 f.; helps Visnu in dwarf-form,
211. See Candramasi, Prabhasa, and
Visvakarman.
Brhat, a Marut, 170.
Brhatvan, see Brhaddhan.
Brmhita, a Mother of Skanda, 229.
Budbuda or Vudvuda, an Apsaras, 160;
becomes crocodile, 163.
Buddha, as Avatar, 210f., 217; will come
at beginning of Kali age, 218; Buddha
in Ramayana, 218. See Buddhistic
Traits.
Buddhi, daughter of Daksa and wife of
Dharma, 199.
Buddhistic Traits, 11, 28, 52, 60f., 71,
76, 84, 118, 152, note, 154, 166, 187;
Dhammapada, 217 f.; opposed to, 139,
148, 156.
Budha, son of Soma, 90f., 92; genealogy
of, 162; changes sex of Ila's com
panions, 159.
Buffalo, 9, 116; gift of Raksasas, 228.
Bull, blue, 16; freed, 32; Siva god of,
61, 223; Siva's bull from Daksa, 223;
type of strength, as Sun, Visnu, etc.,
206; bull Danava, 216. \
Caitraratha, 142, 154 f.
Caitya and Caitya-trees. 7, 71 ; gods in, 72.
Cakora, bird, 20.
Cakra, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Cakracara Rsis, 186.
Cakradhanus, Kapila, 86.
Cakradharman, chief of Vidyadharas, 143.
Cakravaka, bird, 20.
Caksus, son of Dyaus, 77; a Marut, 170.
Caksusa, see Manu.
Camuhara, an All-god (?), 174.
Gandala, 183.
Candra, Candramas, see Moon; Candra
as demon, 62.
Candrabhaga, river, 5.
Candrahantr, eclipse-demon, 199.
Candrakanta, moonstone, 92.
Candramasi, lunar wife of Brhaspati,
100.
Gandravarman, king of Kamboja, as de
mon Candra, 62.
Candravrata, 92.
Cankrama, attendant of Skanda, 230.
INDEX.
239
Canura, demon overcome by Krsna,
215, 217.
Cara Rsis, 186. See Carana and Lokacara.
Carana Rsis, world of, 60; sing in hea
ven, 163; watch contest, 175; seers,
177, 186 f.
Caritra, a Marut, 170.
CarmanvatI, river, origin of, 16.
Carudesna, son of Krsna, 215.
Carumadhya and Carunetra, Apsarasas,
160.
Carvaka, 219, note.
Caste, changed, by Vltahavya, 179; by
Visvamitra, 183; low caste debars
from priesthood, 187; men divided
into castes, 194; Visnu is jatidharma,
209.
Cat, averts demons, 44.
Cataka, auspicious bird, 19 f.
Caturdamstra, officer of Skanda, 230.
Caturmaharajika, see Maharaja.
Caturveda Pitrs, 33.
Celebration, see Festival.
Celestials, 54. See Gods.
Centaur, see Horse.
Chada, tree, form of Siva, 7.
Chaga, see Goat.
Chalikya, song, see Music.
Chandodeva, Matahga as bird, 137.
Chaya, 85. See Shadow and Soul.
Children, need of, 34 f.
Chinese, ruined by king Dhautamulaka,
76.
Cikura, a Naga, 24.
Cintyadyota spirits, 187.
Cirakarin, son of Gautama, 183.
Citra, an Apsaras, 160.
Citragupta, 44, 87, 113; Mahayamya,
218.
Citrakuta, 159; home of Vidyadharas, 176.
Citralekha, an Apsaras, 160, 164.
Citrangada, a Gandharva, 153; -da, an
Apsaras, 27 f., 160.
Citrarasmi, a Marut, 170.
Citraratha, makes Nandana, 142; chief
of Gandharvas, 152—154; suta of
Rama, 155; with Renuka. 184; son
of Usangu, 214.
Citrasena, a Gandharva, 28, 153 f., 155;
-sena, an Apsaras, 160.
Citrasikhandin, epithet of Rsis and of
Visnu, 182.
Citrasiras, a Gandharva, 153.
Cloud, demons like, 40; world of, 60;
personified, 78; mythology of, 95:
cloud as sentient being, 176, 188.
Comorin, Kumari, 225.
Conscience, 66.
Corn-mother, goddess, 10 f.
Cow, divine, 16; worlds of cows, 7, 16,
60f., 136; origin of horns and cloven
hoofs, 16; become gods, 18; as Loka-
palas, 152, note, 200; use of cow-
dung, 17, 69; dung represents Visnu,
210; flesh not eaten, 69; golden
images of, 73; impure may not touch,
106; earth as cow, 78; sacrificed by
Nahusa, 81; receives sin of Indra,
130; sin of slaying cows becomes
diseases, 87 and 131; son born of
cow, 143. See Nandim, Surabhi,
Kamadhuk.
Crane, see Nadljangha.
Creation, Creator, distributes power
among gods, 151; general scheme of
creation, 189 f., 198 f.; creation at
Prthudaka, 193; nine creations, 200.
See Brahman, Dhatr, Fate, Isvara.
Crocodile, form of Apsarasas, 163;
Makara emblem of Love, 167.
Crow, form of Dharma, 58; crows of
hell, 110; inauspicious bird, 19. See
Kakl.
Culin, 156.
Curse, as fire, 77. See under Brahman,
Indra, Kubera, Uma, etc.
Cyavana, 10, 50, 161, 168 f., 178, 180; para
lyses Indra, 135; a Sadhya, 170, 175.
Cyclists, see Cara, Carana.
Dadhica, -ci, bones of, 122, 130, 194 f.;
tempted by Alambusa, 162; takes
the place of Indra, 187; worships
Siva, 226.
Dadhimukha, ape, 15, 91.
Dahana, a Rudra, 173; attendant of
Skanda, 230.
Dahati, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Daityas, 18 f.; Pitrs of, 33; town of, 38;
as Raksasas, 39; hate gods, 47; in
Varuna's abode, 118 (Daiteya inter
changes with Daitya).
Daityasena, sister of Devasena (wife of
Skanda), 229.
Daiva, see Fate.
Daivarati, see Janaka.
240
INDEX.
Daksa, clever seventh son, as creator,
190, 199 f.; father of energies, 13;
same as Garuda, 21; father of Khasa,
Krodhavasa, and other demons, 38,
44, 47; of Svaha, 104; Daksasutas
are gods, 62; sacrifice of, 83 f.;
daughters of, 90, 152, 159, 189f.;
from Brahman's thumb or toe, 189,
199; gift to Siva, who destroys his
sacrifice, 223; creates cows and Siva's
third eye, 223, 225; as All-god (?),
174.
Dalbhya, 188.
Dambara, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Dambholi, 185.
Damodara, Visnu as Krsna, 208.
Damsa, an Asura, 47.
Danavas, fiends, 39, 46 f., 50, 97; in
Varuna's abode, 118 ; created by Siva,
187; names of, as names of Gan-
dharvas, 153; include Kapas, 176;
oppose Visnu and cook meat, 209. .
Danavanagas, 18; Pitrs of, 33.
Danavarsis, 177f.
Danayus', mother of Vrtra, 48, 129, 199.
Dance, of demons, 45; in Yama's abode,
113; in Kubera's, 147 f.; of Gan-
dharvas, 152 f.; of Apsarasas, 162;
dramatic dance, Hallisaka, 161; of
peacocks, 167; dance in Siva cult,
223; dancing Nikumbhila, 225.
Danda, 179, 198, 207.
Dandagauri, Apsaras, 160.
Dandaka, see Forest.
Dandin, door-keeper of Sun, 87.
Danta, an Apsaras, 160.
Dantolukhalika Rsis, 177.
Danu, 46 f.; prolific parent of demons,
48, 199 f.; becomes Kabandha, 134.
Darbhya, same as Dalbhya.
Darkness, evil, 84; demon of, 192.
Darpa, Pride, 165.
Daruka, charioteer of Krsna, 215.
Dasajyoti, spirit, 88.
Dasaratha, helps Indra, 50.
Dasra, 168 f.
Dasyu, as demon, god of, 45 f.
Datta, see Dattatreya.
Dattatman, an All-god (?), 174.
Dattatreya (Datta), father of Nimi, 179 ;
form of Visnu, 184, 218.
Davagni, 102.'
Dawn, divine, 53. See Usas.
Day, divine, 53; as witness, 66; days
lucky and unlucky, 32 f.; holy days,
46, 69, 89 ; day of Brahman, 196 ; is
opening of Visnu's eyelid, 208.
Death, Antaka, Mrtyu, also as Yama, 41;
son of Adharma, 109, 199, or of Brah
man, 191; personified in drama, 53,
86; feared and worshipped, 55; typ
ical of anger, 56; fights with axe,
123; father of Vena, 166; as part
father of a man, 62; one with Time,
75; realm of, is dark, 107; world of,
109; door of death, 112; Death as
woman invented to relieve earth, 78;
Death and Yama, 108 f. ; distinct from
Time, follower of Yama, as Antaka,
109, lllf.; charioteer of Antaka is
Roga, 114; fourfold death, 116; Uma
as Great Death, 224. See Mara and
Yama.
Deer, golden, 212. See Hunting.
Deluge, 190, 201; in Boar-Avatar, 210:
Naubandhana, 9.
Demons, averted by gorocana, etc., 44;
should be fed, and food of, 45 f. ; di
vine names of, 52; faults as demons,
54; guard underworld, 61; born of
fire or sun, 101; town of, 119. See
Daitya, Danava, Disease, Pisaca, Rak-
sasa, Yatudhana.
Deva and Devata, 57; as sense, 64, 95.
See Gods.
Deva-bhraj, 88; -datta, 117; -duta, 67,
95, 107; -Gandharva, 62, 67, 153 f.,
156 ; Devagara and -grha, 71 ; -graha,
229 ; -kanya (-patnl, -m'atr) 62, 160, 162.
DevakI, 67, 108, 121; -matr, -nandana,
204 f, 213.
Devala (Asita), 11, 153, 170, 188, 211,
213.
Deva-loka, 73; -nadi, 6; -pur, 59; -rsi,
34, 177f; Devarsikanya, 181; Devar-
sis in particular as the Seven Seers
of the North, 182; Devasarman, 135;
Devasena, 63, 102, 229; as Sasthi, 70;
Devasisu, 62; Devavana, 31; Deva-
varnim, 42, 142; DevavatI, 41, 156;
Devayajna, officer of Skanda, 230;
Devayana, 35, 59, 209; -yam, mother
of Yadu, 180, 187; Devayatana, 71.
Devi, wife of Varuna, 50, 180, 199; as
queen, 63; as Apsaras, 160; Daksa-
yam Devi as Surabhi, 200; Uma, 224.
INDEX.
241
Devika, river, 5.
Dhama spirits, 34, 115.
Dhanada,Dhanadhipati,Kubera, 142, 144f.
Dhanamjaya, a Naga, 24.
Dhanesvara, 146.
Dhanin, chief of Kapas, 176.
Dhanurveda, personified, 228.
Dhanusaksa, story of, 9.
Dhanvantari, divine physician, 55, 160;
daily offering to (Dhanvantara), 56;
is the Sun, 89; as Avatar, 218.
Dhanyamalim, 12.
Dhara, a Vasu, 170. See Tvastadhara.
Dharamdhara Rsis, 177.
Dharm'a, 53, 64, 66, 105, 188; image of,
72; one with Sesa, 24; marries
Daksas daughters, 199 f.; god, once
lived in Kalinga, 55, 110; appears
disguised as crow, dog, Yaksa, 58,
103, 137, 148; relation to Kama,
165; as husband of Dhrti, 63, of
Kriya, 83, of Arundhati, 182; father
ofSusena. 15; of Yudhisthira, 62; of
Maruts and Asvins, 96, 1*68; of other
gods, 170, 173; Dharmaraja and Ruru,
113; in creation, 190f. ; Laksmi as
his wife, 115; in triad, 164; Dhar-
macakra, 28; -prastha, 141; Right
makes might, 196.
Dhatr, as Creator, 8, 54; and Laksmi,
158; one with Rrahman, 189; separate,
192; not worshipped, 55 f.; in kings,
64; son of Aditi, 81; Dhatr and Fate,
74; as Yama, 116; uses a bow, 123;
gift of, to Skanda, 230. See Brah
man.
Dhatri, 78.
Dhaumya, teacher, 151; Seer of the West,
177.
Dhautamulaka, king of China, 76.
Dhenuka, demon slain by Krsna, 215,
217.
Dhimat, son of Pururavas, 162.
Dhlrosnin, an All-god, 174.
Dhisana, Wisdom, daughter of Agni, 105.
Dhrstadyumna, part of Agni, 100, 104.
Dhrtarastra, Naga and elephant, 24, 146;
as messenger, 67; as Gandharva,
153 (Dhatarattha, 152, note); -rastri,
mother of ducks, 199.
Dhrti, as wife of Dharma, 63, 199; as
'an All-god, 174.
Dhruva, Pole-star, 53; Vasu, 75, 170;
Indo-Aryan Research. III. Ib.
omen from, 182; as Auttanapada, 183;
seven seers surround Dhruva, 187.
Dhumapa, smoke-drinking, seers, 34, 186.
Dhumorna, as wife of Markandeya, and
of Yama, 63, 188.
Dhumra, brother of Jambavat, 13;
Dhumra, daughter of Daksa, 170.
Dhumraksa, a demon, 15.
Dhundhu, Asura causing earthquake,
49, 79.
Dhvajavati, story of, 86.
Dice, 50, 76.
Digvasas, 137.
Diksa, wife of Soma, 83.
Dilipa, RcTJarsi, 4, 160, 187; Naga 24.
Dipaka, son of Garuda, not Kama, 167.
Diptaroman, an All-god, 174.
DIpti, an All-god (?), 174.
Dlrghajihva, slain by Indra, 132.
DIrghatamas, son of Utathya, 181.
Dis, saumya as North, 152; disampala,
150; digisvara, 175. See District and
Lokapala.
Discus, 28. See Cow and Visnu.
Disease, demon, 44; children of Siva,
54; tears of Death, 78, 114; Yama
and diseases, 113; Roga, fever, is
Antaka's charioteer, 114; as sin, 129,
131; cult of disease-goddess, 226.
Disguise, of gods, 58, 87, 103f., 107, 119;
of Surya as priest, 126; of Indra,
133f., 136 f.; of Dharma, 137; of Sam-
bara, 134.
Dista, 74. See Fate.
District, pitrjusta dik, 34; North or East is
first, 56*, 82; of Agni, 104; of Yama,
108; of Varuna, 119; of Indra, 122,
126, 139, 151; of Kubera, 142, 145;
as assigned to Lokapalas, 149 f.; per
sonified protectors, 174.
Diti, in creation, 199 f.; destroyed, 44,
96, 134; sons of, 46f., 81, 96, 125.
Divakara, Vainateya, 22.
Divodasa, 138, 164, 179, 183.
Divyakarmakrt, an All-god (?), 174.
Divyasanu, an All-god, 174.
Dog, pollutes food, 46; not admitted to
temples, 71; eaten, 106, 174, 183;
dog of heaven, 19; dog in hell, 110;
with ascetics, 137; Dharma as dog,
58, 137; virtuous dog lectures, 71.
Dolphin, makara, probably a crocodile
(nakra, kumbhira). See Crocodile.
16
242
INDEX.
Drama, morality-play, 53; regular drama.
143, 161.
Draupadi, 40, 159.
Dravina, son of the Vasu Dhara, 170.
Drdhavya, priest of Yama, 116.
Drdhayus, son of Pururavas, 162.
Drdheyu, a seer of Varuna, 120.
Dreams, 11.
Drinker Rsis, Somapas, Gandhapas,
Usmapas, Dhumapas, etc., 186 f.
Drona, part of Brhaspati, 62, 180; son
of Bharadvaja and Ghrtaci, 162, 184;
pupil of Agnivesa (Agastya's pupil),
185.
Druhyu, son of Yadu, 187.
Druma, chief of Kimpurusas, 143; lives
south of Hataka,146; Drumaputra,158.
Dryad, see Tree.
Dumbara, see Umbara.
Dundubha, 25.
Dundubhi, 49; challenges Ocean, 121;
-bhi, a Gandharvi, 156.
Durga, see Uma.
Durvasas, son of Atri, 177, 179, 184;
form of Siva, 188; worshipped by
Krsna, 214.
Duryodhana, part of Kali, 5, 62.
Dusyanta, 5, 138, 163.
Dvadasabhuja , an officer in Skanda's
army, 230.
Dvaipayana, 17. See Vyasa.
Dvapara age, 76 f., 183, 217.
Dvaraka, Dvaravati, city, 217.
Dvipa, continent, seven or thirteen Dvi-
pas, 8, 88, 139. See Naga-, etc.
Dvita, son of Gautama, 120, 140, 183.
Dvivida, son of an Asvin, 15, 62, 103.
168.
Dwarf, see Avatar.
Dyaus, sky, 77 f.; Vasu, 171; female, 78;
witness-god, 78; father of the race,
198; head of Visnu, 207.
Dyuti, Glory, in benedictions, 224.
Earth, worship of, 55 f.; scent and milk
ing of, 152; gives rule, typical of
patience, 56; born of Brahman, 191;
is solidified water, 179; urvi from
uru, 79; given to Kasyapa, 184; not
touched by gods, 57; as witness,
earth on the head, 66, 80; as Gauri,
225; affected by Fate, 74, 79; raised
by Boar, 79, 114; addresses Indra,
79; chariot of gods, navel of, Ma-
dhavi belongs to Visnu, 80; receives
sin, 130, 132; bharavataranam, 210;
as Viraj or daughter of Viraj, 78,
148; interchanges with Soma as
guardian of North-East, 149; as feet
of Visnu, 207 ; seers uphold, as Mahl-
devas, 177; as Prthivl and Aditi, 81.
Earthquake, see Dhundhu and Ele
phants.
Eclipse, 74, 79, 85. See Rahu.
Eduka, kind of shrine, 71.
Effort, a divine power, 53.
Egg, mundane, 45, 77; origin of gods,
etc., 81, 148, 168, 174f.; fire of de
struction kept in, 99; theory of Egg
and Brahman, 189, 190 f.; 198; theory
of Egg repudiated, 191: andajam
janma of Brahman, 200.
Ekalavya, and fetish, 73.
Ekaparna and Ekapatala, 11.
Ekasrnga, Unicorn, Rsis, 33.
Ekata, son of Gautama, 120, 140, 183.
Elapatra, a Naga, 25.
Elephants, divine, 17 f., 94, 126; world
of, 60; ridden by world-protectors,
152; cause earthquake, 79; shadow
of, on moon, 93 ; extinguish fire, 102.
Ellamma, cult of, 226.
Endurance, a divine power, 53.
Empada, 25.
Ethics, see Gods, Morality -play.
Euhemerism, 64. See Agni.
Evil Eye, 25, 99, 109; of Nahusa, 131, 150.
Eye, unwinking, 57; fire of, 99; magic
eye-wash, 144. See Caksus and Evil.
Faith, see Bhakti and Sraddha.
Fame, see Kirti.
Fata Morgana, Guhyakas like, 147; as
Gandharva cities, 157.
Fate, 73 f. ; Kytanta, 116; as Brahman, 193.
Fear, 41, 53; child of Siva, 54; causes
sacrifice, 55. See Bhaya.
Feast and Festival, of the gods, 65. See
Brahman, Funeral, Indra, Siva, Visnu.
Fetish, 73, 124.
Fever, born of Siva's wrath, 223; as
imps of Skanda, 229; cured by in
voking Asvins, 169. See Death.
Fire, see Agni.
Fish, cursed by Agni, 102; form of Ap-
saras, 163, due to curse, 193; fishes.
INDEX.
243
eat demons, 48; go to heaven, 29;
not fit offering to Visnu, 209; form
of Brahman, 201; ensign of Love,
167 ; origin of Matsyas, 163. See Avatar.
Flood, see Deluge and Manu.
Flowers, auspicious, from heaven, 67,
163, 175; in the cult, 68; food of
Nagas, red for magic, 68; offered by
women, 69; by men, 146; should be
offered to Visnu, 209; wreaths on
shrine, 72; crown Balarama, 212; on
Siva's altar, appear on his head, 221.
Fluency, see Sarasvati.
Food, provided by Brahman, 193; mo-
gham annam, 195. See Meat, Rice.
Forest, abode of demons, 40; Dandaka,
42, 179; Khandava, 28 f., 47, 52,' 102,
176; divinities of, 57; not owned, 80;
Agni goes into forest to commit sui
cide, 104; of Pitrs, 110; of hell, 111.
Funeral (Feast, Sraddha), 31 f.; cakes of,
17, 32; food at, 46; burning, embal
ming, mourning, 33; those excluded
from, 93; taught by Yama or Nimi,
116; All-gods at, 174.
G, four holy Gs, Gayatri, GIta, Ganga,
Govinda, 202.
Gadhi, Kausika, incarnate Indra, 182 f.;
184.
Gaja, son of Yama, 115.
Galava, seer of the East, 22, 177; called
son of Visvamitra, 183; vision of, 225.
Ganas, hosts, of demons, 46; of gods,
152 f.
Ganda, maid of Seven Seers, 182.
GandakI, river, 6, 209.
GandhakalT, an Apsaras, 14, 158, 160.
Gandhamadana, mountain, 8, 10, 13 f.;
18, 27, 151, 153, 176; of Kubera, 59,
143 f.; as ape, son of Kubera, 62, 143;
of Yama, 115 (also title of Havana).
Gandhapa Rsis, drinkers of scent, 186.
Gandhara, land, 29; steeds, 157.
Gandharva, 8, 10; 152 f.; world of, 31;
in East, 56; fire from world of, 157;
sing, 161; worship Visnu, 34; beauty
of, 148; horses of, 155, 157; Gan-
dharva-land, 29, 157; abode of, in air,
trees, or caves, 37, 72, 156; com
pared with demons, 38, 41, 43, 155;
watch battles, 54; do good, 175;
number of, 55, 153 f.; weapons, cities,
wedding of, 155 f.; and moon, 155;
love-gods, 156; as ascetics, 157; as
messengers, 67, 156; -grahas, 229;
gandharva as music, 153; Rohitas,
156; centaurs, 157 f.; created by Siva,
187; companions of Varuna, Indra,
Kubera, 119, 140, 142f., 147 f. Gan-
dharvi, 153, 161, 200. See Devagan-
dharvas.
Gandiva, 119, 124.
Ganesa, 106; as Nikumbha, 133; Gane-
svara as Visnu, 206f. ; Kara Ganesa,
219, 221, 224.
Ganga, Ganges, 4f., 8, 27; aerial, 60, 65,
122, 219, 233; gold from, 146; dis
course of, 69, 171 ; avenged by Brah
man, 194; mother of Skanda, 227;
as Aruna and Sarayu, 183; Rama
crosses, 212; Gangadvara, 6, 51, 65,
162. See Jahnavi, Mandakim.
Ganita, an All-god (?), 174.
Garga and Gargya, 184, 188, 223; Gargas
as Gargyas, 178; Vrddha Gargya, 32,
177.
Garhapatya Rsis, 33, 98; as Agni, 104.
Garuda, Garutmat, called Suparna, Tark-
sya, 10, 15, 200: speed of, 19; steals
Soma, 136; sons of, 19, 21 f.; destroys
poison, 26, and snakes, 43; wor
shipped, 55; world of, 60; vehicle of
Visnu, 108, 203; connection with
Valakhilyas, 21, 186; as son of Krsna,
23; gives Skanda a peacock, 228;
slays spirits, visits North, 148, 150;
Garudi, 22.
GaurT, 5; wife of Varuna, 63, 118, 120;
as Earth, Durga, Uma, 225.
Gautama, seer of Kubera and the North,
144, 182, husband of Ahalya, 183;
relations with Indra and Nimi, 135,
183; father of Girakarin and Saradvat,
138, 183; strife with Atri, 183 f. As
Maharsi and Prajapati, 177 f., 191.
Gautami, Uma, 225; river, 5.
Gavaksa, son of Yama, 115.
Gavampati, Sun, 101. See Gopa, Gopati.
Gaveya, son of Yama, 115.
Gavistha, an Asura, 52.
Gaya, seer, 7, 106; go to Gaya (or
Gauri), 225.
Gayana, an officer of Skanda, 230.
Gayatri, worshipped, 55; first of metres,
86. See Savitri.
244
INDEX.
Genius loci, 57.
Ghanabha, Ghatabha, Asuras, 51.
Ghatodara, Asura and Raksasa, 52.
Ghatotkaca, son of Bhima, 15, 39, 123.
Ghosts, Guhyakas resemble, 147. See
Preta and Pitr.
Ghrtaci, an Apsaras, 159 f.; seduces Bha-
'radvaja, 136, 162, 184- ; and Visva-
mitra, 143, 161, 164; as parrot-mother
of Suka, 163; mother of Drona, 161.
Ghrtapa Rsis, drinkers of ghee, 35, 177.
Ghrtasthala, an Apsaras; 159 f.
Gifts, to gods and priests, 68. See under
various gods.
Girika, wife of Vasu, 8.
Go, son of Varuna, 119.
Goat, averts demons, 44; tabu of flesh,
69; sacrificed, 99; form of Skanda,
230; gift of, 118. See Naigameya.
God, 7; day of, 196; in dual and triune
form, 231; as Great Father, etc., 192;
as the Golden Goose, 175. See All-
God, All-Soul.
Godavari river, 4, 185.
Gods, sons of Aditi, 81 ; sons of Pitrs,
196; worship Pitrs, 32; steal jewels,
26; worshipped by the pure, 30;
Pitrs as gods, 34—36 ; Gods as Fate,
73 f.; origin and characteristics of,
52 f.; number of, 55, 159, 198; tracks
of, 59, 86; leaders of, signs of 56 f.;
path of, 59; wives of, 61; men as
gods, 64, 146; temples of, 70 f.; wea
pons of, 123. See Fate, Pitr.
Gokarna, 220.
Golabha, a Gandharva, 153, 156.
Gold, 99, 146, 185, 217.
Goloka, World of Cows. See Cow.
Gomati, river, 28; marries Visvabhuj, 101.
Gomayu, a Gandharva, 152.
Gomukha, son of Matali, 125.
Goose, see Hamsa.
Gopa and Gopati, Gandharvas, 153; of
Visnu, 206; demon overcome byKrsna,
217. See Varuna, Gavampati, Indra,
and Sun (epithet of).
Gorocana, dispels demons, 44.
Govardhana, mountain, 9, 140, 216.
Govinda, 192, 200 f.; gam vindati, 207 f.,
210f. See Krsna.
Grace, prasada, of gods, 68; of Visnu,
creates Brahman, 218; of Brahman,
194; of Guru, 106. Grace, yasas, v. s. v.
Graha, planet; planets as Mahagrahas,
85; Kadru as Grain, 28; Apsaras,
158; diseases as Grahas, 44; demons
as Devagrahas, 34, 229. See Siva and
Skanda.
Grail, 85.
Grain, offerings of, 33.
Gramam, a Gandharva, 41, 153, 156.
Gramya, an All-god, 174.
Grass, not to be cut, 69; eating grass,
sign of submission, 80; Sagaras be
come grasshoppers, 217. See Sod.
Greeks, see Kalayavana, Kaserumat,Ya-
vanas.
Grhadevi, 41, 57.
Grhapati, fire, 101.
Grtsamada, 179, 187.
Guest, the dead, of gods, 108 ; guest-law,
power of guests, 66; guest-rights, 103.
Guha, see Skanda and Kubera.
Guhyakas, 10; world of, 31, 148; carry
Kubera, at his court, 61, 142 f., 144 f.,
147 f.
GunakesI, daughter of Matali, 125.
Gunamukhya, and Gunavara, Apsarasas,
160.
Guru, 15, 106, 144.
Haha-Huhu, Gandharvas, 153 f., 163.
Haihaya, see Kartavirya, Vitahavya.
Haimavati, 63; 224.
Hair, 110, 223. See Raumya, Narayana.
Halima, a Mother of Skanda, 229.
Hallisaka, see Dance.
Hamsa, goose, 19 f., 51; world of, 60:
as sun, 89; moon-like, 92; geese and
peacocks as psychopomps, 109; carry
Kubera, 142, 148 ; carry Brahman, 194;
carry Visnu, 203; carry saints, 160:
Golden Goose as God, 175 ; jalapada,
sign of Visnu, 206; Hamsa, a Gan
dharva, also as Danava, 67, 153 ; Hamsa
Maharsis, 177; Avatar, 217; king,
212; Mahahamsa, 218.
Hamsika, divine cow, world-protector, 200.
Hanumat, 8, 13 f., 57, 62, 134, 164; as
ensign, 22, 28; as messenger, 67;
image of, 73, 96 f. ; Varuna's boon to,
120; cursed, 179; recognises Brahman's
goodness, 194; describes Ravana, 42.
Happiness, see Sri.
Kara, a demon, 52, 219; a Rudra, 173;
as Siva, 219 f. See Hari-Hara.
INDEX.
245
Hari, son of Taraka, 50, 52; officer of
Skanda, 230 ; as Visnu, 152, 213, 215.
Hari-giri, 10; -gitas, 213; Hari-Harau,
218, note. See Hari-Rudrau.
Harihaya, epithet of Indra and Visnu,
218.
Harimedhas, 86.
Harim. daughter of Nisa (v. 1. Rohini), 101.
Hari-Rudrau, 221. See Hari-Harau.
Hariscandra, royal seer, 61, 140; son of
Visvamitra, 183.
Harsa, Joy, son of Love and brother of
Love, 165, 199.
Hasim, an Apsaras, 160.
Hataka, source of gold, guarded by Guh-
'yakas, 146.
Hatha, Hathavadakas, 75.
Havana, a Rudra, 173.
Havis, a Marut. 170.
Havismati, a fire, 100.
Hawk, see Sibi.
Hayagrlva, a demon, slain by Krsna, 204,
215 ; Hayaraja, 51 ; Hayasiras, horse-
head form of Visnu, as Avatar, 197,
203, 218. See Aurva, Vadavamukha.
Head, earth put upon, 80.
Heaven, translation to, 31 ; of Rbhus,
35 ; personified, 53 ; character of, 60 ;
seven doors of, 112. See Dyaus, Loka,
Svarga.
Hell, 54; number of hells, lllf.; as de
struction, 109 f.; as rebirth, 60, 112;
world of sinners, 61, 87; Ocean goes
to, 121; as Yama's abode, 108 f., 110;
called Raurava, discussed by Indra,
66, 110 f., 137; narakagni, hell-fire,
110, 115; torture-tree of, and other
horrors, lllf.; hell on earth, 112;
Nirrti, 148; hell of water, 111; no
water in hell, 109; Brahman sends
to, 193. See Naraka.
Hema, an Apsaras, 160; cave of, 164;
loved by Maya, 49, 133.
Hemadanta, an Apsaras, 160.
Hemagiri, 91.
Hemamala, wife of Yama, not epic, 116.
Hemanetra, an attendant of Kubera, 144.
Hermitage, see Asrama.
Heti, 41 ; wife of, 107.
Hidimba, and -a, 39 f., 44.
Hima, an Apsaras, 160.
Himavat, Himalaya, Home of Snow, 5,
6, 8f., 33; invoked, 80; cursed 179,
226 ; resort of Garuda, 22 ; of the Loka-
palas, 150, of Valakhilyas, 186; of
Brahman, 193; has a wonder-tree, 219;
gift of, to Skanda, 230; challenged
to fight, 49; contains gold and ele
phants. 18, 146. See Haimavati.
Hinduka, Siva, 220.
Hipparchus, 197.
Hiranyagarbha, 192.
Hiranyakasipu, chief Asura, 46 f., 50 f.,
130 ; son of Diti, 199 ; wife of, 101 ;
father of Sibi, 104 ; interchanges with
Vrtra and Namuci, 132; slain by Visnu,
210 f., 217.
Hiranyaksa, 48, 50, 185, 217.
Hiranyapur, 50, 194.
Hladini, river, 5.
Honey, in heaven, 61; offering of, 92;
not offered to Visnu, 209; sees honey
but not the fall, 147.
Hope, allegory of, 187.
Horse, sacrifice of, 16, 72; head of, in
sacrifice, 103; sacrifice of, performed
by Indra, 130; horses become gods,
18 ; as Gandharvas and gifts of, 155 ;
sky-going horses, 158 ; sun as horse,
204; Asvakimpurusa, centaur, 157 f.;
horse-faced women, 176 ; horse-faced
Visnu, 197. See (horses of) Sun, Ocean,
Varuna, Vamadeva, Rcika; Hayasiras,
Vadavamukha ; also names beginning
with Asva and Haya.
Hradodara, killed by Skanda, 228.
Hri, 54, 81, 224.
Hrimat, an All-god, 174.
Huhu, 153. See Haha-Huhu.
Hunting, evil, 50; of deer, legalised by
Agastya, 185.
Husband, as god, 65.
Hutahavyavaha, son of Vasu Dhara,
170.
Hyperboreans, see Uttara Kurus.
Hypnotism, 135.
Idol, 72 f.; images of various sorts, 73.
Iksvaku, gourd, husband of Alambusa,
' 40, 122 ; son of Manu, 201 ; father of
Ocean, 121 ; and of Visala, 134.
Ila, Ila, androgynous, 225; Sudyumna,
91, 148, 159, 201, 227.
Illusion, see Maya.
Ilvala, 48, 51, 185; -a, 143.
Image, see Idol.
246
INDEX.
Immortality, 50; of gods, 58; given by
gods, 67; by Siva, 187; by Brahman,
194.
Incense, forms of, 69; religious use of
perfumes, 72.
Indra, 122 f.; son of Aditi, 3f., 7f.,81f.;
wife, of, 13, 50, 123, 141; described,
epithets of, 122; strength of, 137 f.;
father of Arjuna, overcome by Arjuna,
122, 214; teaches Arjuna, 123; father
of apes, 15, 62, 141 ; of Jayanta, 125,
141 ; of Bhutadhaman, 34, 36 ; as fighter
106, 123 f.; captured by Indrajit, 140;
feared, 55, 64; as phenomenon, 53;
as rain-god, 123, 127 f., 186; elephant
of, 17, 126; slays elephant, 18; re
covers ear-rings, 26; Indra and Vis-
vamitra, 137 f.; and Valakhilyas, 21,
84, 136; and Nahusa, 26, 131; and
Trisiras and Vrtra, 130 f. ; and Namuci,
132; and Mamdhatr, 43; and Prahlada,
137; and seers, 178, 182; injures
Hanumat, 14, 134, 140 ; friend of Ga-
ruda, 22 ; of Taksaka, 29 ; of Skanda,
126; helps fighters, 54; gives Sword,
150; gives courage and children, 123,
138; invents weapons, etc., 124;
prophesies, 138; restores life, 30, 137,
155; takes Laksmana to heaven, 140;
takes priest's elephant to heaven,
109 ; changes Matanga into bird, 137 ;
comforts SIta, 194; battles of, 129,
195; defeated, 133; robbed of tree,
140; conquers demons, 47, 50, 122,
134; Maya, 49, 133; Sambara, 134;
slays Puloman, 123; king of Maruts,
in East, 56, 96, 123; discusses hells,
137; hears Sri's tale, 47, 135; hears
Surabhi, 135; converses with Kali,
76; with Earth and Brhaspati, 79,
135; Gathas of, 136; 'wealth and
attendants of, 57, 146, 173; gifts of,
127 f.; court and city of, 58 f.; worlds
of, 60 f., 134 ; mountain of, foe of moun
tain, 123, 141; immanent in king, 64;
in Gadhi, 184; honors valor and hos
pitality, 66, 138, 195; guests of Indra.
138; instruction, morality, treatise of,
106, 123, 133, 137f., 195; festival,
days, consecration of, 69, 125 f., 141;
sacrifices, bathes, 117, 130, 132; hides
in lotus, 130; lotus-theft, 137; lives
at Visala, 134; sport and drunkenness
of, lover of Rambha, 72, 138, 141,
164; his bolt of bones, 81, 84, 122 f.,
130, 187; his Guru, 139, 150; Indra
and Vayu, 94, 137; and Agni, 102 f.,
132, 136, 169; and Varuna, 116; and
Kubera, 142 f.; and lesser gods, 123,
129, 138 f.; and Garuda, 136; Visnu
and Siva, 130; paralysed, 135, 188;
fears seers, 138 f.; revived, 183; re
ceives and transmits hymn, 88; tales
of, 136 f.; functions usurped, 127 f.;
eyes of, 162; disguises of, 104, 133,
137, 182; sin of, 132, 135 f.; seers of,
138; as Lokapala, 149 f.; relation with
greater gods, 139 f., 193, 204, 218,
222, 226, 229 f. See Mahendra.
Indradyumna, conquered, 217.
Indrajala. 215.
Indrajanu, an ape, 140.
Indrajit, Meghanada, 13, 40, 43; mother
of, 49; sacrifice of, 99, 179; car of,
102; has Yama's darts, 112; contest
of, 212; reveres Nikumbhila, 225;
reason for name, 133, 135, 140.
Indraklla, mountain, 141.
IndranI, 159. See Indra.
Indraprastha, 141.
Indrasena, 141.
Indrayudha, rainbow, 124.
Indus, see Sindhu.
Intoxication, evil of, 50, 59 ; of gods, 59,
212 ; intoxicants offered to demons, 69.
Invulnerability, granted by Brahman,
194 f.
Ira, an Apsaras, 160.
Iravat, 26; Iravati, river, 5, 200.
Isa, an All-god (?), 174; Brahman, 197;
also title of Siva.
Isana, a Sadhya, 170, 175; also title of
Siva.
Isvara, 75; devesvara, applied to sundry
gods, 84; name of a Rudra, 173;
perhaps an All-god, 174; fsana and
Isvara of Brahman, 192. See Mahes-
vara.
His, agricultural disasters, 128.
Jabali, a sage, 177.
Jagannatha, Juggernaut, Buddhist title
of Brahman, assumed by Visnu, 192.
Jahnu, Jahnavi, Ganges, 4f., 63; Jahnu
as son of Kesim, 122; Visnu, 207.
Jaigisavya, a seer, 11, 61, 223.
INDEX.
247
Jains, views of, in epic, llOf., 112, 176,
211.
Jajali, a seer. 45.
Jaloda, sagarasrestha, 23 (may be ad
jective).
Jamadagni, son of Bcika, 179; related
to Surya and Vi^vamitra, 86 f., 183;
one of Kubera's Seven Seers, 144,
177; father of Rama, 184, 211.
Jambavat and Jambavati, 13 f., 55, 191,
195.
Jambha, slain by Indra, and by Krsna,
46, 134, 169, 215.
Jambhaka, demon, 134; Jambhasadha-
kas, 147.
Jambu, Jambudvlpa, 10 f.; -nadl, 5;
-vrksa, 8, J46.
Jambuka, life restored, 225; officer of
Skanda, 230.
Jami, an Apsaras, 160.
Janaka, Daivarati, 188.
Janamejaya, 29, 77, 139.
Janapadi, an Apsaras, as devakanya and
messenger, 138, 160 f.
Jara, born of Brahman, 41, 191.
Jarasandha, 213 f., heretic, 217, 226.
Jaratkaru, 35, 185.
Jatarupa, mountain, 23.
Jatasura, 39 f.
Jatayus, son of Aruna, 22 f., 84, 200;
conquered, 43; burned, 86; late epi
sode, 191, 211.
Jatila, GautamI, 182.
Jatin, a Naga, 28.
Jaya and Mahajaya, attendants of Skanda,
as Nagas._230.
Jayanta, as Aditya, 81 f.; son of Indra,
and a Rudra, 141, 173; -ti, 141.
Jimuta, gold mines of, 146, 188.
Jitatman, an All-god, 174.
JIva, form of Visnu, 206.
Jivamjivaka, bird, 19.
Joy, see Harsa.
Jrmbhaka and Jrmbhika, Yawn, created
by gods, 131.
Jumna, see Yamuna.
Jvalajihva, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Jvara, Fever, born of Diva's wrath, 223.
Jyestha, Samavedantaga seer, 179.
Jyotis, a Marut, also son of Ahar Vasu,
170; attendant of Skanda, 230.
Jyotsna, 225; Jyotsnakali, daughter of
Soma, 91.
Ka, as Daksa, 190; Ka and Kim as
Visnu, 204.
Kabandha, 20; ascetic, 195; Rahu, 45,
47; sun, 85; Danu, 134.
Kaca, son of Brhaspati, powdered and
eaten, 18, 180, 185.
Kacchapa, 25.
Kadamba, tree under which Lohitayam
is worshipped, 7.
Kadru, daughter of Daksa, 23 f., 199; a
Grahi,28 ; mother of Nagas(pannagas),
48, 200.
KaikasI, 41 f.
Kailasa, 8, 10f.; abode of gods, espe
cially of Kubera and Siva, 59, 142 f.,
144.
Kaitabha, demon, 9, 47, 49; slain by
Uma, 224. See Madhu.
Kaki, mother of crows, 199; a Mother
of Skanda, 229.
Kaksivat, Ausija, son of Brhaspati, one
of Indra's Seven Seers, 138, 181.
Kala Pitrs, 33; Kala, Raksasi, 42, 48;
mother of Sons of Wrath, 199.
Kala, Time, lllf.; as Yama, 41; not
Yama, as hell, 111; feared distinct
from Yama, 55, 74 f.; as Death, 75;
son of the Vasu Dhruva, 75, 170;
forms of, 113; gocaras of, 174; as
dharamdhara, 177; charioteer of Siva,
223; Pancakala, 218; dramatic form
of, 53; divisions of, personified, 54,
76; as Fate, 73 f.; as Sun, 76; wheel
of, 113, 168; rod of, 112; noose of
Time and of Varuna, 135; reckoned
by Yugas and Kalpas, 196; Kalagni,
99, 217.
Kalajnana (sixty-four arts), 223.
Kalaka, demon, 200.
Kalakanjas and Kalakeyas, see Ka-
leyas.
Kalamma, cult of, 226.
Kalamra, tree, 8.
Kalanemi, form of Kamsa, 43, 48, 76,
206, 211, 217.
Kalantaka, Yama, 115.
Kalaratri, 76, 115.
Kalasarpa, 25.
Kalasutra, 111.
Kalayavana, son of Gopala, 164; slain
by Krsna, 215, 217.
Kaleyas, same as Kalakeyas and Kala
kanjas, demons, 46, 48 f.; city of, 50;
248
INDEX.
hide in ocean, 121; defeated by
Agastya, 185.
Kali, son of Muni, 7, 199; Duryodhana
a part of, 62; a Devagandharva, 62,
153; general description of, 76 f. ;
Kali age, 106, 217.
Kali, 226. See Uma.
Kalika, alternate form of Pilnika; Kalika,
a wife of Kasyapa, 200.
Kalinda and (river) Kalindi, 5, 121.
Kalinga, 5, 47 ; kings of, as Asuras, 48 ;
shrines beyond, 72; overcome by
Krsna, 215; officer of Skanda, 230;
Siva Kalingarupa, 223.
Kalki, Avatar, 217 f.
Kalmasapada, Mitrasaha Saudasa, quar
rel of, 182 f.; army of, slaughtered,
133, 207, note.
Kalpa, reckoning by, 196.
Kalpadruma and Kalpavrksa, see Tree.
Kama, Love, called Ananga, Kandarpa,
Madana, Manmatha, universal power,
origin of, 164 f. ; personified, 53; im
manent in man, 62, 116; lord of the
world, 80, 165; as dharanidhara, 177;
son of Svaha, 100 f.; son of Right
and Faith, 165, 199; one with Fire,
102; fire of love, 98; beauty of, 101;
makara of, 167 ; arrows and hook of,
165; consumed by Siva, 164 f., 223;
Kamadeva as Pradyumna, 164, 214;
Kamesvara, 148; father of Joy and
Grace, 165; consort of Rati, 165;
tries to deceive Visvamitra, 137, 161 ;
at Varuna's court, 119; Kamagita
Gathas, 164; love-deities, 156; as
eternal will, produced by Siva and
Agni, 228; Kamajit as Skanda, 229;
kama in triad, 164; kamasastra,
167. See Apsaras, Fish, Gandharva,
Rali; and for love and death, see
Mara.
Kamadhuk, 78, 121, 141; world-cow,
152, note; 200.
Kamatha, Kamathaka, tortoise-names,
201.
Kambala, a Naga, 29.
Kampilya, 156.
Kamsa, form of Kalanemi, 67, 214f., 217.
Kamya, an Apsaras, 160.
Kamyastami, 16, 70.
Kancana, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Kandu, sinless cow-killer, 16.
Kanva, seer of Indra, 138, 177.
Kanya, -asrama, of Uma, 225.
Kapalamocana, Tirtha, 180.
Kapalin, a Rudra, 173; epithet of Siva,
q. v.
Kapardin, see £iva.
Kapas, spirits, 176.
Kapata, an Asura, 51.
Kapila, 22, 24, 86, 89, 101, 191, 216; as
dharanidhara, 177; as Visnu, 86, 199;
atVaruna's court, 119; field of, 182;
deva, 183; Avatar, 218.
Kapila, daughter of Daksa, mother of
Apsarasas, 152, 159; mother of cows,
priests, ambrosia, etc., 199.
Kapila, sect, 86, 88_.
Kapileya, pupil of Asuri, 188.
Kapotaroman, Pigeon-hair, son of Sibi,
104.
Karala, a Gandharva, 153.
Karanja, tree, 7.
Kardama, a Prajapati, 13, 26, 166, 191,
200.
Karkotaka, a Naga, 24 f.
Karma, 64; and Fate, 74 f.; doctrine re
pudiated, 67 f, 134; a form of Death,
116.
Karmin, son of Usanas, 180.
Karna, son of Surya, 39, 51, 87.
Karnika, an Apsaras, 159 f.
Karsni, a Gandharva, 153.
Kartavirya, Arjuna Haihayesa, has one
thousand arms, 184; attacks Ocean,
121; cursed by Vasistha, 183; rela
tions to Rama, 184, 217.
Kartr, an All-god (?), 174.
Karttika, month, 69; KarttikI, 69, 230;
Karttikeya, see Skanda.
Karusa, or -sa, origin of name, 132;
seers, 177.
Kaserumat, Greek, conquered by Krsna,
216 f.
Kashmir, 29, 209; devoted to Siva-cult,
226.
Kasi, son of Kavi, 178; Kasi, see Benares.
Kasyapa, a Prajapati, son of Marici, 81,
177, tortoise, 200; dvipa, 11, 27;
wifes of, 13, 25, 63, 81, 121, 190 f.;
seer of Kubera and of the North,
142, 182; priest of Jamadagnya, 184;
father of Garuda, 21; of demons, 47;
of Nagas, 28; of Adityas, 81, 84; of
Maruts and All-gods, 96, 174; of
INDEX.
249
Gandharvas and Rudras, 152, 173;
of the crane Nadijangha, 184; shrine
of, 72; adopts Earth, 79, 184; re
strains Earth, 80; discourses, 51, 120,
162; and Bala and Atibala, 200.
Kasyapa, seers, 60, 137, 177; as son of
Kavi, 178.
Kathaka, officer of Skanda, 230.
Katyayana, seer, 178, 188; -m, Uma, 224.
Kaumodaki, Krsna' s club, 117, 215.
Kauravya, a Naga, 24.
Kausika, 66, 177, 182. See Indra, Vis-
vamitra.
Kausiki, river, 5, 183 (Para); as Uma, 224.
Kauseya, a Maharsi, 177.
Kaustubha, jewel, 55, 121, 200, 205.
Kavasa, a Maharsi, 177.
Kaveri, river, 4, 160.
Kavi, Usanas, 120, 178 f.; an All-god (?),
174; as son of Brahman, 191.
Kavya, see Usanas.
Kekaya, father of the Asura Asvapati, 49.
Kesarin, husband of Hanumat's mother,
10, 14 f., 82, 164.
Kesin, son of Danu, 48, 51, 199; fights
with Kubera, 144; wounded by Indra,
229; slain by Krsna- Visnu, 206, 215 f.,
217.
KesinI, wife of Sagara, 63, 122, 160.
Ketu Rsis, 35.
Ketumala, land, 11.
Ketumati, a Gandharvl, 41.
Khalin Asuras, 47; outwit the gods, 49;
slain by Vasistha, 183.
Khandava, see Forest.
Khandoba, modern form of Siva, 227,
note.
Khara, Ass, Raksasa, 42, 143, 212.
Khasa, mother of demons, 38, 41, 47.
Kicaka, 88; Kicaka demons, 47, 49.
Kimkara demons, of Yama, 112. See
Raksasas.
Kimnaras, descendants of Pulastya, wor-
' ship Pitrs, 32, 54, 142f., 152f.; come
from feet of Brahman, 159; created
by Budha, ib.; do good and rejoice,
175; Kirnnari, fair, deserted, 57,
158.
Kimpurusas, descendants of Pulaha, an-
'drogynous, 43, 143, 146, 148, 158.
King, as incorporate spirit, 48; as divine,
but may be killed, 64, 71, 184; deified
by Atri, 184; healing touch of, 64.
Kiratas, mountaineers, born of Agni, 104.
Kirmira, a Raksasa, 39 f.
Kirti, Fame, daughter of Daksa, 54, 199,
224.
Kirtimat, father of Kardama, 166; an
All-god, 174.
Kokamukha, Wolf-face (Durga), 225.
Kolahala, mountain, 8.
Kratha, demon destroyed by Krsna, 216.
Kratu, Niyata, form of fire, 101; perhaps
father of Valakhilyas, 186, 191; father
of Sun-guarding seers, 199 f.; mental
son of Brahman, 189.
Krauiica, mountain, pierced by Skanda,
9, 18, 227 f.; home of Vidyadharas,
176.
Kravyada Pitrs, 34.
Kriya, daughter of Daksa, wife of Brah
man and of Dharma, 83, 199.
Krodha, Wrath, 53, 116; child of Siva,
54, 62; fire of, 98; and Kama, 164.
Krodha, mother of Bhuts, 36; of Kro-
dhavasas, 46, 199.
Krodhavasa, 199 f.; Krodhavasa demons,
38, 45; as Kalinga kings, 48.
Krostr, Jackal, son of Yadu, ancestor
of Krsna, 214.
Krpa, son of Gautama, 183.
Krsna, 3, 7, 9, 10, 12, 51; 203 f., 213 f.:
wife and wives of, 13, 63, 163, 188,
214; charioteer of Arjuna, 215; uses
Garuda, 22; father of a Garuda, 23;
uses Visnu's discus, arms, steeds of,
206, 215; conquers Varuna and Paii-
cajana, 214; helped by the Sun, 88;
by Varuna and Pavaka, 215; Krsna
and Sesa, 24; slays Ogha and other
demons, 41, 48, 215 f.; at Khandava,
47; upholds mountain. 216; as demi
god, 203; with Balarama, 214; with
Indra and Utanka, 137 ; as Lokapala,
152; gets power from the gods, 215;
ignoble tricks of, 212, 215; two Krsnas,
214; as child, 216; holy days of^ 69 f.,
217; Yadusrestha, 206; as part of
Visnu, 215; names of, 217; shrines
of,' 217; marvels told of, 113, 215f.;
with Upakrsnaka, 230; relations with
Visnu, 204 f., 213 f.; with Siva, 80,
216f., 221.
Krta, age, 48, 75 f., 178, 217; as an
' All-god, 174.
Krtanta, see Fate.
250
INDEX.
Krtavirya, 179.
Krti, an All-god (?), 174.
Krttikas, mothers of Skanda, 53, 105 f.,
' 227 f.
Ksema, an Apsaras, 160; Ksema or
Ksemya, an All-god, 174.
Ksetrajna, form of Visnu, 206.
Ksirapa, milk-drinking, Rsis, 34.
Ksubh, sun-worshipper, 89.
Ksupa, born of Brahman, 13, 198. See
Sneeze.
Kubera, Vaisravana, Northern god, 8,
10, 182; parents of, 42, 142; wife of,
63, 142; seers of, 144; father of
Gandhamadana, 62; of Nalakubara,
142 f.; austerity and deformity of,
142, 147; elephant of, 17; geese of,
19, 142, 144, 148; grove of, 139;
attendants of, 38, 144; and Vibhlsana,
43; lord of Yatudhanas, Yaksas, etc.,
44 f., 142 f., 147 f.; of Gandharvas,
152, 155 f.; called Rajaraja, Guhya-
dhipa, Bhutesa, Ailavila, Naravahana,
142, 144 f.; overcome by Usanas, who
robs him, 147, 180; cursed by Agas-
tya, 185; worshipped, especially for
treasure, 55, 146; wealth and car of,
57, 142 f., 145 f.; as leader, 56; as
lizard, 58, 143; as god of product
ivity, 147 f.; god of power, 117; im
manent in kings, 64; world of, 60;
gets divinity from Brahman, 142 f.;
heavenly home and city of, 59, 142,
144; fights with Kesin, 144; con
verses with Mucukunda, 147; friend
of Citraratha, 144; of Indra, 139;
leads Siva's host, 145; gives Siva's
weapon to Arjuna and helps Rama,
144, 161; as Lokapala, 149 f.; rela
tions with Siva, 219, 222, note.
Kuberaka, calf of the ,,good people", 148.
Kuhu, 70, 100 f.
Kuksi, disarnpala, 200.
Kulaparvata, mountains, 8.
Kumara, see Skanda; Kumarl, Uma, 225;
Kumarakas as Grahas, 230.
Kumbha, demon, 48; son of Prahlada,
133, 199.
Kumbhakarna, 18, 39; origin of, 41 f..
43, 127, 143; defeats Indra, 133; his
curse of sleep, 194.
Kumbhanda demons, 52.
Kumbhayoni, an Apsaras, 160.
Kumbhmasi, wife of Citraratha, also of
Madhu, 155.
Kumuda, elephant. 17: attendant of
Skanda, 230.
Kunda, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Kunda, a Naga, 25.
Kundadhara, cloud as Maharsi, 188.
Kuiijara, father of Anjana, 14, 164; name
of Vasistha's mountain, 9, 185.
Kunti, Sun's gift to, 88, 214.
Kurma, tortoise, Naga, and Kurmarupa
Asura, 201.
Kuruksetra, 29; holiness of, 109, 136,
149, 193; Tirtha of, 209.
Kurus, as Nagas, 24, 28; descend from
an Asura, 51; from the Sun, 88: as
£ivaites, 213, 219f.
Kusadvipa, 10.
Kusanabha, daughter of, 96, 156; and
Ghrtaci, 164.
Kusik'a, 182 f.
Kusmandaka (Naga), and Kusmandl (Uma)
52.
Kustumbaru, follower of Kubera, 156.
Kusuma, attendant of Siva, 230.
Kutsa, seer, 177.
Kuvalasva, 49.
Kuvalayapida, elephant of Kamsa, 217.
Lajja, Modesty, 199.
Laksana, an Apsaras, 160.
Laksmana, and Rama, 174; and Indrajit,
212; taken to heaven, 140; wife of,
156; Laksmana, an Apsaras, 160.
Laksmi, 53 f.; wife of Damodara (Visnu),
63; from milk-ocean, 200; and Ala-
ksmi, 76; sky-horses of, 158, 199, 208;
with Indra, as Sri, 141; separate
from Sri, 224; with Kubera, 143;
especially as wife of Visnu, 55, 208 f.;
as Rukmim, 163; as Devasena, 229:
in creation, 190 f., 199; as moon-
phase, 102.
Lamps, religious use of, 32; gift of, 87,
109.
Land, gift of, 80.
Langalin, Balarama, 212.
Lanka, 14 f., 108, 127, 142.
Lata, an Apsaras, 160; becomes a cro
codile, 163.
Lavana, 43, 139; son of Kumbhmasi, 155.
Law, created by Brahman, 194. See
Dharma.
INDEX.
251
Lekhas, 36, 186 f.
Levirate, 166.
Lie, of Indra, 131. See Truth.
Light, deified, 53; is goodness, 84; three-
colored, 168.
Lightning, one with Fire, 102; form of
Siva, 222.
Likhita, story of, 188.
Liriga, 222 and note, ib. See Siva.
Lion, form of Siva, lions draw his car,
223. See Man-lion.
Lizard, 188. See Kubera.
Logos, form of Brahman, 178; Vyasa
Krsna as, 216.
LohitayanI, 7.
Lokas, Worlds, three, 60, 150; or more,
35, 61; Bhurloka, etc., 11, 35; sepa
rate worlds of gods, 141; bad worlds,
60; loka as log, 193; supported by
earth, 78; lowest worlds, 111.
Lokacara, Narada, 189.
Lokalokas, 222.
LokanadI, 6.
Lokapalas, elephants of, 18; worlds of,
61; as chief gods, 77, 82, 83 f., 149 f.;
give Sword to Manu, 176; sublimated
forms of, 152, 213.
Lola, father of Madhu, 155.
Lomasa. seer, 177.
Lopamudra, wife of Agastya, 185.
Lotus and lily, red not worn, 68; carried
by Agni, 107; Indra hides in, 130;
theft of, 137, 182; of Visnu, Sri ka-
malalaya, 205; lotus-born Brahman,
191, 205; form of Visnu, 208, 218;
Padmanabha, 217.
Love, see Kama.
Macakruka, 149.
Mada, 50, 138, 168.
Madayanti, mother of Asmaka, 182 f.
Madhava, 203; Madhavi, daughter of
Yayati, 104, 187.
Madhu, 9, 43, 155, 192; and Kaitabha,
47; father of Dhundhu, 49; Death
from marrow of, 78 ; as Daitya Asura,
199; Madhusudana, 203.
Madhura, king of, 132; place of Krsna,
217; mace flung to, 226; Mathura,'214.
Madhurasvara, or -na, an Apsaras, 160.
Magadha, weather of, 201 ; Sivaite, 226 ;
Magadhi, a Mother, 220.
Maghavat, Indra, 82, 122.
Magic, 26; red flowers for, 68; badly
used is destructive, 120; magic eye
wash, 144; vidya as magic, 175 f.
See Mantra.
Mahabahu, a Marut (may be adjective),
170.
Mahabhaga, Sapta-. 218.
Mahabhaya, Terror, son of Adharma,
109, 199.
Mahabhisak, Rajarsi, 187.
Mahadeva, Visnu, 204, 219; Siva, 219
et passim; -devi, Uma, (passim); Aditi,
81; Laksmf, 225.
Mahajaya, see Jay a.
Mahakala, Siva, 219; -kali, Uma, 224 f.
Mahamati, form of fire, 100.
Mahanadi, 110.
Mahanidra, Uma, 224.
Mahfipadma, elephant, 17, 126.
Maharajas, of Buddhists, 152, note;
Caturmaharajika, 218.
Maharsis, 35, 177 f.
Mahasruti, 153.
Mahayamya, Citragupta, 218.
Mahendra, Indra, 55; and Upendra, 204;
mountain, 8, 48, 141, 160, 185, 193.
Mahesvara, Indra, 220; Siva, 219; a
Rudra, 173; -rl, Uma, 224.
Mahidevas, as seers. 177.
Mahlrana, an All-god, 174.
Mahisa, Danava Asura, 49; a Sadhya,
175; head of, bars northern pass, 186;
slain by Mahisasrkpriya Uma, 224;
slain by Skand'a, 228.
Mahismati, land where Agni always re
sides, 103.
Mahodara, head of, 180.
Mahoraga. see Naga.
Mainaka, mountain, 8f., 10f., 14, 59.
Mainda, son of an Asvin, 15, 62, 103, 168.
Maitravaruni, 118.
Maitri, 89.
Malabar, 176.
Malada, origin of name, 132.
Malavi, an Apsaras, 49, 160.
Malaya, 22, 160, 185.
Malin and Malim, 41, 143, 159 f.; a
Mother, 229.
Malyavat, mountain, 10; demon, 41.
Mamata, mother of Dirghatamas, 181.
See Utathya.
Mamdhatr, 43, 92, 127, 139, 169.
Manasa, lake, 19, 130.
252
INDEX,
Mandakarni, rejuvenated, 163.
Mandakinl, aerial Ganges, 6, 60, 161.
Mandapala, 35, 115.
Mandara, mountain, 9f., 29, 200; Indra
prays there, 140; covers earth, 151;
Gandharvas on, 153 f., 159 f. ; Man-
daravasim, Uma, 225.
Mandara, tree, 7.
Mandeha spirits, 44.
Mandodarl, wife of Havana, 49.
Manes, see Pitrs.
Mani, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Manibhadra, -vara, or Manicara, -vara,
son of Rajatanabha, 144, 148, 154.
Mamka, a Naga, 28.
Manimat. demon and king and Naga, 38,
129, 144, 148; ManimatI, town, 38, 51.
Mankanaka, spirit, 149; seer, 188.
Man-lion, 208, 210f., 217 f. See Avatar.
Manmatha, see Kama; Manmathakara,
officer of Skanda, as genius of pro
ductivity, 230.
Manohara, an Apsaras, 160.
Manojava, son of Anila and Siva, 170.
Manorama or Mena, an Apsaras, 6, 160.
Manovati, an Apsaras, 159 f.
Manthara, daughter of Yirocana, 133;
a Gandharvi, 156.
Mantra, in magic, 25; power of, 176;
for the dead, 33; raises demons, 44;
dispels demoniac illusion, 40; dis
pels disease demon, 44; compels gods,
62; said over food, 44; over weapons,
124; over plants, 181; brahmasutra
said over armor, 197.
Manu, son of Brahman and Suryaputra,
190f.; older than Yama, 107, 201;
as son of Dyaus, 77; Aditya,Vivasvat,
-¥aivasvata, 81^85, 88, 2Qlj Savarni,
85 f., 181, 188, 202; Caksusa, 36,
174, 202; Svarocisa, 202; four, seven,
fourteen Manus, 201, 202,222; Manu
and Yama, 116; marries daughters
of Daksa, 199; an Agni, 202; father
ofVaja, 35; of Danda, 179; of Vena,
166; of Arusi, 179; Manu or Muni,
father or son of Vasu, 170, 199;
father of fires as Manu or Manyati,
101; father of All-gods, 174; teaches
Soma, 155 ; receives the Sword, 176 ;
Sastra of, 179 ; in the ark, 182 ; Man-
vantaras, 36, 196 f., 222; Manu as
daughter of Daksa and Apsaras, 160,
200; Manu's diadem made by Brah
man, 195. Manu ancestor of Krsna,
214. See Merusavarni and Muni.
Manyati, or Manu, 100 f.
Manyumat, son of Bhanu, a fire, 101.
Mara, Love and Death (Pradyumna). 166.
Mare's Mouth, see Vadavamukha.
Marganapriya, an Apsaras, 160.
Margasirsa, month, 69, 203.
Mari-amma, cult of, 226.
Marica, 43, 81; becomes a fiend, 185.
Marici, 96, 170; demiurge, 189 f.; gives
the Sword to Rsis, 176; an Apsaras,
160, 200; Marlcipa Rsis, 35, 177;
Marlcipas as Valakhilyas, 186.
Markandeya, seer, 177; wife and age of,
63, 188; announces godship of Go-
vinda, 213.
Marriage, made in heaven, 66; by Brah
man, 193; god and month for, 69,
84; pradaksina at, 106.
Martanda, Vivasvat, 81, 107, 168.
Maru, a Vasu, 170.
Maruta, a Sadhya, 175.
Maruta, a people, 96; Marutaskandha,
229. See Maruts and Vayu.
Maruts, 8, 34; sons of Diti or of Aditi
and Dharma, 81, 199; from ma rudas,
96; with Rbhus, 35; with ASvins, 169;
feared and worshipped, 55; kings of
ganas, 56, 169; world of, 60, 94;
names of, pranas, 95, 170; belong to
Indra, 125 f., 130, 140, 169 f.; as Pra-
japatis, seven or seven times seven,
94 f., 96, 170; Maruti, and Wind as
Marut, 94 f.
Marutta, Rajarsi, 106 f., 139 f.; relation
to Angiras, 180 f.; wealth of, 188.
Marutvati, mother of Maruts and Asvins,
96, 168, 170.
Masaprastha Rsis, 177.
Matali, charioteer of Indra, 24, 125 f.;
visits Nagaloka, 26; advises Rama,
125; characterises Narada, 189; re
cognises Brahman as destroyer, 196.
Matanga, as Trisanku, patron of Vis-
vamitra, 183; trees grow from sweat
of, 187; changed into bird, 137.
Matangi, mother of elephants, 17.
Matarisvan, 134.
Mathara, worships the Sun, 89.
Mathura, see Madhura.
Mati, daughter of Daksa, 199, 225.
INDEX.
253
Matricide, enjoined by Gautama, 183;
by Jamadagni, 184.
tsyaUei^.
Mattamayuraka, land, 227. See Mayura.
Mauneyas, Apsarasas and Gandharvas,
as sons of Muni, 62.
Mauravas, destroyed by Krsna, 216.
Maurya, land, 227. See Mayura.
Maya, son of Dili, brother of Namuci,
favored by Brahman, 9, J33, 194;
cave of, 15; cleverness of, cities built
by, 49 f.; battles of, 93; lover of
Hema, 42f., 49, 133, 201; tales of,
103, 117, 133, 164. See Maya.
Maya, illusion, of Maya, 49; of Indra,
124; of Narayana, 160; of Krsna,
215; of Siva, 221; of fiends, 39 f.,
48; personified, 50.
Mayadevi, wife of Sambara, 214; Maya-
vati, same as Mayadevi, 50.
Mayavin, an Asura, 49.
Mayura, 48, 62. See Maurya, Matta-
mayura, and Peacock.
Meat, sinful, 59; offered to demons, 68 f.;
right to eat, 104 ; offered in sacrifice,
146; dog-meat, 174; eaten or not, 183,
188; Visnu refuses, 209. See Animals,
Birds, Sibi.
Medha, daughter of Daksa, 199.
Medhatithi, 138, 183.
Medhavin, tale of, 9.
Meghadula, 156, 189.
Meghamalin, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Meghanada, see Indrajit.
Meghapuspa, steed of Krsna, 215.
Meghavat, mountain, 141.
Memory, deified, 53; of former acts. 111,
132, 217; pratismrti as vidya, 175;
memory of Sruti and Smrti lost,
218.
Mena, wife of Himavat, 6, 11, 224.
Menaka, an Apsaras, mother of Pramad-
vara, wife of Urnayu, 9, 95, 138, 153f.,
161; mother of Divodasa, 164; child
of Brahman and best of Apsarasas,
160, 193.
Meru, a northern mountain, 5f., 10 f.,
19; home of gods, 59 f.; revered by
Sun, 86, 121; owned in part by Ku-
bera, as golden mountain, in North,
145, 151, 182; home of Gandharvas,
153, and Kurus, 186; gift of, to
Skanda, 230.
Merusavarni, eighth Manu, 177, 202.
Mesa, ram and demon, gift of Moon,
228; officer of Skanda, 230; Varuna
as ram, 103. See Naigamesa.
Messenger of gods, 67. See Agni, Indra,
Meghaduta.
Mihira, Sun, 89.
Milk, offering of, 56, 69; milky way, 59;
in heaven, 61; in Yama's abode, 113;
milking of earth, 152. See Ocean.
Minaksa, Daitya, 167; Minaksi, 147, 167.
Minjika and -ka, spirits of Rudra, 231.
Minotaur, 8.
Mirage, see Fata Morgana.
Misrakesi, an Apsaras, 159 f., 164.
Mitra, an Aditya, J^.Sun^Slf.^ ..139 j a
Marut, 89, 170; represents spirit,
117; Mitra and Varuna, 118f.; curses
Urvasi, 162; weapon a razor, 123;
gift to Skanda, 230; Agastya refuses
to be his son, 185; Mitra, mitram,
for Citra, 92, 160; gods with Mitra
names, 68, 89.
Mitrasaha, see Kalmasapada.
Mitravat, a demon, 84.
Mlecchas, come from Vena, slain by
Visnu, 166, 218.
Moksa, 34.
Mole, lucky sign on cheek, 82.
Monkeys, see Apes.
Monotheism, see Trimurti.
Moon, Candra, Candramas, Soma, 8, 55;
leads stars, 56, 82, 93; demoniac, 48,
62, 199; Candra as Soma or not, 82,
93; as witness, 66, 91; worship of,
55; makes fog, 91; as deified man,
64; day of, is Indra's, 32? 69, 92;
Kamyastami, 16; auspicious days,
69 f.; divided (week), 70; festival, 196;
mark or shadow on, 80 f., 89 f., 135;
one must not look at, 69, 106; moon
and planets, 86, 90; phases of, 101 f.;
and ocean, moon-rite, 92, 102; Soma,
son of Atri, 90 f., 185; father of Dadhi-
mukha, Budha, etc., 15, 91 ; offerings
to Soma Pitrmat, 31 f., 56; rapes Tara,
52, 89; lord of priests and plants,
82, 90 f.; leads gods, beauty and
world of, 56, 60, 92; wife and wives
of, 53, 63, 83, 90, 199; fighting god,
Aditya, and ruler of waters, 81, 89 f.;
steeds of, 92; car of, 117; crescent
as bow, 124; godship limited, 179;
254
INDEX.
moon-stone, 92; Somaand Agni, 146 f.;
and Gandharvas, 155; and Sun, 207;
adorns Siva, form of Siva, 222; gift
of Soma to Skanda, 228, 230; epithets
of, lotus-lord, etc., 90; Soma as Loka-
pala, 149 f. See Pitrs, Simvali, Soma,
and words beginning with Soma-.
Morality-play, see Drama.
Mothers, of Siva, 52; seven hosts of
Skanda's, 53; Saura matrs and
Mothers of Bhuts, 89; Kauberyah,
145; creative Mothers, 199; cult of
Mother-goddes, 226. See Aditi, Corn-
mother, Siva, Skanda, Uma.
Mountains, 8; rubbed bare by elephants,
18; White Mt., 25f., 45, 105; abode
of gods, 59; Kalagni on Mealy avat,
Vayu on Hemakuta, 99; mts. hold
earth, are Earth's ear-rings, 79; not
owned by any one, 80; tracks of gods
on, 59; of Savitri's foot, 86; mts. re
ceive sin, 131 ; make gift, 230; Indra's
mts., 141. See Asta, Himavat, Kailasa,
Kiratas, Munjavat, Vindhya, etc.
Mourning, see Funeral.
Mrgavyadha, a Rudra, 173.
Mrkandu, father of Markandeya, 188.
Mrtyu, see Death and Yama.
Mucukunda, 139; fights with Kubera,
147, 183.
Mudgala, 67, 141.
Mudita Raksasas, 45; Mudita, wife of
Saha Apa, 101.
Muka, a demoniac Naga, 52.
Mukunda, Visnu, 165.
Mules, steeds of Siva, 223.
Muni, daughter of Daksa, mother of Ap-
sarasas and Gandharvas, 62, 76, 120,
152, 159, 199; a son of Ahar, 170;
a son of Apa, 171; Muni or Manu,
170, 199; Munis (saints), 34, 143; as
Gandharvas, 154; as Rsis, 177, 186;
the Seven Munis, 186; around a
king, 187.
Munivirya, an All-god, 174.
Munjavat, mountain, 160.
Mura, Muru, with Naraka, etc., 41, 51,
215, 217.
Music, in religious ceremonies, 72; charm
of, 147; heavenly, 163; of Gandharvas,
song, 152 f.; of Apsarasas, 159 f.; lute
of Visvavasu, 154; Chalikya song,
161; nymphs sing Ramacarita, 161;
music and dance in Siva-cult, 223.
See Dance.
Mustika, demon, 215, 217.
Nabhaga, conquers earth, 139; son of
Manu, 201.
Nabhoda, an All-god (?), 174.
Naciketa, 113.
Nadijangha, crane, son of Kasyapa, friend
of Indra, 184.
Nagas, 10, 15, 17 f.; and Garuda, 21 f.;
as men, 23 f., 27, 46; sons of Varuna
and Surasa, 120, 200; live in water,
inVaruna's home, 26, 118; in heaven,
60; hide treasure, 149; with Yaksas,
148; with Asuras, 47, 52; enslaved
by Asuras, 51; with Siddhas, etc.,
186; as Mahoragas with gods, 175;
appear as arrows, 27; steal the ear
rings of Aditi, 50; frightened by Agni,
107; support earth, 80; live in trees,
72; flowers offered to, 68; connected
with Mothers, 226; adorn Siva, 222;
as Indra's weapons, 124; Dhrtarastra
best of, 126; Naga as a Sadhya, 175;
Nagadatta or -danta, an Apsaras, 160;
Nagadhanvan, home of Nagas, 27;
Nagadvipa, 11, 27 ; Nagahvaya, Nagah-
va, Hastinapur, 28; Nagaloka, 26, 99;
Nagamatr, Surasa, 28, 44; Nagatirtha,
149.
Nagnajit, Krsna's father-in-law, a Gan-
dhara, 215.
Nahusa, Naga, 24; seer with evil eye,
26, 45, 150; royal son of Ayus, 131,
162; father of Dhruva, etc., 53; sacri
fices to Visvakarman, 81; tries to
outdo Indra, 126; cursed by Agastya,
130, 185; kills a cow for sacrifice,
131; Indra and Brhaspati plan to
oust him, 150; besung by Gandharvas,
156; name of a Marut, 170.
Naigamesa, -meya, 103, 227 f., 229 f.
Nails, not to be bitten, 69.
Nairrtas, demons of under-world, 39, 41,
44 f., 109, 142 f., 199; created by
Kubera, 147, 148, note; -ti dik, 45.
See Nirrti.
Naksatras, lists of, 93. See Stars.
Nakula, son of an Asvin, 167 f.
Nala, 25, 62 f.
Nalakubara, 142; wife of, 143.
Nalim, Ganges, 5f.; Kubera's lake, 142.
INDEX.
255
Name, power through knowing meaning
of, 182.
Namuci, brother of Maya, 48 f.; son of
Vipracitti and Simhika, ib., 97, 132 f.;
son of Danu, 199; slain by Indra
with foam, 122, 125, 132; confused
with Vrtra, 129 f. ; sermon of, 132 ; a
seer of the South, 177.
Nanda, cowherd, 216; officer, with Upa-
nandaka, of Skanda, 230.
Nanda, Delight, wife of Joy, 199; an
Apsaras, 160.
Nandaka, Visnu's sword, 206, 215.
Nandana, grove of Indra or of Kubera,
130, 139, 141 f., 143, 158; attendant
of Skanda, 230.
Nandi, a Gandharva, 153.
Nandini, cow, 17, 141, 182.
Nandisvara, Siva, 173, 222; attendant of
Siva, 42; of Kubera, 143; as man, 146.
Naptr, an All-god (?), 174.
Narada, a heavenly being, (cloud) mes
senger, 62, 153 f., 157, 163, 188; son
of Brahman, 190; son of Muni or of
Virini, 189, 199; curse of, 25; wor
ships gods, 55; hymn of, 88; tenets
of, 178; contest with Varuna, 121;
born of Visnu, 188; as Rsi in Visva-
mitra family, 177 f., 183; relation to
Parvata and Sukumari, 188; reveals
Krsna's divinity, 213; Avatar, 218;
makes music for Siva, 222; journeys
with Matali, 125; foments quarrels,
188.
Naraka, a Raksasa, with Ogha, 41, 48;
Bhauma, 50f.; world of, 60; relation
to Earth and ear-rings, 79, 81 ; slain
by Indra, 125; and by Visnu, 140,
215f.; as Yama's world or hell, 108 f.,
112; Naraka, a demon, 200.
Naras, spirits, 145, 152, 158; Nara as
Lokapala, 152, note; as Arjuna, 213.
See Narayana.
Narasimha, see Man-lion.
Naravahana. Kubera, 142 f., 145.
Narayana, place of spirits, 14, 23, 145;
Lokapala, 152, note; throttles Siva,
226; father of Naraka, 51; husband,
Visnu, of Laksmi, 63; maya of, 160;
UrvasI as daughter of, 164; Brahman
as form of, 197; as boar, 210; as
God, 203; one with Visnu, 206, 208;
hairs of, produce Krsna and Bala-
rama, 210, 212; Nara and Narayana,
213; Logos as emanation of, 216;
Narayanas as Gopalas, 214.
Narmada, Nerbudda river, 5, 10, 13, 65,
103, 187; a Gandharvi, 156.
Nasatya, ,,healeru, name of an Asvin,
168 f.; nasatya birth, 169, 200. See
Nose.
Nata, mother of Vinata, 23.
Naubandhana, see Deluge.
Nidagha, month, 53.
Nidhis, of Kubera, 143; Nidhlsa, Nidhi-
pala, 144, 146.
Night, time of evil spirits, 37, 43; divine,
53; witness, 66; invoked as goddess,
131; as creative power, Asikni, 190;
Kalaratri, 115; fall of Visnu's eyelid
is night, 208. See Brahman, day of..
Nikasa, mother of Raksasas, 42.
Nikrti or Nirrti, a Vasu, 170.
Nikumbha, son of Prahlada, father of
Sunda, 15, 48, 133, 199; an All-god,
174.
Nikumbhila, Gaitya, goddess, 225.
Nila, 10, 14; son of Agni, 62, 104; or
son-in-law, 103; mountain, 186.
Nllakantha, see Siva.
Nimi, Atreya, king of Mithila, patron of
Gautama, 32, 116, 183; curse of, 179.
Nirrti, 41; devi, mother of Death, 109,
199; hell, 148; as Lokapala, 149;
as a Rudra, 173; as a Vasu, see
Nikrti.
Nisadas, people, 29, 166.
Nisadha, mountain, 10; a people, 22.
Nisakara, a Garuda, 22; a seer, 187.
Nisatha, son of Balarama, 212.
Niscyavana, fire, 100.
Niskusita or -karsin, a Marut, 170.
Nisunda, Asura, 216.
Nivatakavaca demons, 47, 50, 213.
Nivrtti saints, 202.
Niyata, see Kratu.
Niyati, Fate as controlling power, 74.
Northern Kurus, see Uttara Kurus.
Nose, birth through, mark of birth, 169.
See Nasatya birth.
Nrga, becomes lizard, 108, 188, 214 f.
Nrsadgu, Maharsi, 177.
Nrsimha, see Man-lion.
Nyagrodha, tree, form of Visnu, 6f., 208.
Nymphs, girls of heaven, 141. See Ap-
sarasas.
256
INDEX.
Oath, of Brahman, 196; taken before
Brahman, 198.
Ocean, Sagara Aiksvaka, son of Brah
man, or Samudra, 4, 6, 121 f.; as
Muni, 187; four or seven oceans, 11,
122; of milk, 24, 119, 200, 207; churn
ing of, 28 f., 121, 200; cursed to have
monsters and be salt, 121 f., 135;
ocean and Mare's Head, 180; challen
ged, 49, 121; attacked by Skanda,
121; husband of Ganges. 63, 118,
121; lord of rivers, 56; and Sagara,
goes to hell, 121; in invocation, 80;
restores life, 113; ocean and moon,
92; and Varuna, 117 f., 121 f.; drunk
up by Agastya and by Utathya, 121,
185; Atri tries to fathom, 184; gives
boons, 121; gift of Samudra and of
Sagaras, 230.
Offerings, see Sacrifice.
Ogha, slain by Rama and by Krsna, 41,
215.
Oghavati, river, 5; royal daughter of
Oghavat, 103.
Ogres, 40.
Om or Aum, as Veda, 195.
Omens, from birds, 19, 103; from sounds,
42, 72; broken vessels unlucky, 76;
from flowers, 99; padmahasta auspi
cious, 205; from rainbow, 124; from
Fata Morgana, 157; from moon, 93;
from stars and planets, 179, 182.
See Mole.
Orissa, caves of, 103. See Kalinga.
Oxus, river, 4, 6.
Padma, Naga, 24; a Nidhi, 142 f.
Pairs, of gods, 81. See Trimurti.
Paka, 52; demon slain by Indra, 134.
Palala, a Mother, 229.
Palm, standard of Balarama, 212.
Pampa, land, 159.
Pancacuda, an Apsaras, 160.
Pancajana, Daitya conquered by Krsna,
214; Pancajanya, shell of Krsna, 206,
215.
Paiicaka, see Satkara.
Pancakalakartrpati, title of Visnu, 218.
Pancaratras, 88, 213; Samkhya, 186;
-ratrika, 218.
Pancasikha, saint, 156; -sikha, daughter
of Sandilya, 188.
Pancavirya, an All-god (?), 174.
Pandus, 40.
Pandya, slain by Krsna, 215.
Panika and Panitaka, attendants of
Skanda, 230.
Pannagas, see Serpents.
Para, river, 183.
Paramakrodhin, an All-god, 174.
Paramarsis, 177; as stars, ominous, 179;
chief is Sanatkumara, 181.
Paramesthin, as Visnu, 207; Parame-
sthyas, Rsis, 178.
Parasara, seer, 188.
Parasu-Rama, 211. See Rama Jama-
dagnya.
Paratapana, a Marut, 170.
Paravasu, a seer of Indra, 138.
Parigha, an attendant of Skanda, 230.
Parijata. tree, 7; from ocean, 55; Indra
robbed of, 140, 214, 216.
Parivyadha, a seer of Varuna, 120.
Pariyatra, mountains, 8.
Parjanya, son of Muni, 13, 199; as Indra,
55, 138; agricultural god, 64; gives
rain, 78, 127 f. ; as Aditya, 81 f.;
younger brother of Pusan, 83; as a
Gandharva, 153.
Parnada, seer, class and individual, 177.
Parnasa, river, 5, 120.
Parnika and Parnim, Apsarasas, 159 f.
Parrot, 19 f.; faithful to tree, 137; form
of Apsaras, 163. See Suki.
Parsni, an All-god, 174.
Parvan days, holy, 87, 91.
Parvata, Maharsi, 177f., 188; a Vasu,
170; a Gandharva, 153 f., 157 f.;
,, father" of Ravana, as mountain, 92.
See Narada.
Parvati, Urn a, 224.
Pasupati, see Siva; Pasupata religion,
226.
Patala, home of Vainateyas, 22; navel
of Nagaloka, 26 ; city in, 50 ; location
of, 61, 119; evil demons in, 111;
earth sinks into, 210; home of Pan
cajana, 214.
Path, northern and southern, of moon
and sun, 35; of gods, 59; of Pitrs, 70.
Pathikrt, Agni, 102.
Paulastya demons, 39, 41. See Pulastya.
Paulomas, 47, 50; Paulomi, see Saci.
Pausamasa rite, 92.
Pavakas, five, 101. See Agni.
Pavana, an All-god, 174. See Vayu.
INDEX.
257
Pavam, river, 5.
Payosm, river, 4, 65, 73.
Peacock, 21; flesh not eaten, 69; as
psychopomp, 109; as love-bird, 167;
in cult of Siva and Skanda, 224-, 227.
See Mayura, Maurava, Maurya.
Perfumes, see Incense.
Persian name of Sun, 89.
Phalguna, marriage-month, 69.
Phallus, see Siva.
Phenapa Rsis, 33 f., 177; followers of
Narada, 178.
Philosophy, of Manu and Bhrgu, 179.
Physiology, of Atri, 185.
Pictures, see Citralekha.
Pigeon, 20, 103 f.; discourse of, 180. See
Kapotaroman and Sibi.
Pinakin, a Rudra, 173. See Siva.
Pingala, door-keeper of Sun, 87; atten
dant of Kubera, 144; Ekaksipingala,
142; Pingaksi, 145.
Pippala, tree, 6f.
Pisacas, 3, 30 f., 43 f.; marriage of, 45;
robbers and gods of Dasyus, 32, 45;
worship Pitrs, 32; eat flesh, 37 f., 45,
47; Pisaca-faced steeds and horse-
faced Pisacis, 40, 176 ; created by Siva,
187; as human beings, 46; live in
trees, 72; side with Havana, 143;
Pisaci becomes an Apsaras, 45; Pai-
sacagraha, 229.
Pitamaha, Great Father, as Prajapati,
see Brahman; seven Pitamahas, 31.
Pitha, demon, 51, 215, 217.
Pitrlokarsis, see Rsis.
Pitrpati, Yama, 108.
Pitrrupa, a Rudra, 173.
Pitrs, Fathers, Manes, 8; cult of, 32; as
spirits, 29f.; Pitrvana, 31; as Rsis,
35, 177; moon-path of, 35; gods of
gods, 33 f.; seven families, 33; Agni
lord of, 105; with Guhyakas, 147;
king honors, 71; as gods, 34, 64; bull
sacred to, 16; connected with moon,
92; with fires, 101, 104; with Visve
Devas, 174; opposed to gods, 176;
Pitrs of Pitrs, 196; gifts of, 230;
worship of, 37, 56. See Rsis, Saumyas,
Visve Devas.
Planets, cruel, 46; world of, 60; Saturn,
Venus, and Jupiter, 86; sun is lord of,
93; affect plants, 180 f. See Brhaspati,
Graha, and Usanas.
Indo-Aryan Research. III. ib.
Plants, Soma lord of, 93; names from,
156; like arrows of Love, 167; as
weapons, 123; treated by Mantras,
181; affected by stars, 179 f.; from
Surabhi, 200.
Playground of gods, 59. See Kubera,
Rudra, and Siva.
Pleiades, see Krttikas.
Poison, 26, 219.
Pole-star, see Dhruva.
Prabha, as Suvarcala, 63, 143; an Ap
saras, 160.
Prabhasa, Maharsis, 35, 177; a Vasu,
father of Visvakarman by Brhaspati's
sister, 170, 181; minister of Varuna,
119.
Prabhata, mother of Prabhasa and Pra-
tyusa, 170, 199.
Prabhava, a Sadhya, 175.
Pracetas, Pracetasas, 7, 120, 200; sons
of, as ,,good people", 148; Pracetasa
as Prajapati, 189 f.; Manu, 202. See
Daksa.
Pracmabarhis, seer, 120, 190, 202.
Pradaksina, around trees, temples, etc.,
72; around fire, 106.
Pradatr, an All-god, 174.
Pradesa Prajapatis, 202.
Pradha, daughter of Daksa, 199; mother
of Bhanu, 77; of Gandharvas, 152;
of six Apsarasas, 159,162.
Pradurbhava, see Avatar.
Pradyumna, Raukmineya, 51, 59, 214;
as Kama, 164; form of Visnu, 206 f.;
story of his adoption, 214.
Pragjyotisa, home of western Asuras,
50 f., 216.
Praheti, Raksasa, 41.
Prahlada, Prahrada, Asura, 48, 50 f., 125;
origin and sons of, 199; history of,
133; gets Indra's power, 135; taught
by Usanas, 180; virtuous, 194; as Pra
japati, 191; story of Skanda's spear,
228; slain, 134.
Prajagara, an Apsaras, 160.
Prajapati, as Brahman, 189 f. ; as Daksa,
ib.; Brahman and Prajapati, 195; as
boar and tortoise, 210; in plural as
creators, 23, 178 f.; Seven Seers as
Prajapatis, 182, 190 f.; twenty-one,
198. See Brahman.
Prakrtis, creative powers, 190.
Pralamba, demon, 212, 215, 217.
17
258
INDEX.
Pramada, with Mada, as demon, 50.
Pramadvara, story of, 114, 154, 161.
Pramatha demons, 19, 44.
Pramatha, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Pramathini, an Apsaras, 160.
Pramati, Bhargava, son of Cyavana,
161, 179.
Pramloca, an Apsaras, 159 f.
Pramuca, -ci, -cu, demon, 116, 132, 177.
Pranas, breaths, airs, anthropomorphic,
95; five or seven, 94, 98; quarrel of,
195 ; Prana, son of Varcas, 170. See
Vayu.
Prapti, Posession, wife of Peace, 199;
daughter of Jarasandha, 214.
Prasarm, an Apsaras, 160.
Prasenajit, husband of the Gauri river 5.
Pratardana, born of sacrifice, son of Di-
vodasa, 138.
Pratipa, father of Samtanu, 187.
Pratismrti, a vidya, 176.
Pratita,'an All-god, 174.
Pratyusa, a Vasu, father of Devala, 170.
Pravara, guides Airavata, 127.
Pravrtti, and Nivrtti, kinds of saints, 202 ;
as Pradurbhavas, 218.
Prayaga (Allahabad), 6, 27, 162, 183;
resort of Brahman, 193.
Prayuta, a Gandharva, 153.
Pretas, Ghosts, 29 f., 36 ; as Bhuts, 37; as
,,good people", 148 ; pretakrtyani, 30 f . ;
pains of, in hell, llOf.; abode of, with
Yama, 108 f.; pretasattva, 151; preta-
gopas, guardians of hell, 114. See
Pitrs, Punyajana.
Priest, from mouth of Brahman, 194;
power of, 26, 29, 176; haters of, 43,
murder of, 110, 131 f.; impure man
may not touch, 106; priests go to
hell, 54; as gods, 64; give power, 131;
honored, 71; murmur benedictions and
remove sin, 79, 178; gifts to, 33, 68,
109; Soma or Brhaspati is lord of,
82; their law that of Agni, 106; Bali
and priests, 133; Brahman is Brah-
manavatsala, 195; sixteen fire-priests,
107.
Prs"ni, as Ganges and mother of Visnu, 6;
Prsni Maharsis, 35, 177.
Prsthaja, form of Skanda, 227.
Prthivi, 81. See Earth.
Prthu, brother of Aristanemi, 23; Vasu,
171; Vainya, 4; father of Earth, 78,
166; royal seer, 178; deified by Atri
184; Avatar, 218.
Prthudaka, on the Sarasvati, 193.
Priti, mother of Agastya, 185.
Priya, wife of the Adbhuta and mother
of the Bharata fire, 101.
Priyamukhya, an Apsaras, 160.
Puja, see Worship.
Pujam, talking bird, 20.
Pulaha, son of Brahman, father of Kim-
purusas and wild animals, 199.
Pulastya, son of Brahman, father of
Kimnaras, apes, and demons, 41, 143,
148, 152, 189 f., 200; Agastya from
Pulastya, 185 ; father of Visravas, etc.,
191, 199.
Puloma, wife of Bhrgu, 47, 133, 179; tears
become river, 194.
Puloman, son of Danu, 48, 199; killed
by Indra, 123, 125.
Punarvasu, Naksatra under Aditi, 81.
Pundarlka, an Apsaras, 160.
Pundariyaka, an All-god (?), 174.
Punishment, see Danda and Rod.
Punjikasthala, an Apsaras, 14, 96, 159 f.;
curses Ravana, 42, 120; called Varuna-
kanyaka, cursed, becomes Aiijana,
164; rape of, offends Brahman, 195.
See Aiijana.
Punyajana, ,,good people", 148. See
Pretas.
Punyakrt, an All-god, 174.
Puranas, compared with epics, 147, 152,
196, 210, 211 (bis); Puranic elements,
in Sivaism, 222.
Purl, city, 217.
Purna and Purnayu, Gandharvas, 153.
Puru, king, 187; mountain, 162.
Purukutsa, king, husband of Narmada
river, 5.
Pururavas, 53, 63, 91, 95, 131, 157, 162,
164.
Purusa, as Avatar, 218.
Purvacitti, an Apsaras, 160.
Pusan, anAditya, 81 f., 83 f.; not honor
ed, 55, 196; older than Parjanya,
128 ; teeth knocked out, 223 ; gift of,
to Skanda, 230. See Sun.
Puskala, son of Bharata, and Puskala-
vata, his town in Kandahar, 157.
Puskara, son of Varuna, 91, 119; holy
place where Brahman sacrificed, 193.
Puskaramalim, Indra's hall, 59.
INDEX.
259
Puspadanta, elephant, 17; an attendant
of Siva, 230.
Puspaka, Kubera's car, 142, 145.
Puspodaka, river, 5, 109 f.
Puspotkata, mother of Ravana, 41, 143.
Pusti, daughter of Daksa, 199, 224.
Pusya, Naksatra under Brhaspati, 181.
Putana, bird-demon, slain by Krsna, 208,
215 f., 218, 229.
Putika, plant, 93.
Raga, daughter of Brhaspati, 100.
Raghu, Rama's ancestor, as healer, 169.
Rahu, Svarbhanu, eclipse-demon, who
shoots the sun or swallows it, 14-,
44, 184, 188; daughter of, 53; size
of, 85; sun overcomes, 87; activities
of, 91, 134.
Raibhya, one of Indra's Seven Rsis, 138.
Rainbow, 124.
Raivata, a Rudra, 173.
Rajarsis, 34, 140, 177 f., 187.
Rajasuya, performers of, live with Indra,
140.
Rajatanabha, spirit, 148.
Raka, moon-phase, 41, 70, 101 f., 143.
Raksasas, demons who injure, 10 f., 14;
or guard, 38, 59, 88; generally by
night, 36 f., 38 f., 43; born of Yadu,
187; of human descent, 40; formerly
Gandharvas, 154 ; known as Kimkaras
and Pisacas, 45 f.; worshipped, 30;
Kubera is their refuge, 143 ; dispelled
by fire. 40 ; destroy sacrifice, 41 ; beauty
of, 41; possess Saudasa, 182; Sikhan-
din as, 62; food of, 68 f.; in hell, 112;
evil demons side with Ravana, 143;
have Yama-names, 115; Raksasagra-
has, 229; give boar and buffalo to
Sk anda, 228. See Pramathas, Nairrtas,
Mandehas, Rama.
Raksita, an Apsaras, 160.
Ram, see Mesa.
Rama as Baladeva, see Balarama.
Rama Dasarathi, Raghava, 4 13, 15, 20,
176 f.; befriended by Garuda, 22; by
Ocean, 121; slays Raksasas, 41 f.,
217; arrows of, 27; blest, 30; king
dom of, free from snakes, 25; attacks
Abhiras, 121; shrines built by, 70;
favored by Sun, 87; by Bharadvaja,
183; like Parjanya and Indra, 128,
140 ; visited by Agastya, 185 ; in Yama's
home, 113; placates Rudra, Visnu,
and All-gods, 174; Ramacarita, 161;
Ramagiri, 140; Rama and Mahodara,
180; Avatar, but not at first Visnu,
9, 211 f. ; recognised by Brahman, 194;
like £iva, 219; as Fate, 74.
Rama Jamadagnya, Bhargava, ParaSu-
Rama, 10, 184, 211, 217, 226.
Ramana, son of Varcas, 17(X
Ramamyaka, island, 27.
Rambha, an Apsaras, wife of Nalakubara,
drama of, 143, 159 f. ; curses Ravana,
42; Rambha and Tumbaru, 156; loved
by Indra, 164; changed into a stone
by Visvamitra, 137 f., 164, 183.
Rasatala, 61, 111, 119, 210.
Rasmivat, an All-god (?), 174.
Rata, mother of Vasus, 165, 170.
Rati, Desire, 54; as Apsaras, 160 f.; and
Kama, 164; wife of Kama, 165, 199;
wife of Sambara, 214.
Ratiguna, a Gandharva, 153, 165.
Raudra spirits, 174, 186; Raudra, son of
Usanas, 179.
Raudrasva, lover of GhrtacI, 164.
Raudreya, Maharsi of the West, 177.
Raukmineya, see Pradyumna.
Raumya spirits (born from hair-pits, stars),
223. See Stars.
Raurava, see Hell.
Ravana, genealogy of, 41, 81, 143; de
scribed, 39, 41 f.; sons of, 15; and
Kubera and Kimpurusas, 142 f., 158;
arrows of, 27; fights Jatayus, 23; con
quers Nagas, etc., 28, 119, 176; slays
Suryabhanu, 142; defeated by Rama,
212; cursed by various women, 42,
164; made impotent, 67; chief ex
ploits, 42f., 92, 111; Sun will not fight
with him, 87; aided by Brahman, 195;
scorned by Visnu, 43; mocked by
Narada, 188; Ravana and Siva, 219;
as fifth Lokapala, 149. See Airavata,
Raksasa, Rama, Rambha, Sita.
Ravi, see Sun.
Rbhus, 35.
Rcika, son of Dyaus, 77; of Cyavana,
183; Bhargava, 179; receives white
horses from Varuna, 121; marries
Gadhi's daughter, 183; father of seers,
see Jamadagni and Sunahsepa.
Rddhi, Success, wife of Kubera, 63, 142,
147.
17*
26o
INDEX.
Rebirth, 110; memory in, 111; as hell
112; not instantaneous, 191.
Rejuvenation, of Mandakarni, 163; of
Cyavana, 169.
Renuka, mother of Parasu-Rama, 184,
211; revived, 226.
Resurrection, of Sibi's son, 104; of Naci-
keta, of Samdipani's son, 113; of Pra-
madvara, 114; Vandin resurrects Ka-
hoda, 120; Indra resurrects Gandhar-
vas, 155; Bharadvaja and Yavakrita
revived, 184; Renuka revived, 226.
See Brahman, Indra, Visnu, and Samji-
vana.
Revati, 81; and Balarama, 212; mother
of Skanda, 227.
Rice, offerings of, 56; to Moon, 92; to
Visnu, 209.
Right, see Dharma.
Rivers, 3f.; lord of, 56, 117; without
owners, 80; mothers of fires, 101;
assume sin, 132; Narmada, mother
of Sudarsana, 103; Oghavati, Puspo-
daka, Vaitaram, 103, 110; Parnasa,
120; from tears, 194; from blood, 16;
gifts of, 230. See Carmanvati, Ganges,
Kaveri, Sarasvati, Vitasta, Yamuna.
Rksarajas, son of Visnu, 15.
Rksavat, mountain, 13.
Rocamana, daimonion, 204.
Rod (Punishment), of Yama and as spe
cial divinity, 112; Danda worships
Sun, 89; Kaladanda, 112; form of
Visnu, 198. See Danda.
Roga, charioteer of Antaka (Death served
by illness), 114.
Rohim, Jambavati, 13; star, wife of Soma,
53, 63, 90; daughter of Hiranyakasipu,
101; mother of Balarama, 108, 214;
as Surabhi, mother of cows, or daughter
of Surabhi, 121, 153, 200; Usually as
star, Aldebaran, Soma's favorite wife
(wife of Krsna only in H),13, 63. 214.
Rohita Gandharvas, list of, 156.
Rohltaka, land loved by Skanda, 227.
Roots, offerings of, 56.
Rosary, 92, 219 and note, 222, 224.
Rsabha, 52; Avatar, 218.
Rsis, seers, saints, food of, 27; countless,
178; one with Pitrs, 34 f., 176, 178;
worlds of, 61 ; live in Sun, 85 ; create
worlds, 178; kinds of, 177f.; groups
by heptads, 138; adore Twilights,
bless worlds, 69, 178; gods of earth,
177; in Indra's heaven, give Sword
to Indra, 140, 176; Seven Rsis as
Great Bear, with Manu in ark.177^
_ 202; around Pole-star, 187; relations
with Brahman, 189 f., 195 f. ; and Lotus-
theft, 182.
Rsyamuka, mountain, 11.
Rsyasrnga, son of Vibhandaka and a doe,
husband of Santa, ancestor of the
demon Alambusa, 40, 49, 162; forces
Indra to rain, 128, 139.
Rta, a Rudra, 173.
Rtadhaman, Visnu, 207.
Rteyu, one of Varuna's Seven Rsis, 120.
Rtusthala, an Apsaras, 160.
Rtvan, See Satvan.
Ruci, wife of Devasarman, 135; an Ap
saras, 160.
Rudra, 8; seed of. 9: spear of, 225; play
ground of, 37, 221; path and Gatha
of, 59; as All-god, 174; gets sword
and tenets from Brahman, 176, 178 ;
as Agni or son of Agni, 103, 221 ; as
Kama, 165; as devastating form of
Siva, 221; probably as Siva conquers
Vipracitti, 134; receives worship, 55,
teaches Valakhilyas, 186 ; attacks Sun,
83; as Siva, 139, 184, 189 f.
Rudrani, 63, 221, 224.
Rudras, eleven, names of, 28, 52, 172 f.;
origin of, 199; descendants of Tvastr,
Surabhi, etc., 173, 200; warrior attend
ants of Yama and Skanda, 113, 123;
173; worship and come from Visnu,
34, 207; Visnu as eighth, 175; 1100
Rudras, 223; make gifts to Skanda,
230.
Rukmin, pupil of Druma, 158.
Rukmim, wife of Krsna, 63; part of
Laksmi, 163, 214;' tale of, 215.
Ruru, tale of, 67, 114; an All-god, 174.
Sad, PaulomI, Indrani, 50, 52, 63, 97;
and Nahusa, 130, 140 f. See Indra.
Sacrifice, due to fear, 55; forms of, 68;
gods depend on, 58; gods who steal
sacrifices, 64, 68; theft of, 101; Siva
takes, 110; flees as deer, 223; sinners
omit sacrifice, 59; gods take only
essence, 66, 68; cult and, 68; human,
103; bloodless, 106; of meat and se-
samum, 146; given to Asuras, 130;
INDEX.
261
head of, 131; as divinity, 68; Pra-
tardana born of, 138; Yajna-Avatar,
218; seven Soma-sacrifices, 138.
Sadhya, mother of Vasus, 97, 170; of
Sadhyas, 175.
Sadhyas, fighting gods, sons of Dharma,
8, 123, 175 f., 199; Pitrs of, 33; feared,
55; flee, 56; grouped with others, 173,
199; gifts of, 230.
Sadvrtti, Devasena as. 229.
Sagara, son of Jumna river, 5, 121; hus
band of Sumati and Kesini, 22, 63,
122; relations with Garuda, 22; and
with Indra, 137; excavates Ocean's
bed, 121 f. ; Sagaras, consumed by
Kapila, 216 f. See Ocean._
Saha, an All-god, 174; Saha Apa, water-
power, 101 ; story _of Saha and Athar-
van, 102; Saha Apa, as Vasu, 104,
170; Saha, an Apsaras, 160.
Sahadeva, son of an Asvin, 167 f.
Sahajanya, an Apsaras, 159 f.
Sahya, a spirit of light, 88.
Saibya, a descendant of Sibi, 182; steed
of Krsna, 215.
Sailabha, an All-god, 174
Sailusa, a Gandharva, father- in-law of
Vi'bhisana, 42, 153 f.; as Rohita,
156 f.'
Sakadvipa, 9.
Sakambhari, llf., as Uma, 224.
Sakha, form of Skanda, 227 f., 230. See
Bhadrasakha.
Sakra, epithet and name of Indra, 122.
Sakti, son of Visvamitra, 182.
Sakuni, fiend in bird-form, 200.
Sakuntala, 161, 183.
Salagrama, Visnu, 209.
Salakatankata, demon, 107 f.
Salavrkas, 18, 20.
Salisiras, a Gandharva, 153.
Salmali, tree, of torture, 111; Brahman
rested under, 193.
Salva, king of people and people opposed
to Krsna, 51, 217.
Sama, Peace, son of Right and of Day,
170, 199.
Sama, land, 18.
Samaveda, 179.
Samba, a demon (= £ambara?), 15.
Samba, son of Krsna, 15, 31, 59, 222.
Sambara, demon, son of Danu, 48 f., 199;
fights with Soma, slain by Indra, 93,
134; discourses as ascetic, 134; his
wife adopts Pradyumna, 214.
Sambhala, village, 218.
Sambhu, a Rudra, 173; epithet of Brahman,
197; of Siva, 219 f.
Sambuka, var. lee. for Jambuka; Sam-
buka and Jambuka, officers of Skanda,
230.
Samdhya, Twilight, divine wife of Vidyut-
kesa, 53, 107; of Pusan, 83; usually
dual, adored by Rsis, 69; as witnesses,
66; of ages, 76.
Samdipani, story of, 113; taken from
H into S, 216.
Samgraha and Vigraha, attendants of
Skanda, 230.
Samhrada, demon, 199.
Sami-wood, 102.
Samici, an Apsaras, 160; becomes a cro
codile, 163.
Samjivana, life-restorer, 25.
Samjiia, mother of Asvins, 85, 169.
Samkara, an All-god (?), 174; as Siva, 10
(and often).
Samkarsana, Baladeva as ploughman,
form' of Visnu, 206 f., 212.
Samkhya, a seer, 177; religion, 186;
Samkhya-Yoga, 101. See Kapila.
Samkoca, an Asura, 52.
Samksaya, a Marut, 170.
Samnihita, form of fire, 101.
Sampati, son of Aruna, 15, 21 f., 84, 187,
200.
Sampraksala Rsis, 186.
Samsraya, Prajapati, 200.
Samtanaka, tree, 7.
Samtanu (Santanu), 5, 171, 187.
Samtati, Continuance (?), divine power,
225.
Samudra, see Ocean.
Samuha, an All-god, 174.
Samvarana, ancestor of Kurus, 88, 155.
Samvarta, son of Angiras, brother of
Brhaspati, Sivaite, 177, 181, 199.
Samvrtti, Fulfilment, divine power, 74.
Samyamana, -I, palace of Yama, 108.
Sarnyati, Effort, divine power, 53.
£amyu, fire of seasonal sacrifices, 100.
Sana, son of Brahman, 191, 202.
£anaiscara, son of the Sun, Saturn, 85 f..
Sanaka, Sanandana, and Sanatana, sons
of Brahman, 191.
Sanatkumara, chief Paramarsi, son ol
262
INDEX.
Brahman, 164, 181, 200; upholds Atri
against Gautama, 184, 191 ; as Pradyu-
mna, 214; as Skanda, 227; Sanatsu-
jata, 191, 202.
Sandal-wood, 7.
Sandili, devi, 10, 22, 104; a Vasu mother
of Anala, 170; 3andilya, sage, 188.
Sankha, Naga, 28; Nidlii, 143, 146.
Sankhapad, an All-god, 174; -pada, son
of Manu, 202.
Sankhim, goddess, 11.
Sankukarna, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Santa, son of Ahar, 170; of Apa, 171;
£anta, see Rsyasrnga.
£antanu, same as Samtanu.
Santi, former Indra, 136.
Saptajana Rsis, calendar seers, 177.
Saptakrt, an All-god (?), 174.
Sarabha, 18 f., 159; a Danava, 19; son
of Parjanya, 62, 128; of Yama, 115;
as Visnu, 208.
Sarabhanga, son of Gautama, brother of
Agastya, visited by Indra, 140, 183,
185; welcomed to heaven by Brahman,
193.
Saradrsti (or-vrsti), a Marut, 170.
Saradvat, Gautama, 138, 161 ; Saradvati,
an Apsaras, 160.
Sarama, Sarameya, 19, 200; daughter of
Sailusa, 42.
Sarasa, bird, 19.
Sarasvata, 5, 120, 162; as Vyasa, 185;
Sarasvatya Gana, 166, 186.
Sarasvati, 1. fluent, river, 4f., 27, 193;
lost in desert, 121; abode of spirits,
45, 160; Soma bathes in, 90; Skanda
installed at, 228; bath there purifies
Indra, 132; Tirtha at, 152; celebration
of, 162; runs blood, 44; tale of the
river and Vasistha and Visvamitra, 183.
Sarasvati, 2. fluency, godess of eloquence,
worship of, 55; as tongue of Visnu,
207; in benediction, 224; doctrine of,
88; in Indra's court, 140; as wife of
Manu, 201 ; as goddess, born of Brah
man, 8, 191; mother of Vedas, 53;
of Asvins, 168; manifest in hearing, 64.
Saravana, Skanda' s birthplace, 105, 227 f.
£aravrsti, see Saradrsti.
Sarayu, river, 6.
3armin, story of, 113.
Sarmistha, Daitya wife of Yayati, 51.
Sarpa, a Rudra, 173.
SarpadevI, Tirtha, 25.
Saru, a Gandharva, 153.
3arva, £iva, 221.
Sarvabhauma, elephant, 17, 126, 142.
Sarvakamadugha, see Kamadhuk.
Saryati, sacrifice of, 169, 201.
Sasabindu, taught by Yama, 116; form of
Visnu, 207.
Sasthi, moon-day as Uma, 70, 102, 229.
Satadru, river, 5, 182.
Satananda, son of Gautama, 183.
Sataparvan (var. lee. -va), wife of Usanas,
63, 180.
Satarudriya, potency of, 27, 173.
Satasirsa, wife of Vasuki, 27, 63.
Satayus, son of Urvasi, 162.
Satkara, or (v. 1.) Pancaka, an attendant
of Skanda, 230.
Sattva, as spirit, 36, 57.
Satvan, or (v. 1.) Rtvan, a Gandharva, 153.
Satya, daughter of Dharma, 100.
Satyaki, warrior, slays Alambusa, 40.
Satyasandha, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Satyavac, a Gandharva, 153.
SatyavatI Vasavi, 163; wife of Rcika, 5, 183.
Saubha, Daitya city, 51: destroyed by
Krsna, 215.
Saudasa, see Kalmasapada.
Saudeva, Divodasa, 138.
Saudyumni, Yuvanasva, 138.
Saumanasa, elephant, 17.
Saumya Pitrs, 174, 186.
Saumyagiri, 91. See Dis, saumya.
Saura, Sun-worshipper, 88; Matrs, 89.
Saurabheyi, or -seyi, an Apsaras, 160;
becomes crocodile, 163.
Savana, Bhargava, 178.
Savarna and Savarni Manu, 85, 188;
Savarni as Granthakrt, 222.
Savitr, arms of; broken by Siva, 223.
See Sun.
Savitra, a Marut, 170; a Vasu, a Rudra,
171, 173; Kama, 84. See Suryasavitra.
Savitri, daughter of the Sun, mother of
Vedas, wife of Brahman, 53, 63, 86;
sung, worshipped as Gayatri, 55, 83;
as Uma, 224; as sa avitri, 86; daughter
of Asvapati, wife of Satya vat, 63, 73, 86.
Seasons, deified, 36.
Seers, see Bsis.
SenanI, a Rudra, 173.
Serpents, and Garuda, 21 f., 23 f.; wor
ship Pitrs, 32; as souls, 24; as demons,
INDEX.
263
\S
48; controlled by Mantras, 25; as
Nagas, draw Varuna's car, 121 ; steal
gold and jewels, 146; other myths
and proverbs of, 26; in trees, 72;
Nahusa becomes snake, 130; Usanas
has snake-locks, 180; Balarama wears
snakes, 212; Pannaga snakes created
by Siva, worn by him, as his weapons,
187, 221, 223; snakes and Ellamma,
226. See Empada, Garuda, Naga, Sarpa,
Sarpadevi, Sesa.
£esa, world-serpent, son of Kadru, 15,
24 f., 199; rules below, 152; as Ananta,
23 f.; as Dbaramdhara, 177; a Praja-
pati, 200; Visnu and Sesa, Avatar,
205, 208, 217 f. See Ananta.
Sesame, see Tila.
. jBeven, sacrosanct number, lllf. ; doors
of heaven, 112; seven heptads of
seers, 177, 190; of Maruts, 170; hosts
of Mothers, 228; Siva above the groups
of seven, 223. See Agni, Daksa, Hell,
Mountains, Rsis, Sun, Saptajana.
Sex, interchange of, 91, 136. 145 159 and
note, 220, note; determined by Brah
man, 193. See Androgynous, Apsaras,
Bhaga, Bhagananda, Gandharva, Ka
ma, Rati, Uma.
Shadow, as soul, 44, 225; gods have no,
57; of Visnu's arm, 80; of elephant,
93; Savarna Chaya, 85.
Sheep, see Mesa.
Shoes, gift of Sun to man, 87.
Shrines, see Temples.
Sibi, 20, 103 f.; honored by gods, 65;
doubtful parentage of, as name of
Indra, 103 f., 136, 199. See Saibya,
Usmara.
Siddha, a Gandharva, 153; Siddha saints,
8, 34; world of, 60; in Indra's court,
140; watch contest, do good, 175; as
Maharsis, 177 f.; Siddhagati, 186; Sid-
dhartha, an officer of Skanda, 230.
Siddhi, spirit, 101; devi, wife of Yaruna,
120.
Sighru, a Rohita Gandharva, 153, 156.
Sikata Maharsis, 35, 177.
Sikhandin, 62.
Siksa, var. lee. for Sighru.
Simhika, demon mother of Rahu and
'Namuci, 15, 44, 134, 199 f.
Sin, Adharma, transferred to various
objects, 130f.; becomes disease, 121,
131; father of Pride, Darpa, 165; seer
cannot sin, 183; sinners and Brahman,
195; Brahman's vow is adharmika
hantavyah, 196; worship of Siva frees
from sin, 225 ; five worst sinners, 87 ;
fate of, 111 ; sinners of the West, 209 ;
earth submerged by sinners, 210.
Sindhu, river, 4f., 157; as Gandharva,
var. lee. for Sighru, 153, 156.
Simvali, moon-phase, birth-goddess, 70,
100 f.
Sisira, son of Yarcas, 170.
Sisupala, as demon, 51, 211; foe of Krsna,
214, 216; described, 220.
£isus, sons of gods, 62; Sisu, see Skanda.
Slta, corn-mother (furrow), wife of Indra
and of Rama, 4, 12 f., 78; aided by
Jatayus and others, 23, 42, 67, 194;
curses Ravana, 42; like a goddess,
not a goddess, 57, 62; as Laksmi,
212; like Uma, 219; carried under
ground by Earth, 80; Sitayajna, 12, 79.
£iva, Mahesvara, Mahadeva, Umapati,
Gaurisa, 3f., 219 f.; bull of, cattle
affected by, Siva as Pasupati, 16 f.;
resides with Kubera, 61, 143; part
father of Asvatthaman, 116; father of
Skanda, 219, 221, 227 f.; of Sesa, 24;
as serpent-lord, 27, 223; as Ahi, 28;
fiery and mild bodies of 222; as
Atharvan and Agni, 103 f., 230; as
Rudra, Sthanu, 55, 226; as Varuna,
120, 178; as calf of Yaksas, 148;
Lokapala, 149; lord of Bhuts, 37, 131,
219, 221; of other spirits, 44, 158,
223; of Matrs, 115, 220f.; wife of, 11,
52, 63, 225; disease and passion as
children of, 54, 61 ; boons of, 29, 41,
219, 223, 225; receives Ganges, 219;
destroys demons, 50; as Gajahan, 223;
drinks poison, 219 f.; as Nandlsvara,
72, 222; with Tilottama, 162; creator-
god, 60, 186; of four, eight, or eleven
forms, 221, 223, 226; as god of pro
creation, 148, 215, 221 f., 223 f.; as
moon, and wears crescent, 70, 91, 93,
100, 219 f., 221; bow, trident, equip
ment of, 75, 81, 139, 223, 225; lives
on Kailasa and in cemeteries, 59, 221 ;
worshipped by seven Manus, by Krsna,
and by Arjuna, 202, 215, 221; de
scription of, 219, 222, 225 f.; names
and epithets of, 173, 219, 223; as
264
INDEX.
Nilakantha, 180 ; relations with Indra,
123, 130, 135, 138; with Brahman,
190, 198, 219 f.; 226; with Visnu, 115;
206 f., 211 f., 213; treatment of Daksa,
110, 219; of Savitr, Kama, Bhaga, etc.,
83,142,164f., 219; of Usanas,Grtsamada,
Mankanaka, 180, 187 f.; of Himavat,
216; festival of, as Pasupati, 220; as
god of literature, fond of music, dance,
222 f., 226; as Fate, 75, 219; religion
of, 213, 219, 226. See Agni, Rudra,
Skanda; as Umakanta, -pati, seetlma.
Siva, wife of the Vasu Anila, 170.
Skanda, Kumara, Karttikeya, as Sisu, 5f.,
14, 227 f.; sonship debated, 207; son
of Agni, 98; of Pleiades, 106, 227;
Svaheya, 104 f. ; as Guha and Kumara,
son of Siva, on mountains, 148, 219,
221 ; as senapati, leads gods to battle,
56, 181, 228; holy days of, 70; atten
dants and mothers of, 7, 43, 45 f., 53,
228 f.; followers as imps and as di
seases, 229; peacock and other ani
mals of, 21, 118, 227 f.; relations with
Kraunca, 9, 227; with Indra, 133, 229;
with Bana, etc., 48 f.; with Vasistha,
182 f.; wife of, 63, 70, 229; as Sa'nat-
kumara, 227; has twelve arms and
six faces, 227 f. ; not called Subrah-
manya, 229 ; followers connected with
those of Kubera, 145; javelin of, 123;
gifts to, 228, 230; boon from Brah
man, 198 ; composite character of, 229.
Sky, see Dyaus and Svarga.
Sleep, Mahanidra, form of Uma, 224.
Smoke, saintly character of those who
drink smoke, 186.
Smrti and Sruti, see Memory.
Snakes, see Serpents.
Sneeze, as spirit, see Ksupa; sneezing on
food makes it impure, 46.
Sods, not to be broken, 69.
Soma, as Vasu, 170; Agmsomau, 101,
105; as teacher, 178; as name of
Visnu and Siva, 93 ; as plant, 10 ; for
seven sacrifices, 138; in sacrifice of
gods, 65; as food of gods, 34; as
earthly rain, 127; substitute for, 93;
sale of, 93, 111; drunk by Trisiras,
130; theft of (Soma here both plant
and moon), 21, 43. See Moon and
compounds below.
Soma, an Apsaras, 91, 160.
Somacara saints, 186.
Somada, a Gandharvi, 91, 153, 156.
Somagiri, 91.
Somaloka, 92.
Somapa, All-god, 174; officer of Skanda,
230; saints or spirits, 33 f., 186.
Somasada saints, 33.
Somavarcas. a Gandharva, 153; perhaps
an All-god, 174.
Somavayavya Maharsis, 177.
Sona, Sona, river, 4.
Song, see Music.
Sonitapura, 214.
Soul, escapes through crown, feet, etc.,
65; theory regarding, 191, 193; of
Krsna as fire, 216. See Serpents (souls
as), Shadow, Star.
Sparsasana spirits, who eat by touch, 186.
Spirits, 29 f.; of three worlds, 54; in trees,
72. See Bhuts, Demons, Pitrs, Pretas,
Sattva.
Sraddha, Faith, daughter of Surya, 86;
of Daksa, 199; Love, son of Faith,
165; at Indra's court, 140; Sraddha,
act of faith, funeral feast, see Funeral.
Sraja, an All-god, 174.
Srama, Toil, son of Apa, 171.
Sravistha, an Apsaras, 160.
Sri, Fortune, lost by demons, 47, 54, 135;
rose from Ocean, 55; Sri stri, 65, 81;
Brahmi Sri, 178; as Laksmi, 135, 140 f.,
208; material prosperity, 146; and
lotus, 205, in benedictions, separate
from Laksmi, 224. See Laksmi.
Srimat, an All-god, 174.
Srivatsa, 184, 205, 213.
Srutavati, devotee of Indra, 136, 141, 162.
3rutayudha, human son of Varuna, 5, 120.
Sruti, lost, 218. See Smrti.
Stars, as souls, Pitrs, 34, 53; world of
sun and stars, 60 f.; Naksatras not
to be looked at, 69, 106; not as seers,
185; falling star gives blindness, 75;
as wives of Moon, 90; rite of Moon
and asterisms, 92; list of asterisms,
93; virtues of, taught by Yama, 116;
path of stars, 141 ; stars as hair-pits
of Visnu, 207; form of Siva, 222.
See Astrologer, Raumya.
Sthana, a Gandharva, 153, 156.
Sthanu, a Rudra, epithet of Rudra-Siva,
55, 172 f. ; as Siva, 190; a Prajapati, 200.
Sthira, attendant of Skanda, 230.
INDEX.
265,
Sthuna or Sthunakarna, a Yaksa, 145, 148.
Subahu, an Apsaras, 160.
Subala, a Garuda, 22.
Subha, abstract divinity, Loveliness, 54;
mother of Brhaspati, 100.
Subhadra, ,,born as Kali", 76; space-
guarding cow, 200.
Subhaga, an Apsaras, 159 f.
Subhakarman, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Subhra, var. lee. for Sthana.
Subhraj, spirit of light, 88; Subhraja,
attendant of Skanda, 230.
Subhumika, Tirtha, 160 f.
Subrahmanya, non-epic epithet of Skanda,
229.
Sucaksu, name of Ganges, 5f.
Sucandra, a Gandharva, 153.
Suci, a fire, 102; son of Bhrgu, 178.
Sucika, an Apsaras, 160.
ibucismitta, an Apsaras, 160.
Sudarsana, tree, 8; son and discus of Agni,
103; discus of Visnu, 206; palace of
Indra, 141, 169; demon's elephant, 127 ;
-na, daughter of Narmada river, 5, 103.
Sudhanvan, a Muni, 51, 178.
Sudharasa, food of Nagas, 27.
Sudharma, Indra's court, also name of
Matali's wife, 58, 125, 141.
Sudharman, an All-god, 174; son of Manu,
202.
Sudhavat Pitrs, 33.
Sudyumna (Il'a), 201.
Sugandha, an Apsaras, 160.
Sugoptr, an All-god (?), 174.
Sugriva, an ape, 14 f., 40,52; origin of,
62, 86; a steed of Krsna, 215.
Sugrivi, an Apsaras, 160.
Suicide, 34, 61, 100 and note, 103. See
Suttee.
Suka, as Gandharva, var. lee. for Sthana;
asaint who sees Apsarasas,160f.; origin
of name, 163; pupil of Brhaspati, 181.
Sukala and Sukalin Pitrs, 34.
Sukanya, wife of Cyavana, 169.
Sukesa, royal Raksasa, 41, 108; Sukesi,
an Apsaras, 160.
Suki, daughter of Kasyapa, mother of
Nata, 23, 199. See Parrot.
Sukra, son of Bhrgu, 199; a Marut, 170;
Siva's seed, 180. See Usanas.
Suktimati, river, 5.
Sukumari, loved by Narada, 188.
Sulka, price given by bridegroom, 103.
Sulocana, an Apsaras, 160.
Sumadhya, an Apsaras, 160.
Sumalin, royal Raksasa, grandfather of
Ravana, 41.
Sumanas, an Asura, 47.
Sumani, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Sumanyu, a Gandharva, 153.
Sumati, an Asura, 47; Sumati, wife of
Sagara, 22f.? 122.
Sumeru, 10, 14.
Sumukha, a Naga, 52, 24; a Maharsir
177; son-in-law of Matali. 125.
Sumukhl, an Apsaras, 160.
I Sun, Surya, son of Brahman, 87 ; father
of Yama, Karna, and of Asvins, 81,
84, 86; of apes, 15, 62; of Sanaiscara,
85 f.; Savitr, 54; son of Dyaus, 77^
husband of Sita,_12; shrine of, 8;.
arms broken, 83; Aditya, son of Aditi,
world of, 60, 81 f. ; epithets as separate
gods, 77 ; worship of, 55; euhemeristic,
64; stayed by Ravana, 42; eclipse of,
44; as demon, 48, 84 f. ; as Vivasvat,
Tapana, Ravi, 81, 83 f, 87 f.; grailr
215; Aruna, 21 ; leads Grahas, 56, 84;
conception by, 62; gets Aditi's ear
rings, 81 ; Ravi guarded by Angiras,84;
wife of Vivasvat, 83 ; of Surya, 63, 85,
165; sun in general, witness of acts,
66, 87; as Time, 76; has seven steeds,
85, 87 f. ; Sunday as seventh day, 70r
89; not to be looked at, etc., 69, 87r
106 ; cjiarioieejr ofjj^ seven or twelve
suns, 84; gives rain, disperses demons,
84, 174; stories of, 86; sun and Atrif
182; sun-stone, 89 ; Supraja, Tapana,
Tapati, 86 f. ; steeds stand at noon, 87 ;
doorkeeper of, 87; hymns and names of,
88; sun of destruction, 99; as horse,
103, 204; as Lokapala, 149 f.; fate of
those dying during southern course of,
113, 198; limited godship of, 179; sun-
bird andVisnu, 203;Valakhilyas as MarJ-
cipas, 186; men descended from Sunr
J.98^ form of Siva, 222 ; Sun's gift to
Skanda, 230. See Gitragupta, Saurasr
Vivasvat.
Sunabha, minister of Varuna, 119.
Sunahsepa, 135, 183.
Sunaka, son of Ruru, 161, 179.
Sunaman, a Garuda, 22 ; brother of Kamsar
214.
266
INDEX.
Sundaand Upasunda, demons, 51, 133 f.,
162, 195.
Sundari, wife of Malyavat, 41.
Sunday, see Sun.
Sunetra, son of Garuda, 22.
Sunitha, daughter of Death, mother of
Vena, 199.
Suparna, as class, 147, 186; a Gandharva,
153; a seer (trisauparna), 179; as
Visnu, 210. See Garuda.
Suparm, Svaha, 22, 25.
Suparsva, son of Sampati, 23.
Suparvan, an All-god, 174.
Suparvata, a Sadhya, 175.
Suprabha, son of Agni, 104; attendant
of Skanda, 230.
Supraja, daughter of Surya, 86, 101.
Supratika, elephant, 17.
Supriya, an Apsaras, 160.
Sura, ancestor of Krsna, 214.
Sura, spirit (intoxicating), 50, 55; for
demons, 68, 119; not for Visnu, 209;
produced from Surabhi, 200 ; as Varuni,
120, 199.
Surabhi, devi, daughter of Krodhavasa,
13, 16, 200; from Ocean, 55, 119; as
Rohini, 121; talks with Indra, 135;
born of Brahman's ambrosia, and
mother of Brahmanas, 173, 191, 200;
wife of Brahman, 200; a Sadhya, 175.
Surabhimat, a fire, 102.
Suraja and Surama, Apsarasas, 160.
Suranadi, 6.
Surarsi, 178.
Surasa, Nagamatr, 23, 28, 44, 160, 200.
Surasena, king, 214.
Surat, limit of Krsna-cult, 226.
Surata and Suralha, Apsarasas, 104, 160.
Suratayositas, 63.
Surenu, Tvastri, 85.
Suresa (title of Indra), as All-god (?), 174.
Surpanakha, demon. ,,root of woe", 41 f.,
143.
Suruc, a Garuda or roc, 22.
Suruci, probably a Gandharva, 153.
Surupa, an Apsaras, 160; a space-guard
ing cow, 200.
Surya, see Sun.
Suryabhanu, gate-keeper of Kubera, 142.
Suryakanta, 89.
Suryasavitra and Suryasri, All-gods(?), 174.
Suryavarcas, a Gandharva, 153.
Susena, son of Varuna, 62, 119.
Susila, non-epic wife of Yama, 116.
Sutanu, a Gandharva, 153.
Suttee, 99 f., 184.
Suvarcala, wife of Surya, 63, 83, 95.
Suvarcas, son of Garuda, 22; attendant
of Skanda, 230.
Suvarna, a Gandharva, 153.
Suvarnabha, son of Manu, 202.
Suvarnasiras, Muni of ocean, 187.
Suvrata, a Prajapati, 200; attendant of
Skanda, 230.
Suvrtta, an Apsaras, 160, 164.
Suyajna, a seer, 177.
Suyama spirits, 186.
Svadha, 229; food of seers and of Pitrs,
27, 34.
Svaha, 229; as Uma, 230; wife of Agni,
63; personates the wives of Rsis, 100,
104, 182.
Svarbhanu and Svarbhanavi, 48, 53. See
Rahu.
Svarga, Heaven, personified, 53 ; heaven,78.
Svarocisa Manu, 202.
Svasa, mother of the Vasus Vayu and
Soma, 91, 170.
Svastika, Naga, 28 f. ; attendant of Skanda,
230.
Svastyatreya, seer of the South, 177.
Svati, Arcturus, path of, 14.
Svayambhu, see Brahman; Svayambhuva
Manu, 202.
Svayamprabha, an Apsaras, 160; daughter
of Merusavarni, Hema's friend, 164.
Sveta, cursed to eat himself, 185; Sveta,
elephant, and Sveta, his mother, 17,
200; Sveta Rsis, 186.
Svistakrt, son of Brhaspati by Candra-
masi, 100.
Sweat, gods without, 57; trees from, 187;
water as Visnu's sweat, 207.
Sword, as Dharma, see Asi.
Syem, mother of Sampati, wife of Aruna,
23, 84, 199 f.
Tabu, through death, 30; -tree, 6, 44;
-animals, 16, 20, 69, -food, etc., 44;
of lying-in woman, 102; of priest, 106.
Tadaka, a Yaksini who becomes a Ra-
ksasi, 43.
Taksa, founder of Taksasila, 29, 157;
Taksaka, Naga, 24f.,*27f., 137, 176;
Taksasila, 29, 157.
Talajahgha, king (Raksas in R), 14, 179.
INDEX.
267
Talaketu, foe of Krsna, 217 (also title of
Bhisma).
Tamburu (tambour), see Tumburu.
Tamra, mother of Suki, 23, 159, 191, 199 f.
Tandi, son of Brahman, 191.
Tanmatras, created by Siva, 222.
Tanu, thin Rsi, 187.
Tanuja, a Sadhya, 175.
Tapana, see Sun.
Tapas, begets gods, 68; physical and
religious ardor, 85; father of fires,
101. See Asceticism.
Tapati, sister of Savitri, 85, 155.
Tara, ape, son of Brhaspati, 62; title
(,,conqueroru) of Visnu, 206.
Tara, different women, explained, 52;
Brhaspati's wife, 63, raped by Soma,
90, 93, 181 ; daughter of Susena, 119.
Taraka, demon slain by Indra, Krsna,
and Skanda, 50, 134, 228.
Tarakamaya war, 52, 54, 90, 116, 181 ;
in Krta age, 217; cause of Skanda's
birth, 228.
Tarantuka, gate-keeper at Kuruksetra, 149.
Tarksya, see Garuda.
Taxes, aid gods, when moderate, 45.
Tears, pollute food, 46; of Puloma
become river, 194; of Agni, become
Asvins, 169.
Tejasvin, an Indra, 136.
Temples and shrines, 70 f.; decorations
of, 183.
Thanksgiving service, 68.
Tila and tilaka, sesame, sign, 12; cakes,
17; at funerals, 32; for Bhuts, 69, 146;
not offered to Visnu, 209.
Tilottama, an Apsaras, 51, 135, 159 f.,
162, 219.
Timburu, see Tumburu.
Time, see Kala und Yuga.
Tirthas, watering-places, idea of, 4; magic
of, 11; SarpadevT, 25; Pisaci, 45; merit
of, 59 ; with shrines, 71 f. ; change their
divinities, 220; Vadava, 99; of Agni,
107; of Asva, 121;' Kaubera, 142; of
Nagas, 149; of Visvavasu, 152; Ka-
palamocana, 180; of Vasistha and
Seven Rsis, 182; of Kanya and Ana-
raka, 225; of Visnu and of Kurus, 209;
Brahman lives at, 193.
Tortoise, upholds mountain, as Avatar,
29, 50, 200, 208, 217. See Kacchapa,
Kamatha, Kasyapa, Kurma.
Torture, tree of, 111. See Hell.
Totem, 9, 16, 200 f.
Trees, 6f.; children of Anala, 200; of
Paradise, 7, 140, 214; of hell, 111;
golden, 7, 111; wonder-tree, 7, 39, 45;
of Siva, 219; incense made from,
avoided, 69; Indra gives to apes, 140;
receive sin, 130; of Caitraratha, 142;
demoniac, 144; clothes from, 186;
from sweat of seer, 187; tree-mother
and dryad, 7, 229; Caitya, 39, 72;
Brahman and Buddha under tree, 193,
218; form of Visnu, 208; Skanda and
his spirits in trees, 227, 229; Balarama
has palm, 212. See Aksatavata, As-
vattha, Bakula, Bhandira, Caitya,
Chada, Kalamra, Karafija, Mandara,
Nyagrodha, Palm, Parijata, Pippala,
Plaksaraja, Plants, Salmali, Sami,
Samtanaka, Sudarsana, Udumbara,
Vegetal Divinities, Vibhitaka.
Treta Age, 75, 183, 211, 217.
Triad, 77. See Trimurti.
Tridasa, gods, 55.
Trident, of Siva, 220 f.
Tridiva, heaven, 78.
Trijata, a Raksasi, 42.
Trilokanatha,Trailoka, epithets of Indra,60.
Trimurti, trinity, late, 77, 88, 170; first
triad is of fires, 103 ; the form is one,
the gods are three, 218; dualism before
trinitarianism , 94, 221, 223 f.; the
Mother-goddess is mother of Trimurti,
226; remarks on, 231.
Trinity, see Trimurti.
Tripada, presumably a demon, killed by
Skanda, 228.
Tripura, town of demons, destroyed by
Siva, 50, 219, 221 f., 228.
Trisanku, star-seer, elevated to the sky
by Visvamilra, 177, 183.
Trisauparna, 179. See Suparna.
Trisiras, son of Tvastr, as Muni, 130 f.,
162 ; son of Ravana, 43. See Tvastr
and Visvarupa.
Trismga, mountain, 11, 220.
Trita, son of Gautama, seer of Varuna,
in Indra's train, 94, 120, 140, 181, 183.
Trnapa, a Gandharva, 153
Trnasomangiras, a Rsi of Yama, 116.
Truth, troth, 66, 109; best wealth of
seers, 178; Brahman god of, 198. See
Lie, Oath.
268
INDEX.
Tryambaka, Siva, 219 f.; a Rudra, 173.
Tumburu, musician of the gods, 59, 143,
153 f., 155 f., 163; as Viradha, 195.
Turvasu, son of Yadu, 187.
Tusita gods, 186 f. ; Tusita and Maha-
tusita, titles of Visnu, 218.
Tvastadhara, son of Usanas, 179. See
Dhara.
Tvastr, an Aditya, 81 f. ; makes bolt and
amogha sakti, 122, 124, 194; weapon
of, 123 ; father of Visvarupa Trisiras,
and of Rudras. 130 f., 173; curses
Indra, 130; his gift to Skanda, 230.
See Visvakarman, Visvarupa.
Tvastri, daughter of Tvastr, mare-consort
of Vivasvat, 83 f., 85*f., 168.
Twilight, divinity, see Samdhya.
Uccaihsravas, Ocean - born steed, 55,
125; from Surabhi's milk as ocean,
200, 203.
Ucchrnga, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Udumbara, tree and wood, 7, 92; as
Visnu, 208.
Ugra. son of Kavi, 178.
Ugrasena, king of Bhojas, 214; a Gan-
dharva, 153.
Ujjalaka (-janaka) Tirtha, 182.
Uktha, fire, 100; All-god, 174.
Ulkamukha, son of Agni, 104.
Ulmuka, fire-brand of Kirmira, 40; son
of Balarama, 212.
Ulupi, a nixie, 26.
Uma, wife of Siva, 5, 10, 135, 226;
Rudram, 221 ; as Aparna, 224; mother-
goddes, 226; Mahadevi and Bhaga,
56; and Ila, 91; curses gods, 61, 142,
226; boons of, 41, 219, 225, 230;
aparajita, 102; daughter of Himavat,
179, 219 f.; epithets of, 225; dis
courses of, 69, 224; with Siva, 219 f.,
on bull, 223; makes third eye, 226;
paralyses Indra, 135, 225; younger
sister of Ganges, 224; as a Venus,
161, 225; intercedes for Usanas, 180;
gives life to Jambuka, 225; slays
demons; weapons, snakes, peacock
of, 224; as Gaurl, etc. 220 f., 224 f.;
as Kali, 76; Bhadrakali, 223, 225;
Aditi, Durga, 11 f., 76, 79, 159, 224;
as Parvati, 224 f. ; as Vetala, 220,
note; as Svaha, 230; personal cha
racteristics of, 219, 224; as sakti, 226.
Umbara or Dumbara, aGandharva, 153.
Umbrella, sign of sovereignty, 79; divine
origin of, 87; ofVaruna, 119; of Indra,.
122, 141.
Umloca, an Apsaras, 160.
Unicorn, see Ekasrnga.
Unmada and Unmatha, attendants of
Skanda, 230.
Unmucu, seer of the South, 116, 132.
Upakrsnaka, see Krsna.
Upamanyu, hymn of, 168.
Upanandaka, see Nanda.
Uparicara, aviator, 22, 125; aided by
gods, 68; holds festival of Indra, 126;
pupil of Brhaspati, 181.
Upasruti, spirit, grants boons, 130 f.
Upasunda, see Sunda.
Upataksaka, with Taksaka, as Naga, 28.
Upendra, Visnu, 204.
Urdhvabahu, up-arm, saint, as priest of
Yama, 116; in Sun-cult, 88.
Urinate, against sun, etc., 69, 87.
Urjaskaras, fires, 101.
Urmila, mother of Somada,Gandharvi, 156..
Urnayu, a Gandharva, 153, 156, 161.
Urvara, an Apsaras, 160.
Urvasi, an Apsaras, 53, 63; loved by
Mitra and Varuna, 118, 159 f. ; relation
to Vibhandaka, Pururavas, as Ganges,
162; born of Visnu, 164.
Urvi, see Earth.
Usa, daughter of Bana, loves Aniruddha,
' 48, 51, 164, 214 f.; wife of
Usanas, Sukra, planet Venus, 48,
sends rain, 180; chief priest of de
mons, of Bhrgu's race, 178 f. ; as
author, 180; father of Devi, Devayam,.
Siddhi, Araja, 50, 120, 179 f., 187;
husband of Sataparvan, 63, 180; sons
of, 179; chaplain of Prthu, 166; of
Hiranyakasipu, and seer of Siva, 180;
wiser than Brhaspati, 135; helps
Moon, warns Asuras, advises Indra,
92, 134 f.; curses Danda, 179; dis
courses of, 69, 180; Mantras of, 120;
Nitisastra of, 180; unites with Brhas
pati (legend), 180; wealth given to
Maya, 194; snaky locks turn Siva's-
neck blue, 226. See Kavi and Sukra.
Usangu, ancestor of Krsna, 214.
Usmara, ancestor of Sibi, 104.
Usirabija, place where lake yields goldr
146.
INDEX.
269
Usmapa saints and seers, who drink
' only heat, 33 f., 177, 186.
Usnmabha, an All-god (?), 174.
Ustra, an Asura, 19.
Utaiika, seer, 107; clouds of, 137; called
viprarsi, 178.
Utathya, son of Arigiras, 199; marries
Bhadra, 91, 121; his wife Mamata
violated by his brother Brhaspati,
181; drinks up ocean, 185.
Utkrosa, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Uttara Kurus, 8, 10 f.; home of Vidya-
dharas, contains Caitraratha, 142, 176;
heaven of, 31; world of, 60; road to,
49; south of Somagiri, 91; home and
life of, 186; burial of, 20.
Vac, divine Word, 6; Vacaspati, worship
of, 55; has no epic sire, 191.
Vadavagni, 100; Vadavamukha, fire of
Mare's Mouth, found at Jaloda, 23;
divine and demoniac fire, 26, 61, 99,
204; and Ocean, 121; as Hayasiras,
Aurva, 180; Avatar, 218.
Vadhusara, river of tears, 194.
Vahika, see Bahlika.
Vahni, an Asura, 52 (title of Agni).
Vaidikis, class of Apsarasas, 159, 161.
Vaihayasas, spirits, 186.
Vaijayanta, -ti, epithet of Indra's banner,
bells, wreaths, 124 f., 126.
"Vaikhanasa seers, 35; with Valakhilyas,
186; of the North, 176; receive the
doctrines of Mrada, 178.
Vaikuntha, Visnu as gods' divinity, 207.
Vaimitra (?), a Mother, 229.
Vainateya, see Garuda and Vinata.
Vainya, Rajarsi, see Prthu Vainya.
Vairaja Pitrs, 33.
Vairocana, 42.
Vaisalaksa, legal treatise of Siva, 224.
Vaisaleya Nagas, 28.
Vaisravana, 41, 55, 142 f., 183; Vessa-
vana, 152, note. See Kubera.
Vaisvanara, fire, 101; Rsis, 35, 177.
Vaitalin, officer of _Skanda, 230.
Vaitandya, son of Apa, 171.
Vaitaram, river, 5; in Kalinga, 59, 110;
Maha-, in hell, 110 f.
Vaivasvata, Yama, 86.
Vaja, son of Manu, a Flbhu, 35.
Vajasani, Visnu, 208.
Vajra, son of Aniruddha, 214.
Vajrasirsa, son of Bhrgu, 178.
Vajrin, an All-god, 174.
Vaka, see Baka.
Vakra and Anuvakra, var. lee. for Cakra
and Anucakra.
Vala(Bala), demon, 125, 129, 199; killed
by lightning, 132.
Valahaka clouds, 95.
Valakhilyas, thumb-size Rsis, 35, 84, 105,
166; with gods, 173; as Maharsis,
177; religious teachers, 178; connec
tion with Garuda, 21; sons of Kratu,
as Vaihayasa seers guarding the Sun,
186, 191, 199.
Valin, Vasavi, son of Indra, 14 f., 40,
49; origin of, 62, 141.
Valmiki, Vainateya, 22; son of Pracetas,
120; in Indra's hall, 140; recognises
four Lokapalas, 150; advised by
Brahman, 194.
Vamadeva, Rsi, son of Gautama, has
wonderful horses, 177, 183.
Vamana, elephant, 17, 126; Naga, 24;
Vamana, an Apsaras, 160.
Vamsa, an Apsaras, 160.
Vanadevata, see Forest.
Vanaprastha Maharsis, 177.
Vanayus, son of Urvasi, 162.
Vandin, son of Varuna, 120.
Vapus. an Apsaras, 160.
Vapusmat, an All-god, 174.
Varaha, an Asura, 52, 201; form of
Visnu, Mahavaraha, 208. See Avatar.
Varanana, an Apsaras, 160.
Varcas, a Vasu, son of Soma, 170.
Vardhana, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Varenya, Bhargava, 178.
Varga, an Apsaras, becomes a crocodile,
160, 163.
Varin, an All-god, 174.
Varistha, son of Manu, a seer, 187, 202.
Varitaksa, an Asura, 52.
Varksi, dryad, 7.
Varuna, Aditya, 81 f.; son of Muni, 199;
son of Kavi, 178; god of wate^ 8?_
^116 L; under earth^ 267 guards
demons, 119; with noose, ib., 121;
lives in West, under water, ,118, 174;
offerings to, 31, 56; worshipped T)y"
demon and saint, 47, 55 ; children of,
5, 15, 50, 62, 91, 118 f., 120; wife
and attendants ofx_523_J>3r~. 119 4. ;
control and wealth of, 56 f., 121, 146 -T
270
INDEX.
world and nymphs of, 60, 118, 163 f.;
six flavors of, 117; boons ands gifts
of, 117, 121, 230; as goose, ram, form
of Siva, 58, 103, 119 f.; in kings, 64;
truthful and witness, 120 f.; gopati,
and cows of, 83, 120, 150; robbed by
Kasyapa, 121; bow and battles of,
93, 105, 107; white steeds of, 121;
a killing god, appointed by Kasyapa,
117; steels Bhadra, 91, 121; with
Mitra, 89, 116 f . ; as Indra, ibid.;
minister, seers, umbrella of, 119 f. ;
relations with Indra, 139; as Loka-
pala, 149 f. ; conquered by Krsna, 214 ;
name of a Gandharva, 153; Varunas,
sons of Bhrgu, adopted by Siva as
Varuna, 178; Varuni, 22, 55, 118 f.;
Varuni, see Sura.
Varuthini, an Apsaras, 160.
Vasatkara, as one of the Tridasa, 55.
Vasava, Indra, 127 f. ; Vasavi, son of
Indra, 141. See Vasu.
Vasistha, chief Devarsi in East, 181 ;
Apava, star of the Nord, 182 f. ;
helpful seer, 169; mountain of, cow
of, 9, 17 ; aids gods, 49 ; born in jar,
118, 182; husband of Arundhati, dis
course, rathamtara of, 130, 182 f. ;
theft of his cow, curses Vasus, 171,
182 ; curses Nimi, 179 ; curses Karta-
virya, 183 f.; quarrels with Visvamitra,
182 f. ; deeds of, 183 ; one of Kubera's
Seven Rsis, 144; priest of Mucu-
kunda, 147, 183; titles and family
of, 177 f. ; as mental son of Brahman,
190; Vasisthi Kastha, 182.
Vasuda, see Vasudha.
Vasudeva, Anakadundubhi, 214.
Vasudeva. 51, 213 f., 222, note; Paun.
draka, 217; brother of Durga, 224;
loved by Skanda, 229; as proper name,
231. note. See Krsna.
Vasudha, demon, 41 ; or -da, wife of
Afigiras, 100; Vasuda, as Gandharvi
and as follower of Skanda, 145, 156.
Vasudhara, Earth and wife of Kubera,
148.
Vasuki, son of Kadru, 24 f.; brother of
Ulupi, 26; king of Bhogavati, and
husband of Sataslrsa, 27, 61, 63; with
Varuna, 119; as earth-supporter, 55,
177; his gift to Skanda, 230.
Vasumat, a fire, 102.
Vasus, eight fighting gods, from mundane
egg or sons of Manu or Dharma, 55
123, 170 f., 190, 199; worshipped, 55r
171 ; worship Sun and Visnu, 34r
171; names of, 77, 170; Agni chief
of, 104,_171; Indra lord of, 127, 171;
include Apa, 104; curse Arjuna, Indra
permits curse, 171; mother of, is
Vasu; origin of family, 170 f., 200;
Bhisma as, 171 ; others called by this
name, 170 f.; king Vasu, 8.
Vasvaukasara, river, 5, 142.
Vata, attendant of Skanda, 230.
Vata, see Vayu.
Vatapin, demon, 48, 185.
Vataskandha, 96.
Vatika, officer of Skanda, 230; Vatika
Rsis, 179.
Vatika sanda or-khanda, a lake in Kash
mir, 226.
Vatsara, a Sadhya, 175.
Vayu, Anila, Pavana, Maruta, Vata, Wind,,
father of Hanumat, 13; soul of all,
names of, 94, 96; paths and worlds
of, 60, 94; messenger of Indra, 94 f.,
161; routs demons, upholds Ganges,
and worlds, 48, 60, 96; as Marut,
Danava, 94, 97; of Yama, 110; friend
of Agni, 97 f., 102, 105, 146; as
teacher, 95, 162, 179, 184; as Vasu,
170; journeys with Narada, 189; as
Lokapala, 149 f. ; Skanda as Vayu-
murti, gift to Skanda, 228, 230; Vayu
(Purana), 218. See Indra, Maruts.
Vayubhaksa, seer and class of seers, 177.
Vedanta formula, unknown to epics, 208.
Vedas, born for Agni, maker of Vedas
102, 107; created, 195; made by Siva,
223 ; awaken Brahman, Aum the best
Veda, 193, 195; Caturveda Brahman,
197; Savitri and Sarasvall as mothers
of Vedas, 53, 86. See Atharvaveda,.
Samaveda, Yajurvedins.
Vedl, court of Pitamaha, 63, 143.
Vegavat, an Asura, 51.
Vegetal divinities, 11 f., 55; vegetarian
cult, 16; sacrifice, 68; demons, 45.
Vena, son of Manu and Sunitha, 166r
199, 201.
Vetala, 46, note; 220, note.
Vibhandaka, father of Rsyasrnga, 162.
Vjbhavasu, son of Dyaus, 77; a Marut,
170; as Sun, 83; as fire, 196.
INDEX.
271
Vibhisana, a Raksasa, 23 f., 41 f., 143 f.;
made immortal, 194; and Bibhisana,
144.
Vibhitaka, tree, 7.
Vibhuti, a Sadhya, 175.
Vibudha, as deva, 58.
Victory, a goddess, 53. See Vijaya.
Vidhana, a Sadhya, 175.
Vidhatr, brother of Dhatr, creator, dis
poser, 54 f., 74. 81, 158; as priest in
disguise, 82, 104; as Yama, 116; as
Brahman, 189; his gift to Skanda,
230.
Vidhi, as Fate, 74.
Vidya and Vidyaganas, 175, 193 ; caksusi
vidya, 201; with £iva, 225.
Vidyadharas, 175 f. ; spirits of the air, 7,
13; chief is Jambavat, 176; or Vipra-
citti or Cakradharman, 134, 143, 176;
with Kimnaras, at the courts of gods,
143, 159, 176; Vidyadhari, fair fairy,
57, 176.
Vidyota and Vidyuta, Apsarasas, 160.
Vidyudvarcas, an All-god (?), 174.
Vidyutkesa, a Raksasa, 107.
Vidyutparna, an Apsaras, 160.
Vidyutprabhas, class of Apsarasas, 159.
Vighasasin Rsis, 179.
Vigraha, see Samgraha.
Vijaya, seer, 177; weapon of Siva, 223,
225.
Vijaya, non-epic wife of Yama, 116; with
Jaya, Victory, titles of Durga (q. v.).
Vikatabha, an Asura, 52.
Vikramaka, attendant of Visnu given to
Skanda, 230.
Vikrlta, a Prajapati, 191, 200.
Viksara, demon, brother of Vrtra, 129.
Vimala, a Mother, 200.
Vimuca, Vimukha, seers, 177.
Vinata, mother of Garuda, 21; and of
other sons, 22 f., 84, 199 ; of Kadru, 28.
Vinayaka demons, 207.
Vindhya, mountain, 8, 11, 23; and Sun,
86; tricked by Agastya, 185; home of
Uma, 224 ; makes gift to Skanda, 230.
Vipapman, an All-god, 174.
Vipasa, river, 5, 182.
Vipracitti, son of Danu, 199; father of
Namuci, 48, 50, 132; leads Vidya
dharas, q. v. ; an Apsaras, 160.
Viprarsi, seer among priests, 177 f.
Vipula, priest, tale of, 135.
Vira, son of Danayus, 48, 129, 199.
Virabhadra, follower of Siva, 223; form
of Siva, 227, note.
Viradha, as Tumburu, 40, 143, 195.
Viraj, mother of earth, etc., 78, 148, 202.
Viraja, a Marut, 170.
Virajas, father of Kirtimat, 166; son of
Kavi, 178.
Viraloka, heaven of heroes, 60.
Viratha, king of the East (perhaps Anrua),
152.
Virina and his daughter Virini, Nightr
mother of Narada, 189 f., 199 f.
Virocana, demon, 48, 50 f., 199.
Virulhaka, 152, note.
Virupa and Virupaka, demon, 52.
Virupaksa, elephant, 17 ; a Raksasa, 39,.
48, 52, 199 f., 220; a Rud'ra, 183;
as Siva, 226 ; Virupakkha, 152, note.
Viryavat, an All-god, 174.
Visakha, form of Skanda, 224, 227 f.,
230.
Visala, town of, 134.
Viskumbha, (?) an All-god, 174.
Visnu, son of Aditi, 81 f., son of Prsnir
*6; forms of, 3 f., 13 f., 51 f., 20*2 f.,
208 f. ; cult of, 16 f. ; as fire, 101 ; as
Sarabha, 19 ; as Kapila, 199 ; vehicle
of, 19, 21 f. ; and Sesa, 23 f. ; wife of,
53, 208 f.; typifies prowess, 56, 64;
in feet, 65; as sectarian god, 77;
breath of, 95; equipment of, 124, 206;
and earth and moon, 78 f., 93; epithets
of, 123 ; home of, 207, 209 ; relations
withlndra, 130, 140, 204; with Yama,
115, 207; and demons, 130 f., 133;
with Brahman, 197, 205; ape from
tears, Asvins from ears of, 169, 204;
bird-form of, 202 ; Visnu as ^ods, 207;
with Krsna, 213 f . ; s'iva, 218 f., 224;
Skanda, 228, 230; and Ravana, 43;
as destroyer, 207. See Avatar, Krsnar
Srivatsa.
Visnupadi, 6.
Visnuyasas, Kalki, 218.
Visravas, demon, 41 f., 142 f., 191.
Visva, demon, 62 ; Visva, female divinity,.
174, 199.
Visvabhuj, a fire, 100 f. ; as Indra, 104,
136.
VisvacI, an Apsaras, 159 f., 163, 187.
Visvajit, a fire, 100 f. ; an Asura, 52.
Visvakarman, All -maker. 81 f. ; son of
272
INDEX.
Prabhasa, 170 ; nephew of Brhaspati,
181 ; carpenter of the gods,' 201 f. ;
makes idols, 73 ; and divine cars and
weapons, 81, 142 f., 201; and halls
of gods, etc., 113, 118; and Lanka,
201; and Tilottama, 162, 194; and
discus, 206; and home of demons*
22, 50, 194; father of Nala, 62; form
of Brahman, 189 ; compared with
Tvastr, 81; as Siva, 223.
Visvakrt, perhaps an All -god, 174; as
Brahman, 194.
Visvamitra, son of Gadhi's wife, 5, 183;
seduction of, 164; strife with Vasistha,
17, 182 f.; one of Kubera's Seven
Seers, 177 ; father of sages, 182 f. ,
188; wife of, 63; curses of, 143, 183;
cited, 106; details of life and acts,
182 f. ; relation to Skanda, 229.
Visvapati, a fire, 101.
Visvaruci, a Gandharva, 153.
Visvarupa, Trisiras, see Tvastr and
Trisiras; a Rudra, 173.
Visvavasu, chief of Gandharvas, 152,
154 f., 160, 163; also as Marut, Vasu,
All-god, and Sadhya, 170, 174, 175;
a philosopher, 188.
Visvayu, an All-god (?), 174.
Yisve Devas, All-gods, 34, 173 ; origin of,
199; as Pitr-gods, 66, 174; feared
and worshipped, 55, 123; differentiated
from Pitrs, 173; include Agni, 104,
and a Gandharva, 153; offering to,
names, and general description of,
173 f.
Vitahavya, Haihaya, defeated by Pratar-
dana, 138; changes caste, father of
Grtsamada, 179; provided with a son,
183.
Vitapa, see Alaka.
Vitasta, river, 5, 121.
Viti, a fire, 102.
Vittada, a Mother, 145.
Vittapati and Vittesa, Kubera, 145.
Vivasvat, god, 55, and demon, 52; as
the sun, 84; father of Asvins, 85;
Manu and Bhaskara Vivasvat, 88; a
Vasu, 170; an All-god, 174; a Praja-
pati, 200. See Sun.
Vivindhya, an Asura, 51.
Voice, bodiless (divine), 67. See Vac.
Volcano, as demon, 49; deified, 204.
Vratyas, 231, note.
Vrjinivat, ancestor of Krsna, 214.
Vrksaka, dryad, see Tree.
Vrndavana, Brindaban, 7.
Vrsa, a Sadhya, 175.
Vrsabha, bull demon, killed by Krsna, 216.
Vrsadarbha, see Brhadgarbha; Vrsadar-
"bhi, Saibya, 182.
Vrsakapi, ape, 15 ; as Agni, 104 f . ; a
" Rudra, 173; sun -form of Visnu and
Siva, 204.
Vrsan, an Asura, 52.
Vrsaparvan, Asuraraj, 51, 180; Danava,
"199.
Vrtra, demon, 23 ; origin of, 48, 53, 199 ;
* Manimat-Vrtra, 38 ; and demons, 46 ;
slain by Indra, 122? 125, 127, 129 f.;
gods' contract with, 131 f. See Indra.
Vudvuda, see Budbuda.
Vultures, of hell, 110.
Vyasa, 161, 163, 177, 185; advised by
Brahman, 194; as Visnu, 207, 216.
218.
Vyomari, an All-god (?), 174.
Water, 3 f. ; from fire, 103 ; crossing, 32 ;
offering of, 32, 56, 68; polluted, 44;
as deity, witness, 55, 66, 102 ; moon
rules, 90 ; wit and water, 117 ; Varuna
as lord of, 117 f.; receives sin, 130;
in hell, 109; spirits of, 145, 159,
note ; as sweat of Visnu, 207 ; Brahman
born in, 189 ; form of Siva, 222. See
Apa, Apamgarbha, Hell, Ocean,
Varuna.
Weapons, worshipped, 54.
Wedding, see Marriage.
Week, origin of, 70, 91.
White Island, 64, 94 ; in Ram., 188. See
Mountain.
Wind, see Maruts, Pranas, Vayu.
Witnesses, gods as, 114. See Agni, Dyaus,
Sun, Moon, Wind, Earth, Water, etc.
Wolf-faced goddess, Durga, see Koka-
mukha.
Women, evil, 44, Maya, 49 f. ; assume
sin, 130, 132 ; make offerings, 69 ; of
Uttara Kurus, 186.
Wonder -cow, see Kamadhuk, Nandim;
development of idea, 152, note.
Wonder-tree, see Trees.
Worlds, see Lokas.
Worship, kinds of, 68; puja, 65, 71; of
weapons, 54. See under names of gods.
INDEX.
273
Wrath, see Krodha.
Wrong, see Adharma and Sin.
Yadu, hero, 187, 214
Yajfia, see Sacrifice.
Yajnavaha, officer of Skanda, 230.
Yajnavalkya, descendant of Visvamitra,
183 (ref. is 13, 4, 52 f.) ; philosopher,
188; law-book of, later than epic,
207, note; follower of, 218.
Yajurvedins, of epic, 172.
Yajus-formulas, bestowed by Surya, 83.
Yaksas, 10; etymology of, 41; description
of, 30, 34, 36, 38, 148 f. ; steal jewels,
26; with Nagas, 28; brothers of
Raksasas, 41; with Kubera, 57, 61,
142 ; live in trees, 72 ; calf of, is Siva,
148 ; created by Siva, 187 ; Guhyaka-
Yaksas, 144; Yaksim, 43, 148; food
of, offerings to, 31, 56, 68 f. ; -grahas,
229.
Yama, Vaivasvata, 8, 85 f., 107 f. ; lord
of Pitrs in South, 32 f., 56, 113 ; in
North,' 150; and of Pretas 29 f., 115;
rod, noose of, 109, 111 f. ; tongue as
arrow, 112; gift of, 230; appearance
of, 113; wealth and control of, 56 f.,
146 ; home and world of, 60 f. ; family
of, 63, 114 f.; in kings, as witness
and judge, 64 f., 110; as cook, 114;
may and does restore life, 67, 110,
113 f. ; his functions taken by Visnu,
114; identified with other gods, 91,
107, 112, 116, 149; priests of, 116;
as Lokapala, 149 f. ; maya, messenger
servants of. 108, 110, 113; verses of,
112, 116; with Havana and Manu,
111, 116; and Varuna, 119; and Indra,
139 ; Yamaratha vow, 115 ; Yamasatru
and other Raksasas withYama-names?
115, 230; Yam!, 107.
Yamala and Arjuna, magic trees, 144, 217.
Yamas, spirits, 34, 115.
Yami, see Yama ; Yami, an Apsaras, 160.
Yamuna, river, 5 f., 51; birth of, 85,
107 ; injured by her son, 121 ; abode
of nymphs, 160; of Yayati, 187.
Yasas, Grace, son of Love, 165.
Yati, son of Nahusa, 53 ; Yati Rsis, 186.
Yatudhanas, evil spirits, 44 ; rob funeral
feasts, 32; illusive, 41; general descrip
tion, 38 f. ; with other spirits, 148 ;
male, created by Visvamitra, 183, and
female by Vrsadarbhi, 182; born of
Yadu, 187.
Yavakrita, Rsi, sets sun's southern limit,
86, 188; 'one of Indra's seers, 138,
177; tales of, 137, 184.
Yavanas, Greeks (of Bactria), live in the
West, 118.
Yawn, as spiritual power, origin of, 131.
Yayati, descendant of Soma, 91 ; marries
daughter of Usanas, 51 f., 67; cursed
by Usanas, 180; father of Yadu,
Puru, etc., 187; grandfather of Sibi,
104; urged to fall, 150; loved by
Visvaci, 163 ; story of, 187 ; as general
ancestor, 198.
Year, as wheel and calf, created by
Asvins, 168; form of Prajapati, 195.
Yoga, a Rsi, with Samkhya, 177 ; Yoga-
power, of gods, 62, 130; of Skanda,
228; of Kasyapa, 79; overcomes
Kama, 165; of saints, 202; eightfold,
223.
Yogabhutaganas, 174.
Yogendra. a Vasu, 170.
Yogins, path of, 35; can drink ocean,
185; Siva as type of, 223.
Yonidvara, 86.
Yudhisthira, origin of, 62, 115; Dhar-
maraja, 144 ; 151 ; time of birth, 168.
Yugandhara, sinful locality, 209.
Yugapa, a Gandharva, 153.
Yugas, ages, Brahman's sleep measured
by, 194, 196; Krsna represents four
Yugas, 217. See Dvapara, Kali, Krta,
Treta.
Yuvanasva, father of the river Kaveri,
4; and of Mamdhatr, 139.
Indo-Aryan Research. III. i b.
18
274 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
Additions and Corrections.
P. 5, 1. 3 for wife read sister. — P. 7, 1. 17 for Vrksika read Vrksaka.
— P. 10, 1. 22 for Sandili read Sandili. — P. 33, 1. 28 for Sudhavatas read
Sudhavantas. — P. 56, 1. 6 from below for Dhanvantari read Dhanvantara (sic.).
— P. 64, 1. 19 for emplasised read emphasised. — P. 64, note, last line, for
devatvam read devas tvam. — P. 66, 1. 2 from below for a witness of the
world" read ,,witness of the world". — P. 85, 1. 17 from below add In 3, 281,
7, the mouse-destroying hawk that becomes a golden bird in the sky resembles
Apollo and his rat. — P. 92, middle, add With this Candravrata cf. BS. Ch. GV.
- P. 92, 1. 2 from below for father read , father". -- P. 100, 1. 11 for Drsta-
dyumna read Dhrstadyumna. — P. 100, 1. 30 for Subha read Subha. — P. 104,
1. 41 und 44 for Drstadyumna read Dhrstadyumna. — P. 106, 1. 7 delete no. —
P. 107, 1. 10 from below for § 32 read § 37. - - P. Ill, 1. 3 for Varna's read
Yama's. — P. 114, 1. 9 for Dhamaraja read Dharmaraja. — P. 121, 1. 3 f o r Rohim
read Rohim.— P. 125, 1.1 for slew read defeated. — P. 127, 1. 4 add H 8925.—
P. 128, 1. 13 from below for six read (six). — P. 132, last line, for son of Vairocana
read son of Virocana. — P. 134, 1. 5 for 8 f. read 8b. — P. 135, last line, after
references to H, add by Madhu and Hiranyaksa. — P. 145, 1. 32 for on Yaksas
read or Yaksas. — P. 147, last line, add Revanta as chief Guhyaka is not epic.
- P. 153, 1. 23 from below_for Brhatvan read Brhaddhan. - - P. 156, 1. 7 from
below for Urmila read Urmila. — P. 157, 1. 14 from below for fonnds read
founds. — P. 160, in the list of Apsarasas, after Anuka add (H). — ibid, for
Varanana read Varanana. — P. 172, 1. 5 for ,,like immortals read ,,like
immortals". — P. 174, 1. 15 from below for Caksusa read Gaksusa. — P. 177,
1. 14 for seven some, in read seven, some in. — ibid. 1. 22 for R 59 read
R 7, 59. — P. 180, 1. 7 add C, Sataparva, B and S, -parvan. — P. 183, 1. 13 from
below for 18 read 4 and for his read this. — P. 199, 1. 10 for Danayu
read Danayus. — ibid. 1. 33 for Nanda read Nanda. — P. 200, 1. 7 for Aruna
read Aruna. — ibid. 1. 16 for Iravati read Iravati. — P. 203, note 2, 1. 7 for
§ 153 read § 154. — P. 211, 1. 23 add On the antiquity of the Dwarf- Avatar, cf.
Macdonell, JRAS., 1895, p. 168 f. Charpentier explains gipivista as hairy dwarf.
— P. 213, 1. 5 from below for 3, 88 read 3, 188. — P. 216, l.*27 add Radha is
unknown to the epic. — P. 222, end of 1. 29 delete If.
ABBREVIATIONS.
AB. = Aitareya Brahmana.
Ap. = Apastamba.
AV. = Atharva-Veda.
B = Bombay edition of Mahabharata.
Brh. Up. — Brhadaranyaka-Upanisad.
C = Calcutta edition of Mahabharata.
CDS. — Gautama Dharmasastra.
H = Harivaipsa.
Hit. = Hitopadesa.
IS. = Indische Studien.
JAOS. — Journal of the American
Oriental Society.
JRAS. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society.
M = Manu.
Mu$d. = MuQdaka-Upanisad.
OST. = Original Sanskrit Texts.
Pras. = Prasna-Upanisad.
PW. = Petersburger Worterbuch.
R = Ramayafla, Text of Krishnacharya.
RB = Ramayana, Bombay edition.
RG = Ramayana, Text of Gorresio.
RV. = Rig-Veda.
S = South Indian (Kumbakonam) edition
of the Mahabharata.
SB. = Satapatha-BrahmaQa.
SEE. = Sacred Books of the East.
SGS. = Sankhayana Grhyasutra.
TS. = Taittiriya-Sarnhita.
VP. = Visnu-Purana.
VS. = Vajasaneya-Samhita.
WZKM. = Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde
des Morgenlandes.
ZDMG. = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor-
genlandischen Gesellschaft.
N. B. Figures without prefixed abbreviation refer to the Bombay edition of the
Mahabharata, designated at times, to avoid confusion, by B or Mbh. R's numbers, except
in a few passages, coincide exactly or very nearly with those of RB (called C by Jacobi).
CONTENTS.
Page
I. Introduction 1—3
§ i. Date of Epic Poetry I
§ 2. The Concept Deva 2
II. The Lower Mythology 3—29
§ 3. Definition 3
§ 4. Divine Rivers 3
§ 5. Divine Trees and Groves 6
§ 6. Divine Mountains 8
§ 7. Vegetal Divinities u
§ 8. Animal Divinities. Hanumat and the Divine Apes 12
§ 9. The Cow 16
§ 10. The Elephant 17
§ II. Demoniac Animals 18
§ 12. Divine and Demoniac Birds 19
§ 13. Serpents 23
III. Spirits 29—52
§ 14. Pretas 29
§ 15. The Pitrs 31
§ 16. The Bhuts 36
§ 17. Raksasas, Yatudhanas, and Pisacas 38
§ 18. The Asuras 46
IV. The Gods 52-83
§ 19. Origin and General Characteristics of the Gods 52
§ 20. The Number of Gods 55
§ 21. Leaders of the Gods 56
§ 22. The Signs of the Gods 57
§ 23. Habitations of Spiritual Beings 58
§ 24. Children and Wives of the Gods 61
§ 25. Men as Gods 64
§ 26. Religion and Morals of the Gods 65
§ 27. Relation between Gods and Men. Worship 67
§ 28. The Days of the Gods 69
§ 29. Shrines and Temples of the Gods 70
§ 30. Idols of the Gods 72
§ 31. The Gods collectively as Fate • 73
§ 32. Kali 76
§ 33. The Pantheon 77
§ 34. The Sky-God 77
§ 35-36. Earth 78
§ 37. Aditi and the Adityas • 8l
V. The Eight Great Devas 83—152
§ 38—43. The Sun-God . 83
§ 44—46. The Moon-God . . 89
§ 47—48. The Wind-God 94
§ 49-53- The Fire-God 97
CONTENTS. 277
Page
§ 54—58. Yama 107
§ 59 — 65. Varui.xa and Ocean 116
§ 66—82. Indra 122
§ 83—90. Kubera 142
§ 91—92. The World-Protectors 149
VI. The Hosts of Spirits 152—176
§ 93 — 98. Gandharvas 152
§ 99. Kimnaras and Kimpurusas 158
§ 100—104. The Apsarasas 159
§ 105—109- Kama 164
§ no. The Asvins 167
§ HI. The Maruts 169
§ H2. The Vasus 170
§ 113. The Rudras 172
§ 114. The Visve Devas 173
§ 115. The Sadhyas 175
§ 116. The Vidyadharas 175
§ 117. The Kapas 176
VII. The Divine Seers as Star-Gods 176 — 185
§ 118. The Heptads of Seers 176
§ 119. Divisions of Rsis 178
§ 120. Families of Rsis 178
§ 121. Bhrgu and Bhargavas 179
§ 122. Us'anas 179
§ 123. Brhaspati 180
§ 124. Vasistha and Visvamitra 181
§ 125. Gautama, Atri, Bharadvaja, Jamadagni, Rama, Prthu Vainya . 183
§ 126. Agastya and Vyasa 185
VIII. Earthly Rsis 186—189
§ 127. The Valakhilyas 186
§ 128. The Uttara Kurus 186
§ 129. (a) Caraaas and Car as ; (b) Tusitas and Lekhas 186
§ 130. Minor Individual Seers 187
IX. The Three Supreme Gods 189—231
§ 131—138. Brahman 189
§ 139—142. Creation 198
§ 143—156. Visnu 202
§ 157—165. Siva (Skanda, § 163—165) 219
§ 164. Trimurti and its Constituents 231
Index 232—273
Additions and Corrections 274
Abbreviations 275
JAN 1 0
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11